The Dictionary of Substances and Their Effects (DOSE): Volume 05 K–N

The Dictionary
of Substances
and their Effects
Second Edition

The Dictionary
of Substances
and their Effects
Second Edition

EDITOR

S Gangolli, Consultant, MRC Toxicology Unit, UK
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Dr D Anderson, BIBRA International, UK
Dr J Chadwick, Health and Safety Executive, UK
Professor L Ebdon, University of Plymouth, UK
Dr D Gammon, California EPA, USA
Professor L King, University of Surrey, UK
Dr R McClellan, Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology, USA
Professor I Rowland, University o Ulster, UK
f
Dr J Solbk, Unilever, UK
Dr T Sugimura, National Cancer Centre, Japan
Professor P van Bladeren, TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute, The Netherlands

PRODUCTION TEAM
Ken Wilkinson (Staff Editor)
Richard Ellis
Sally Faint
Julie Hetherington
Alan Skull
The publishers make no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the
information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for
any errors or omissions that may be made.
Volume 5 ISBN 0-85404-828-6
Seven-volume set ISBN 0-85404-803-0
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

0The Royal Society of Chemistry 1999
All rights reserved

Apart fYom any fair dealing for the purpose of research or private study, or criticism or review as
permitted under the terms of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may
not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in
writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry, or in the case of reprographic reproduction onZy in
accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in
accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organisation
outside the UK.Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The
Royal Society of chemistry at the address printed on this page.
Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton
W
Road, Cambridge, CB4 O , UK
Typeset by Land & Unwin (Data Sciences) Ltd, Bugbrooke, UK
Printed and bound by Bookcraft (Bath) Ltd., UK

Contents
Volume 1
Foreword
htroduction
Guide to Content
A-B Compounds
Abbreviations
Glossary of Medical and Biological Terms
Glossary of Organism Names

vii
ix
xi
1-862
863-865
867-881
882-889

Volume 2
Guide to Content
C Compounds

vii
1-865

Volume 3
Guide to Content
D Compounds

1-832

Volume 4
Guide to Content
E-J Compounds

vii
1-892

Volume 5 4
Guide to Content
K-N Compounds

vii
1-953

Volume 6
Guide to Content
0-S Compounds

vii
1-952

Volume 7
Guide to Content
T-2Compounds
Index of Chemical Names and Synonyms
Index of CAS Registry Numbers
Index of Molecular Formulae

vii

vii
1-712
713-914
925956
957-998

Guide to Content
The data for each chemical in DOSE are organised as follows:

DOSE No.
Chemical name
Structure/line formula
Molecular formula
Molecular weight
CAS Registry No.
Synonyms
EINECS No.
RTECS No.
Uses
Occurrence

Invertebrate toxicity
Toxicity to other species
Bioaccumulation

Physica1 properties
Melting point
Boiling point
Flash point
Specific gravity
Partition coefficient
Volatility
Solubility

Mammalian and avian toxicity
Acute data
Sub-acute and sub-chronic data
Carcinogenicity and chronic effects
Teratogenicity and reproductive effects
Metabolism and toxicokinetics
Irritancy
Sensitisation

Occupational exposure
Limit values
UN number
HAZCHEM code
Conveyance classification
Supply classification
Risk phrases
Safety phrases

Genotoxicity

Environmental fate
Nitrification inhibition
Carbonaceous inhibition
Anaerobic effects
Degradation studies
Abiotic removal
Adsorption and retention

Other effects
Other adverse effects (human)
Any other adverse effects
Legislation
Other comments

Ecotoxicity
Fish toxicity

References

These headings only appear in an item when data have been identified for that heading. The
user can, therefore, assume that the absence of a heading means that no relevant data were
retrieved from the sources examined.

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Dose No.
Each of the 4123 compounds in DOSE is identified by a unique, sequential alphanumeric
DOSE No. For example, the first compound in DOSE, A-a-C,has DOSE No. A l ; the last entry,
zoxazolamine, has DOSE No. 225.
Chemical name
In general, the chemical name is the common name of the substance, for example
nitrobenzene. If it is not possible to allocate a precise chemical name (i.e. if the substance is of
unknown or variable composition, or consists of biological materials), a short phrase appears
instead, for example chlorinated parafins (C12,60%).
Molecular formula
This is the elemental composition of the compound. The elements appear alphabetically for
inorganic compounds, i.e. Ag2C03, C12Cr, etc, but for organic compounds, carbon and
hydrogen content are shown first followed by the other elements in alphabetical order, i.e.
C6H5Br.
Molecular weight
This is directly calculated from the molecular formula. No molecular weights are given for
polymers.
CAS Registry No.
The CAS Registry No. is a number sequence adopted by the Chemical Abstracts Service
(American Chemical Society, Columbus, Ohio, USA) to uniquely identify specific chemical
substances. The number contains no information relating to the chemical structure of a
substance and is, in effect, a catalogue number relating to one of the millions of unique
chemical substances recorded in the CAS Registry. New numbers are assigned sequentially to
each new compound identified by Chemical Abstracts Service. This information is also
ul
.
provided in the f l index of CAS Registry Numbers available at the end of Volume 7

Synonyms
For common chemicals, several chemical names and numerous trade names may be applied
to describe the chemical in question. Many of these names are identified to aid users on the
range of names which have been used to describe each substance.
EINECS No.

This number is assigned by the European Commission to each record in the EINECS
(European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances) inventory. The numbers
are in the format XXX-XXX-X, for example, 202-726-0 for nitrobenzene.
RTECS No.
The RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) number is a unique identifier
assigned by NIOSH (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health in the US) to every
substance in the RTECS database. The number is in the format of two alphabetic characters
followed by seven numeric characters, for example, DA 6475000 for nitrobenzene.

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viii

Uses
Principal uses of the substances are given, with information on other significant uses in
industrial processes.
Occurrence
Natural occurrences, whether in plants, animals or fungi are reported.

Physical properties
Melting/Boiling point
These data are derived from various sources.
Flash point
The flash point is the lowest temperature at which the vapours of a volatile combustible
substance will sustain combustion in air when exposed to a flame. The flash point
information is derived from various sources. Where possible the method of determination of
the flash point is given.
Specific gravity (density)
The specific gravity of each substance has been derived from a variety of sources. Where
possible the data have been standardised.
Partition coefficient
Partition coefficients, important for structure-activity relationship considerations,
particularly in the aquatic environment, are indicated. Ideally the n-octanol/water partition
coefficient is quoted. The major data source for this measurement is:

Sangster, J 1.Phys. C h m . Ref. Data 1989,18(3),1111-1229
Where no reference is quoted, it can be assumed that the information was derived from this
source.
Vo latiIity
The vapour pressure and vapour density are quoted where available. where possible, the
data have been standardised.
Sohbility
Solubility data derived from several sources are quoted for both water and organic solvents
where available.

Limit values
This field contains the occupational exposure limit values (or threshold limit values) from
France, Germany Japan, Sweden, UK and USA.

i
x

Guide to Content

The airborne limits of permitted concentrations of hazardous chemicals represent conditions
under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day
without adverse effect. These limits are subject to periodic revision and vary between
different countries. The term threshold limit relates primarily to the USA, but equivalent terms
are available in most industrialised countries. The data relates to concentrations of substances
expressed in parts per million (ppm) and milligrams per cubic meter (mg m-3).
French exposure limits are published by the French Ministry in Charge of Labour and
presented in the report Valeurs limites d'exposition professionnelle aux agents chimiques en France
(ND 1945-153-93).The values in DOSE have been taken from the 1998 edition. The FR-VLE
values are short-term limits (15 minutes), and FR-VME values are long-term limits (8 hours).
German data currently include the national MAK values where available. The MAK value
(Maximale Arbeitsplatz-Konzentration) is defined as the maximum permissible
concentration of a chemical compound present in the air within a working area which,
according to current knowledge, does not impair the health of the employee or cause undue
annoyance. Under those conditions, exposure can be repeated and of long duration over a
daily period of eight hours, constituting an average working week of 40 hours. MAK values
are published by the Geschaftsstelle der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn, in
"Maximum Concentrations at the Workplace and Biological Tolerance Values for Working
Materials." The values in DOSE have been taken from the 1998 edition.
Japanese exposure limits are those recommended by the Japanese Society of Occupational
Health. Unless otherwise indicated, these values are long-term exposure limits (the mean
exposure concentration at or below which adverse health effects caused by the substance do
not appear in most workers, working 8 hours a day, 40 hours a week under a moderate
workload). The values in DOSE were published in 1997.
Swedish data can include short-term exposure limit, a level limit, or a ceiling limit. The
values in DOSE were adopted in 1996.
In the UK occupational limits relating to airborne substances hazardous to health are
published by the Health and Safety Executive annually in Guidance Note EH40. The values
in the DOSE items have been taken from the 1999 edition.

There are Maximum Exposure Limits (MEL) in the UK which are subject to regulation and
which should not normally be exceeded. They derive from Regulations, Approved Codes of
Practice, European Community Directives, or from the Health and Safety Commission. In
addition, there are Occupational Exposure Standards (OES) which are considered to
represent good practice and realistic criteria for the control of exposure. In an analogous
fashion to the USA Threshold Limits, there are long-term limits, expressed as time-weighted
average concentrations over an 8-hour working day, designed to protect workers against the
effects of long-term exposure. The short-term exposure limit is for a time-weighted average
of 15 minutes. For those substances for which no short-term limit is listed, it is recommended
that a figure of three times the long-term exposure limit averaged over a 15-minute period be
used as a guideline for controlling exposure to short-term excursions.

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X

The threshold limit values for the USA have been taken from the Threshold Limit Values and
Biological Exposure Indices, 2999 produced by the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, USA. The limits relate to Threshold Limit - Time Weighted
Average, Threshold Limit - Short Term Exposure Limit and Threshold Limit - Ceiling Limit. The
Threshold Limit Value - Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) allows a time-weighted average
concentration for a normal 8-hour working day and a 40-hour working week, to which nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day, without adverse effect. The Threshold
Limit Value - Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL) is defined as a 15-minute, timeweighted average which should not be exceeded at any time during a work day, even if the
8-hour time-weighted average is within the TLV. It is designed to protect workers from
chemicals which may cause irritancy, chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or narcosis of
sufficient degree to cause the likelihood of accidental injury. Many STELs have been deleted
pending further toxicological assessment. With Threshold Limit - Ceiling Values (TLV-C) the
concentration should not be exceeded during any part of the working day.
UN number
The United Nations Number is a four-figure code used to identify hazardous chemicals and
is used for identification of chemicals transported internationallyby road, rail, sea and air. In
the UK this number is also called the "Substance Identification Number" or "SI Number".
HAZCHEM code
The Hazchem Code is used to instruct United Kingdom emergency services on equipment,
evacuation and other methods of dealing with transportation incidents. It is administered by
the Chemical Industries Association.

Conveyance classification
The information presented for the transportation of substances dangerous for conveyance by
road is derived from the UK's Approved Carriage List, Health and Safety Commission, UK.
Supply classification
The information presented for the supply of substances is derived from the UKs Approved
Supply List: information approved for the classification and labelling of substances and
preparations dangerous for supply [Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging)
Regulations 1999 (CHIP 99)*]Health and Safety Commission, UK.
Risk and safety phrases
Risk and safety phrases used in connection with DOSE items are approved phrases for
describing the risks involved in the use of hazardous chemicals and have validity in the
United Kingdom and throughout the countries of the European Community. The approved
texts have designated R (Risk) and S (Safety) numbers from which it is possible to provide
translations for all approved languages adopted by the European Community. The risk and
safety phrases quoted in DOSE relate to the UK's Approved Supply List: information

*At the time of going to press the Health and Safety Commission, UK announced that an amendment (Amendment No. 2) to the
CHIP 99 regulations is intended to come into force on 1 January 2000. The supply classifications and the risk and safety phrases
reported in this edition of DOSE do not include any changes which are proposed in Amendment No.'2to CHIP 99.These changes are
incorporated i the updates to the electronic versions of DOSE released after 1 January2000.
n

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Guide to Content

approved for the classification and labelling of substances and preparations dangerous for
supply [Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging) Regulations, 1999 (CHIP 99)] Health
and Safety Commission, UK. The risk and safety phrases should be used to describe the
hazards of chemicals on data sheets for use and supply; for labelling of containers, storage
drums, tanks etc., and for labelling of articles specified as dangerous for conveyance by road.
(See also footnote on page xi.)
Ecotoxicity
mformation is presented on the effects of chemicals on various ecosystems. Results of studies
carried out on aquatic species, primarily fish and invertebrates, but also fresh water and
marine microorganisms and plants are reported. Persistence and potential for accumulation
in the environment and .any available information on the harmful effects to non-target
species, i.e. the unintentional exposure of terrestrial and/or aquatic species to a toxic
substance is given. Ecotoxicology can be defined as that science involved in the study of the
production of harmful effects by substances entering the natural environment, especially
effects on populations, communities and ecosystems; or as the study of the effects of
chemicals on ecosystems and their non-human components. An essential part of the
ecotoxicology is the assessment of movement of potentially toxic imbalance through
environmental compartments and through food webs.

Ecotoxicology, unlike human toxicology, is more concerned with the effects to populations
than to individuals. Human toxicology is based on the extrapolation of data from many
species to one species man, whereas ecotoxicology necessitates the extrapolation from a few
species to many, or from limited field data to entire ecosystems.
Ecotoxicology must not be confused with environmental toxicology which is the direct effects
of environmental chemicals to humans. The term environmental toxicology should only be
applied to the study of direct effects of environmental chemicals on human beings. Although
the main thrust of preventative toxicology is in the area of human health, it is becoming
increasingly evident that human health is intimately connected with conditions in the natural
environment. Chemicals released into the environment far from human habitation may
become a health hazard for humans through food chain accumulation. Other chemicals may
adversely affect crop growth or kill economically important fish stocks or bird life.
Fish toxicity
LC50 values, with duration of exposure, are quoted for two species of freshwater and one
marine species if available. Any additional information on bioassay type (static or flow
through) and water condition (pH, temperature, hardness or oxygen content) is reported.
LC50 values with duration of exposure, are quoted for molluscs and crustaceans. EC50 values,
i.e. concentrations which will immobilise 50% of an exposed population, are given for
microbes, algae and bacteria. Values which will inhibit microbial or algal growth are
reported. Duration of exposure is given when available.

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xii

Toxicity to species other than mammals, birds, invertebrates and fish (e.g. reptiles,
amphibians, plants, seaweeds), is reported here. LD50, LC50 and EC50 values are given with
duration of exposure, concentration and as much supplementary information as possible.
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation, biomagnification and bioconcentration data are quoted primarily for fish,
invertebrates, bacteria and algae. Bioaccumulation is the progressive increase in the amount
of a chemical in an organism or part of an organism which occurs because the rate of intake
exceeds the organism's ability to remove the substance from its body. Bioconcentration is a
process leading to a higher concentration of a chemical in an organism than in its
environment. Lastly, biomagrufication is a sequence of processes in an ecosystem by which
higher concentrations are attained in organisms at higher trophic levels, i.e. at higher levels in
the food chain.

Environmental Fate
Degradation data are used to assess the persistence of a chemical substance in the
environment, in water, soil and air. If the substance does not persist, information on the
degradation products is also desirable. Intermediates may be either harmless or toxic
substances which will themselves persist. Degradation occurs via two major routes, microbial
degradation utilising microorganisms from a variety of habitats and decomposition by
chemical methods. Microbial degradation is associated with the production of elemental
carbon, nitrogen and sulfur from complex molecules. Standard biodegradation tests estimate
the importance of microbial biodegradation as a persistence factor. Most tests use relatively
dense microbial populations adapted to the compound being studied. Rapid degradation
results in these tests implies that the compound will degrade under most environmental
conditions, although specialised environments where degradation would not occur can exist.
Compounds which are not readily degradable are likely to persist over a wide range of
environmental situations.
Chemical degradation processes include photolysis, hydrolysis, oxidation and removal by
reversible/irreversible binding to sediment. Factors which influence degradation rates, such
as duration of exposure, temperature, pH, salinity, concentrations of test substance, microbial
populations, and other nutrients, must also be taken into account.
Due care must also be given when metabolism results in the production of substances that
are more toxic than their parents.
The nitrogen cycle is the major biogeochemical process in the production of nitrogen, an
essential element contained in amino acids and proteins. Nitrogen is an essential element in
microorganisms, higher plants and animals. Interference in the production of nitrogen from
more complex molecules can be determined by standard tests using nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
The degree of inhibition can be used to estimate the environmental impact of the test
chemical.

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Carbonaceous inhibition
Another major biogeochemical process is the recycling of carbon via the decomposition of
complex organic matter by bacteria and fungi. In nature the process is important in the
cycling of elements and nutrients in ecosystems. The degradation sequence occurs in stages,
cellulose -+ cellobiose + glucose --+ organic acids and carbon dioxide. Chemical inhibition of
microbial processes at all or any of these stages is reported here.
Anaerobic effects
Anaerobic microbial degradation of organic compounds occurs in the absence of oxygen and
is an important degradation process in both the natural environment and in waste treatment
plants. Data on the effects of chemicals on anaerobic systems are reported here. An important
method uses anaerobic digestion tests which compare the production of methane and carbon
dioxide by anaerobic microbes in a sludge sample with and without added test material.
Methane production is at the end of the food chain process used by a wide range of anaerobic
microorganisms.
Degradation studies
This section focuses on microbial degradation in both soil and water under anaerobic and
aerobic conditions. The half-life of the chemical substance in the environment is reported
with its degradation products where possible, giving an indication of the degree of its
persistence. Water pollution factors: BOD (biochemical/biological oxygen demand), COD
(chemical oxygen demand) and ThOD (theoretical oxygen demand) are stated, where
available. BOD estimates the extent of natural purification which would occur if a substance
were discharged into rivers, lakes or the sea. COD is a quicker chemical method for this
determination which uses potassium dichromate or permanganate to establish the extent of
oxidation likely to occur. ThOD measures the amount of oxygen needed to oxidise
hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water. When organic molecules contain other elements
nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorus, the ThOD depends on the final oxidation stage of these
elements.
Abiotic removal
Information on chemical decomposition processes is contained in this section. The energy
from the sun is able to break carbon-carbon, and carbon-hydrogen bonds, cause
photodissociation of nitrogen dioxide to nitric oxide and atomic oxygen and photolytically
produce significant amounts of hydroxyl radicals. Hydrolysis occurs when a substance
present in water is able to react with the hydrogen or hydroxyl ions of the water. Therefore
the extent of photolytic and oxidative reactions occurring in the atmosphere and hydrolysis
in water can be used as a measure of environmental pollution likely to arise from exposure to
a substance. Removal by activated carbon is also reported.
The environmental impact of a chemical substance is determined by its ability to move
through the environment. This movement depends on the affinity of the chemical toward
particulate matter: soil and sediment. Chemicals which have a high affinity for adsorption are
less readily transported in the gaseous phase or in solution, and therefore can accumulate in a
particular medium. Chemical substances which are not readily adsorbed are transported
through soil, air and aquatic systems.

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Mammalian and avian toxicity
Studies on mammalian species are carried out to determine the potential toxicity of
substances to humans. Avian species are studied primarily to assess the environmental
impact on the ecosystem, however data from avian studies are also used for assessing human
toxicity. This is specifically applied to pesticides, with neurotoxicology studies.
Procedures involve undertaking a series of established exposure studies on a particular
substance using specific routes, oral, inhalation, dermal or injection for variable durations.
Exposure durations include acute or single exposure to a given concentration of substance.
Sub-acute or sub-chronic exposure, i.e. repeat doses over an intermediate time period, up to 4
weeks for sub-acute and 90 day/l3 week (in rodents) or 1 year (in dogs) for sub-chronic
studies. Chronic/ long-term studies involve exposure to specific concentrations of chemical
for a duration of 18 month-2 years. A variety of species are used in toxicity testing, most
commonly rodents (rats, mice, hamsters) and rabbits, but tests can also be carried out on
monkeys, domestic animals and birds.
Acute data
Single exposure studies quoting LD50, LCLO,LDLo, TCLOand TDLOdata.
Results of repeat doses, intermediate 'duration studies are quoted. Priority is given to
reporting the adverse effects on the gastro-intestinal, hepatic, circulatory, cardiopulmonary,
immune, renal and central nervous systems.
Information on the carcinogenicity of substances unequivocally proven to cause cancer in
humans and laboratory animals, together with equivocal data from carcinogenicity assays in
laboratory animals are reported. Additionally, treatment-related chronic adverse effects are
reported. Criteria for inclusion required the study to report the species, duration of exposure,
concentration and target organ(s); sex is also given where available.
The results of studies carried out in intact animal and in vitro systems to determine the
potential for teratogenic, foetotoxic and reproductive damage are reported here. Criteria for
inclusion required the species, duration of exposure, concentration and details of the effect in
relation to fertility to be stated. Adverse effects reported in this section include sexual organ
dysfunhion, developmental changes (to embryos and foetuses), malformations, increases in
spontaneous abortions or stillbirths, impotence, menstrual disorders and neurotoxic effects
on offspring.
Data are quoted on the metabolic fate of the substance in mammals, and includes adsorption,
distribution, storage and excretion. Mechanisms of anabolic or catabolic metabolism, enzyme
activation and half-lives within the body are reported when available. Additionally findings
from in vitru studies are reported.

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lrritancy
Chemical substances which cause irritation (itching, inflammation) to skin, eye and mucous
membranes on immediate contact in either humans or experimental animals are reported
here. Exposure can be intentional in human or animal experiments, or unintentional via
exposure at work or accident to humans.
Sensitisation
Sensitisation occurs where an initial accidental or intentional exposure to a large or small
concentration of substance causes no reaction or irritant effects. However, repeat or
prolonged exposure to even minute amounts of a sensitising chemical causes increasingly
acute allergic reactions.

Genotoxicity
Genotoxicity testing is carried out to determine the mutagenic and/or carcinogenic potential
of a chemical substance. A standard series of tests are carried out under controlled laboratory
conditions on an established set of test organisms. A hierarchical system using bacteria,
yeasts, cultured human and mammalian cells, in vivo cytogenetic tests in mammals and plant
genetics is used to assess the genotoxic potential of the substance under study. Bacteria,
unlike mammals, lack the necessary oxidative enzyme systems for metabolising foreign
compounds to the electrophilic metabolites capable of reacting with DNA. Therefore, bacteria
are treated with the substance under study in the presence of a post-mitochondial
supernatant (S9) prepared from the livers of mammals (usually rats). This fraction is
supplemented with essential co-factors to form the S9 mix necessary for activation. DOSE
reports published studies: giving the test organisms, whether metabolic activation (S9) was
required, and the result, positive or negative.

Other effects
Adverse effects to humans from single or repeat exposures to a substance are given. The
section includes results of epidemiological studies, smaller less comprehensive studies of
people exposed through their work environment and accidental exposure of a single, few or
many individuals.
Adverse effects to organisms or animals other than man are reported here.

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xvi

Legislation
Any form of legislation, medical (food and drugs) or environmental from European,
American and worldwide sources is reported.

Other comments
All other relevant information, including chemical instability and incompatibility, reviews,
phytotoxicity and toxic effects associated with impurities, is contained in this section.

References
Contains references to data from above sections.

Indexes
The most convenient means of accessing a chemical in DOSE is via one of the indexes at the
back of Volume 7. DOSE contains three indexes: chemical name and synonyms, CAS Registry
Numbers and molecular formulae.
Index of chemical names and synonyms
Contains the name of the chemical used in DOSE together with a number of synonyms for
that chemical. All names are arranged alphabetically.
Index of CAS Registry Numbers
Contains a list of the CAS Registry Numbers of the chemicals in DOSE in ascending order.
This number is linked to the preferred DOSE name for that chemical and its DOSE number.
Index of molecular formulae
Contains a list of the molecular formulae of the chemicals in DOSE in alphabetical order for
inorganic compounds, i.e. Ag2C03, C12Cr, etc., but for organic compounds, carbon and
hydrogen content are shown first followed by the other elements in alphabetical order, i.e.
C6H5Br. This number is linked to the preferred DOSE name for that chemical and its DOSE
number.

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Note
The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) has only assessed published information in compiling
The Dictionary of Substances and their Effects. However, the RSC would welcome any
relevant information on the chemicals that is not readily accessible, but in the public domain,
for inclusion when the items in DOSE are updated.

If you have any relevant information, please contact:
Chemical Databank Production
Royal Society o Chemistry
f
Thomas Graham House
Science Park
Cambridge CB4 OWF
UK
Telephone: +44 (0)1223420066
Fax: +44 (0)1223423429
Document Delivery
The Library and Information Centre (LIC) of the RSC offers a Document Delivery Service for
items in chemistry and related subjects. Contact: Library and Information Centre, the Royal
Society of Chemistry, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1V OBN, UK.

Telephone: +44 (0)20 7437 8656
Fax: + 44 (0)20 7287 9798
Email: library@rsc.org

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xviii

kadethrin

C23H2404S

Mol. Wt. 396.51

CAS Registry No. 58769-20-3

Synonyms cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, 3-[(dihydro-2-oxo-3(2H)-thienylidene)methyl]-2,2-dimethyl-,
[5-(phenylmethyl)-3-furanyl]methyl
ester, [lR-[ la,3a(E ) ] ] EINECS NO.
261-433-0

RTECS No.GZ 1266550

Uses Insecticide used in aerosols and sprays in combination with other insecticides.

Physical properties
M. Pt. 31°C Volatility v.p. 7.52 x 10-7 mmHg at 20°C
Solubility Organic solvents: acetone, benzene, dichloromethane, ethanol, piperonyl butoxide, toluene, xylene

Mammalian & avian toxicity
Acute data
LD50 oral 0 rat, dog, Cr rat >1000,650,1324 mg kg', respectively (1).
LD50 percutaneous 9 rat >3200 mg kg-1 (1).
Oral (90 day) no-effect level dog, rat 15,25 mg kg1, respectively (1).
Inhalation rat, guinea pig 200 x normal aerosol dose (exposure unspecified) caused no adverse effects (2).

Legis Iat io n
Included in Schedule 6 (Release into Land: Prescribed Substances) Statutory Instrument No. 472,1991 (3).
Limited under EC Directive on Drinking Water Quality 80/778/EEC. Pesticides: maximum admissible
concentration 0.1 pg 1-1 (4).

Other comments
Unstable in heat. Hydrolysed by aqueous alkalis. Rapidly decomposes in light (1).

References
1. The Agrochemicals Handbook 3rd ed., 1991, The Royal Society of Chemistry, London, UK.
2. The Pesticide Manual 11th ed., 1997, The British Crop Protection Council, Farnham, UK.
3. S. 1. 1991 No. 472 The Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1991, HMSO, London, UK.
4. EC Directive Relating to the Quality of Water lntendedfor Human Consumption 1982,80/778/EEC, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, 2 rue Mercier, L-2985 Luxembourg

K2

kaolin
AlzH409SiZ

Mol. Wt. 258.16


Synonyms Argiflex; Hydrogloss; Lustra; Porcelain clay; Satintone; Suprex clay; aluminium silicate
hydroxide
RTECS No. GF 1670500
Uses Treatment for diarrhoea and for reducing inflammation and pain when applied in a poultice. Manufacture of
porcelain, pottery and bricks.

OccupationaI exposure
UK-LTEL 2 mg m-3 (respirable dust)
US-TWA 2 mg m-3 (respirable fraction, containing no asbestos and 4%
crystalline silica)

Acute data
TDL, oral rat 590 g kg-1 (1).
Inhalation hamster (6 hr day-1,S days week-1 for 18 months) 30 mg m-3 kaolin ceramic fibre. At 3 months
macrophage infiltration, bronchiolisation of proximal alveoli and microgranuloma formation were observed. At 6
months interstitial and focal pleural fibrosis were observed. The severity of pulmonary lesions reached a plateau
at 12 months, however the fibrosis continued to the end of the study. No lung neoplasms were observed, but 42%
of the hamsters had pleural mesotheliomas (2).

References
1.
2.

K3

1. Nutr. 1977,107,2027.
Mast, R.W. et a1 Inhalation Toxicol.1995,7(4),503-532

karaya gum
Synonyms Indian tragacanth gum; katilo gum; Lame gum; Muccira; Siltex gum; Tab gum
EINECS NO.232-539-4

RTECS No. WI 9370000

Uses Denture adhesive. Binder in paper manufacture. Emulsifier and stabiliser in food. Laxative.
Occurrence As a dried exudate from tree Sterculia w e n s Roxbo.
Sterculiqceae, which grows in S. E. Asia.

Physical properties
Solubility Water: swells to form gel

Acute data
LDL, oral rat 30 g kg-1 (1).

2

Genotoxicity
Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100, TA1535, TA1537, TA1538 with and without metabolic activation negative (2).

Other comments
DNA damaging activity reviewed (3).

References
1.
2.

3.

K4

Food Res. 1948,13,29.
Prival, M. J. et a1 Mutat. Res. 1991,260(4),
321-329.
Ishizaki, M.et a1 Shokuhin Eiseignku Zasshi 1987,28(6),
498-501(Japan.) (Chem. Abstr. 109,5417~)

karbut ilate
OCONHC(C H3)3
I

C14H21N3O3

Mol. Wt. 279.34


Synonyms carbamic acid, (1,l-dimethylethyl)-,34 [(dimethylamino)carbonyl]amino]phenylester; Tandex
RTECS No. EY 9980000

EINECS NO.225-439-7

Uses Superseded non-selective herbicide used for residual control of most annual and perennial broad-leaved
weeds and grasses.

Physica I properties
M. Pt. 169-169.5"C
Solubility Water: 325 mg 1-1. Organic solvents: acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide, propan-2-01, xylene

Environmental fate
Abiotic removal
Degraded in soil, t1/2 20-120 day (1).

Acute data
LD50 oral rat 3000 mg kg-* (2).
LD50 intravenous mouse 320 mg kg-1(3).

Legislat ion
concentration 0.1 pg 1-1 (4).

3

Other comments
Stable in acid media.

References
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

K5

The Pesticide Manual9th ed., 1993, British Crop Protection Council, Farnham, Surrey, UK.
Guide to Chemicals Used in Crop Protection 1972, Information Canada, Ottawa, Canada.
US. Army Armament Research and Development Command, Report: NX 03896, Chemical Systems Laboratory, NIOSH
Exchange Chemicals.
EC Directive Relating to the Quality of Water Intendedfor Human Consumption 1982, 80/778/EEC, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, 2 rue Mercier, L-2985 Luxembourg.
S. I. 2991 No. 472 The Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substnnces) Regulations 1991, HMSO, London, UK

kasugamycin

NH2
C14H25N309

Mol. Wt. 379.37


Synonyms D-chiro-inositol, 3-0-[2-amino-4-[ (carboxyiminomethyl)amino]-2~3~4,6-tetradeoxy-~-~-ara~~nohexopyranosyll-; Kasumin
RTECS No. NM 7521650
Uses Control of diseases in rice, especially rice blast. Also the control of other plant diseases such as leaf mould,
leaf spot and scab on apples and pears.
Occurrence Produced by the fermentation of Stveptornyces kasugaensis.

Physical properties
M. Pt. 202-204°C (decomp.) (hydrochloride hydrate)
Solubility Water: 125 g 1-1 (hydrochloride hydrate). Organic solvents: acetone, methanol, xylene

Ecotoxicity
Fish toxicity
LC50 (48 hr) carp, goldfish >40 mg 1-1 (1).
LC50 (6 hr) Daphnia pulex >40 mg 1-1 (1).
LC50 frog tadpoles (duration unspecified) >lo0 ppm (2).

4

Environmental fate
Abiotic removal
At 50°C, tl/2 47 day at pH 5 and tl/2 14 day at pH 9 (3).

Acute data
LD50 oral Japanese quail >4000 mg kg-1 (3).
LD50 oral 0" rat, 9 mouse 20,000-20,500 mg kg-1 (3).
LD50 dermal rat, mouse 4000,10,000 mg kg-1, respectively (3).
Oral (2 yr) rat, dog no-effect level 1000,800 mg k g ' , respectively (3).

Genotoxicity
In vitro Chinese hamster ovary cells (metabolic activation unspecified) in combination with carbendazim sister
chromatid exchanges negative, chromosomal aberrations positive (4).

Legis1at ion
concentration 0.1 yg 1-1 (6).
WHO Toxicity Class Table 5 (7).
EPA Toxicity Class IV (3).

Other comments
No adverse effects observed in adult fireflies (dose duration unspecified) (8).
Levels of 0.2 g kg-1 daily for 7 days to carp with bacterial infection resulted in 98% cure during this period (9).
Very stable at room temperature. Stable in weak acids, but is unstable in strong acids and alkalis.

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

Hashimoto, Y. et a1 J. Pestic. Sci. 1981, 6,257.
Nishiuch, Y. Seitai Knyaku 1989,9(4), 23-26 (Japan.) (Chem. Abstr. 113,72754~).
The Agrochemicals Handbook 3rd ed., 1991, The Royal Society of Chemistry, London, UK.
Wang, T. C. et a1 Bull. Inst. Zool. Acad. Sin. 1987, 26(4), 317-329.
S. I. 2992 No. 472 The Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1991, HMSO, London, UK.
EC Directive Relating to the Quality of Water Intendedfor Human Consumption 1982,80/778/EEC, Office for Official
The W H O Recommended Classifcation of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification 2998-2999 WHO/PCS/98.21.
Miyashita, M. Nippon Koshu Eisei Zasshi 1988,35(3), 125-132 (Japan.) (Chern. Abstr. 109,68550d).
Okamoto, H. Jpn. Kokai Tukkyo Koho JP 61,267,521 [86,267,52211986,1-3, Hokko Chemical Industry Co. Ltd., (Chem. Abstr.
106,1494692)

5

K6

kelevan
CI

/

C17H12C11004

OH
CHZCOCH~CH~CO~CH~CH~

CI

Mol. Wt. 634.81


Synonyms 1,3,4-metheno-1H-cyclobu
ta[cd]pentalene-2-pentanoic
acid, l,la,3,3a,4,5,5,5a,5b,6-decachlorooctahydro-2-hydroxy-y-oxo-, ethyl ester; Despirol
RTECS No. PC 8400000

Physical properties
M.Pt. 89-90°C

Supply classification toxic
Risk phrases Harmful if swallowed - Toxic in contact with skin (R22,R24)
Safety phrases Keep locked up and out of the reach of children (if sold to general public) - Wear suitable
protective clothing and gloves - In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately (show
label where possible) (S1/2, S36/37,S45)

Environmental fate
Degradation studies
Supported growth of three Pseudomonas spp. (1).
Abiotic removal
Photooxidation by UV light in aqueous medium at 90-95OC,
time for the formation of C02 (% of theoretical); 25%:
1.2hr, 50%: 9.6hr, 75%: 19 hr (2).

Acute data
LD50 oral redwing blackbird >lo4mg kg-1 (3).

Other comments
Toxicity, human health effects, environmental effects comprehensively reviewed (4).

References
1.
2.
3.
4.

George, S. et a1 Xenobioticn 1988,18(4), 407-416.
Knoevenagel, K. et a1 Arch. Environ. Conturn. Toxicol. 1976,4, 324-333.
Schafer, E. W. et a1 Arch. Environ. Toxicol. 1983,12,355-382.
Environrnentnl Health Criteria: Kelmun No. 66,1986, World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland

6

K7

kerosene
Synonyms kerosine; jet fuel
RTECS No. OA 5500000

EINECS NO.232-366-4

Uses Fuel in lamps, stoves. Cleaner and degreaser. Jet fuel.
Occurrence Mixture of petroleum hydrocarbons, it constitutes the fifth fraction in petroleum distillation.

Physical properties
B. Pt. 175-325°C Flash point 81°C Specific gravity -0.80
Solubility Organic solvents: miscible with other petroleum solvents

OccupationaI exposure
UN No. 1223 HAZCHEM Code 3 d Conveyance classification flammable liquid
C
Supply classification harmful
Risk phrases Harmful: may cause lung damage if swallowed (R65)
Safety phrases Keep out of reach of children (if sold to general public) - Do not breathe vapour - Avoid contact
with the skin - If swallowed, do not induce vomiting: seek medical advice immediately and show this container
or label (S2, S23, S24, S62)

Acute data
LD50 oral rabbit 28 ml kg-1 (1).
LD50 oral guinea pig 20 g kg-1 (2).
LD50 oral cf rat >60 ml kg-1 (3).
LD50 intravenous, intratracheal rabbit 180,200 mg kg-1, respectively (4,5).
LD50 intraperitoneal rabbit 6600 mg kg-* (4).
3
Gavage c rat 24 ml kg-1 showed moderate renal and hepatic functional alterations 1-3 days later (3).
Inhalation (90 days) d Fischer 344 rats continuous exposure to 150 and 750 mg m-3 developed dose-related
kidney damage with cytoplasmic hyaline droplets, necrosis of proximal tubular cells and accumulation of
intratubular necrotic debris (6,7).
Dermal (60 wk) mice 5 p13 x wk-1 developed atrophied and degenerating nephrons as well as papillary necrosis
(8).
Dermal (2 yr) B6C3F1 mice 250 or 500 mg kg-1, no evidence of carcinogenicity (9).
Charles River CD rats, 6-15 days of gestation inhalation 6 hr d a y 1 100,400 ppm, no embryotoxic, foetotoxic or
teratogenic effects observed (10).
Application to the shell surface of duck embryos, day-6 of incubation, 1-20 pl of weathered or unweathered
aviation kerosene no toxic effects observed (11).
In baboons given radiolabelled kerosene via a nasogastric tube after tracheostomy, radiolabel was found localised
in the kidney, brain, liver, lungs and spleen (12).

7

Irritancy
Dermal rabbit (duration not specified) 500 mg caused severe irritation (2).
Dermal (90 wk) 9 B6C3F1 mice 500 mg kg-1 caused excessive irritation and ulceration at site of application (9).
Dermal B6C3F1 mice 250 or 500 mg kg-1 (unspecified duration) caused dose-related increased incidence of
chronic dermatitis, identified by acanthosis, hyperkeratosis, necrosis and ulceration of the overlying epidermis.
Dermal changes frequently included fibrosis, increased amounts of melanin and acute and chronic inflammatory
cell infiltrates (9).

Genotoxicity
Salmonella typhimuriurn TA97, TA98, TA100, TA1535 with and without metabolic activation negative (9).

Other effects
A group of human 0" exposed to levels in air >350 mg m-3 were studied for 8 yrs; no increase in incidences of
cancer were seen (13).
Case-control study of cancer in Canada revealed an increased incidence of kidney cancer in human cf with
occupational exposure (14).

Other comments
Reviews on human health effects and experimental toxicology listed (15).
Autoignition temperature 210°C.

References
1.

Deichmann, W. B. et a1 A n n . Int. Med. 1944,21,803.

2.

1. Am. Coll. Toxicol. 1990, 1,30.

Paker, G. A. et a1 Toxicol. Appl. Phnrmacol. 1981,57,302-317.
A n n . Intern. Med. 1944,21,803.
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1961,3,689.
Bruner, R. H. Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology, Vol. 111, Renal effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1984,133-140, Ed.
Mehlman, M. A. et al, Princeton Scientific Publishers, Princeton, NJ, USA.
7. Gaworsk, C. L. et a1 Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology Vol.VI, Applied Toxicology of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1984,
33-47, Ed. MacFarland, H. N. et al, Princeton Scientific Publishers, Princeton, NJ, USA.
8. Easley, J. R. et a1 Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1982, 65,84-91.
9. National Toxicology Program 1986, Report No.TR-310 Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of JP-5 7m Navy Fuel, NIEHS
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709.
10. Beliles, R. I? et a1 Proceedings of a Symposium. The Toxicity of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1982,233-238,Ed. MacFarland, H. N. et
al, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
11. Albers, I? H. et a1 Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1982,28,430-434.
.
12. Mann, et a1 1 Pediatr. 1977,91(3), 495.
13. l A R C Monograph 1989,10,232-218.
14. Siemiatyck, J. et a1 Scand. J. Work Environ. Health. 1987,13,493-504.
15. ECETOC Technical Report No. 71 1996, European Centre for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals, 4 Avenue E. Van
Nieuwenhuyse (Bte 6), 8-1160 Brussels, Belgium
3.
4.
5.
6.

8

K8

ketene

C2H20

Mol. Wt. 42.04


Synonyms ethenone; carbomethene
RTECS No. OA 7700000

EINECS NO.207-336-9

Uses For acetylation in the manufacture of cellulose acetate and aspirin.

Physical properties
M. Pt. -150°C B. Pt. -56°C Flash point -107°C Volatility v.den. 1.45
Solubility Organic solvents: acetone (decomposes in ethanol), diethyl ether

DE-MAK 0.5 pprn (0.87 mg m-3)
UK-LTEL 0.5 ppm (0.87 mg m-3)
US-TWA 0.5 ppm (0.86 mg m-3)

UK-STEL 1.5 pprn (2.6 mg m-3)
US-STEL 1.5 ppm (2.6 mg m-3)

Acute data
LD50 oral rat 1300 mg kg-1 (1).
LCL, (10 min) inhalation monkey 200 ppm (2).
LCL, (10 min) inhalation cat 750 ppm (2).
LCL, (30 min) inhalation mouse 23 ppm (2).
LCL, (100 min) inhalation rat, guinea pig 53 pprn (2).

Other comments
Reviews on human health effects, epidemiology and experimental toxicology listed (3).
Autoignition temperature 528°C.

References
1.

2.
3.

Union Carbide Data Sheet Industrial Medicine and Toxicology Department, Union Carbide Corp., 270 Park Avenue, New
York, NY10017, USA.
1. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 1949,31, 209.
ECETOC Technical Report No. 72 1996, European Centre for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals, 4 Avenue E. Van
Nieuwenhuyse (Bte 6), 8-1160 Brussels, Belgium

9

ketoconazole

C26H28C12N404

Mol. Wt. 531.44


Synonyms cis-l-acetyl-4-[4-[[2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2-(l~-imidazol-l-ylmethyl)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl]methoxy]phen yllpiperazine
EINECS NO.265-667-4

RTECS No. TK 7912300

Uses Oral broad-spectrum antimycotic. Possible treatment for prostate carcinoma (1).

Physical properties
M. Pt. 146°C

Acute data
LD50 oral guinea pig, mouse, rat, dog 202-780 mg kg-1 (2).
LD50 intravenous guinea pig, mouse, rat, dog 28-86 mg k g 1 (2).
Healthy human a", oral doses caused a transitory decrease in circulating levels of both total and free testosterone
without affecting oestradiol concentrations. The time of maximum effect was dose related, being maximum at 4 hr
after 200 or 400 mg and 8 hr after 600 mg. No effect on circulating levels of testosterone or oestradiol in women
(3).
Teratogenic potential assessed using post-implantation rat embryo culture system, malformations at
concentrations well below those affecting embryonic growth and differentiation were observed (4).
Oral (72 hr) d rats 200 mg kg-1 reduced fertility compared to the controls. 400 mg k g l caused complete loss of
fertility. Sperm motility and forward progression was reduced but there was no change in testicular weight,
epididymal sperm concentrations or epididymal weight (5).
In vitro rat embryos (48 hr) with metabolic activation, ketoconazole was determined to have relatively high
teratogenic potential (6).
Elimination is reported to be biphasic in humans, with an initial tl/2 of 2 hr and a terminal tl/2 8 hr (7).
Oral (1-6 month) humans 200 mg daily. Mean elimination tl/2 3.3 hr 0.22% excreted in urine unchanged,
suggesting almost complete metabolism (8).
Human adults 2% cream single application (5 g). Skin absorption rate was calculated to be 2.5-12.5'/0.
Haematological and biochemical parameters remained normal, no unchanged drug was detected in blood or
urine. Ketoconazole may be accumulated mainly in cutaneous layer and has no clinical safety problem (9).
Rats, rabbits, absorbed rapidly by the skin and then gradually distributed throughout the body. Excretion in urine
and faeces was 0.4 and 2.1% of applied dose, respectively, after skin absorption (10).

10

Irritancy
Healthy adult subjects 2% cream single application (5 g) did not cause skin irritation (9).

Other effects
Nausea and vomiting reported in 3-10% of patients administered orally, and topical administration has resulted in
irritation or dermatitis (11).
Demonstrated to inhibit testosterone biosynthesis in human Cr (12).
Shown to have immunosuppressive effects (13,14).
In rat testes testosterone formation inhibited via inhibition of cytochrome P450-dependent C17,20-lyase (15).
Intraperitoneal administration caused a rapid dose-dependent reduction of bile acid synthesis in eight-day bilediverted rats, single dose 50 mg kg-1 reduced bile synthesis to 5% of the control value (16).

0t her comments
Toxicity and pharmacokinetics reviewed (17).
Has dose/time related cytotoxic effects against malignant cell lines in uitro (18).

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Savbensty, M. Cas. Lek. Cesk. 1986,125(48), 1488-1489 (Czech.) (Chem. Abstr. 106,131063~).
Heel, R. C. Drugs 1982,23, 1-36.
Mangas-Rojas, A. et a1 Rev. Clin. Esp. 1988,183(7), 358-364 (Span.) (Chem. Abstr. 110,2250611~).
Bechter, R. et a1 Food Chem. Toxicol. 1986,24(6-7) 641-642.
Waller, D. P. et a1 Contraception 1990 41(4), 411-417.
Bechter, R. et a1 Toxicol. In Vitro 1987,1(1), 11-35.
Daneshmend, T. K. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1988,14,13-34.
Babcock, N. R. et a1 Eur. J. Clin. Phurmacol. 1987,33(5), 531-534.
Kobayashi, T. et a1 Yakuri to Chiryo 1991,19(5),1857-1861 (Japan) (Chem. Abstr. 115,1263422.
Fujita, H. et a1 Yakuri to Chiryo 1991,19(5), 1845-1855, (Japan.) (Chem. Abstr., 115,126341~):
Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia 31st ed., 1996, The Royal Pharmaceutical Society, London, UK.
Morita, K. et a1 I. Pharrnncobio-Dyn 1990,13(6),336-343.
Pawelec, G. et a1 Int. 1. Immunophurmncol. 1991,13(2-3), 299-304.
Senior, D. S. et a1 Int. I. Immunophurmacol. 1988,10(2),169-173.
Vanden Bossche, H. et a1 Microsomes Drug Oxid. Proc. lnt. Symp. 6th 1984 Publ. 1985,63-73, Boobis, A. R. Ed., Taylor &
Francis, London, UK.
Kuipers, F. et a1 Lipids 1989,24(9), 759-764.
Liu, G . et a1 Zhongguo Yaoxue Zazhi 1989,24(5),267-270 (Ch.) (Chem. Abstr. 112,48105~).
Rochlitz, C. F. et a1 Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 1988,21(4), 319-322

1
1

KIO

ketoprofen
CHC02H
/

C610
1H43

Mol. Wt. 254.29


Synonyms 3-benzoyl-a-methylbenzeneaceticacid; Oruvail; Epatec; Alrheumun; Orudis; Profenid;
m-benzoylhydratopic acid; 3-benzoylhydratropic acid

RTECS No.UE 7570000

EINECS NO.244-759-8

Uses Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic. Inhibitor of cyclo-oxygenase activity. Used in musculoskeletal
and joint disorders.

Physica I properties
M. Pt. 94°C
Solubility Organic solvents: acetone, chloroform, diethyl ether, dimethylformamide, ethanol, ethyl acetate

Acute data
LD50 oral rat I01 mg kg-1 (1).
Readily absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract in humans; peak plasma concentrations occur about 0.5-2 hr after
a dose. When taken with food, total bioavailability is not altered but rate of absorption is slowed. It is well
absorbed from intramuscular and rectal routes, though only a small amount is absorbed via topical application.
Extensively bound to plasma proteins and substantial concentrations are found in synovial fluid. Plasma tl/2 2-4
hr. Metabolised mainly by conjugation with glucuronic acid and excreted mainly in urine (2).
Seven elderly subjects were administered a single rectal dose of 75 mg. No abnormalities were seen in clinical and
physical findings. Maximum plasma concentration was reached at 0.5-2.0 hr. Urinary excretion of total ketoprofen
during 72 hr after administration was 35-82% of dose, and 97% of the urinary total ketoprofen was in the form of
glucuronide (3).
Ten healthy volunteers received daily 15 g of 2.5% ketoprofen topical gel, corresponding to 375 mg of ketoprofen
on skin. The peak plasma concentration was 144 mg ml-1 after the first administration with apparent absorption
and elimination t1/2 3.2 and 27.7 hr, respectively. The total quantities eliminated in the urine represented about
2.6% of the first dose applied. Apparent tl/2 of ketoprofen was 17.1hr and there was no accumulation (4).
Irritancy
0.3% adhesive agent was tested in Cr rabbits for both primary and cumulative skin irritations. In the primary test
hardly any irritation occurred and no irritation occurred in the cumulative test (5).
Sensitisation
In photopatch tests for skin photosensitisation to UVA plus UVB light 3.8% of the subjects gave a positive reaction
with ketoprofen (6).

Other effects
Life threatening asthma, urticaria and angioedema developed in two aspirin-sensitive patients after taking
ketoprofen, 50 mg by mouth (7).

12

Cardiac and respiratory arrest occurred in an asthmatic patient (8).
Reported to cause photosensitivity reactions (9).
Oral rat (concentration unspecified) increased incidence of gastric ulcers (10).
DNA damage, single strand breaks was photoinduced by ketoprofen. No particular base specificity observed (11).

Legislation
Included in Schedule 4 (Release into Air: Prescribed Substances) Statutory Instrument No. 472,1991 (12).

References
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

K11

Veno, K. et a1 J. Med. Chem. 1976,19,941.
Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia 31st ed., 1996, The Royal Pharmaceutical Society, London, UK.
Kobayashi, M. Rinsho Yukuri 1990,21(4),675-681 (Japan.)(Chem. Abstr. 119,2398310.
Flourat, B. Arzneim.-Forsch. 1989,39(7), 812-815.
Saita, M. et a1 Oyo Yukuri 1986,32(5), 991-999 (Japan.) (Chem. Abstr. 106,78445a).
Przybilla, B. et a1 Hauturzt 1987,38(1), 18-25 (Ger.) (Chem. Abstr. 106,188635~).
Frith, P.et a1 Lancet 1978, ii, 847-848.
Schreuder, G. Med. J. Aust. 1990,152,332-333.
Med. Lett. Drugs Ther. 1986,28,51-52.
Kojima, T. et a1 Yukuri to Chirp. 1988,16(2),611-619 (Japan.)(Chem. Abstr. 1 0 9 ,4 2 7 ~ ) .
Artuso, T. et a1 Photochem. Photobiol. 1991, 54(2), 205-213.
S. 1. 1991 No. 472 The Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1991, HMSO, London,UK

kinetin

ClOH9NSO

Mol. Wt. 215.21


Synonyms 1H-purin-6-aminetN-(2-furanylmethyl); adenine, N6-furfuryl-; FAP; N-furfuryladenine;
6 4furfury1amino)purine
EINECS NO.208-382-2

RTECS No. AU 6270000

Uses Plant growth regulator. To augment growth of microbial cultures.
Occurrence A cell division factor found in various plant parts and in yeasts. Isolation from autoclaved water
slurries of deoxyribonucleicacid (1).

Phy si caI properties
M. Pt. 266-267°C (sealed tube)

13

Environmental fate
Activated carbon was effective in adsorbing plant growth regulators including kinetin (2).

Genotoxicity
In vitro wheat cell cultures, no significant effect on sister chromatid exchange induction (3)

Legislation

Other comments
Sublimes at 220°C.

References
1.

2.
3.
4.

L1

Miller, et a1 1.Am. Chem. SOC.
1955,77,1392.
Bu, X . et a1 Zhiwa Shengli Xuebao 1988,14(4),401-405(Ch.)
(Chem. Abstr. 110,18812b).
Murata, M. Theor. Appl. Genet. 1989,78(4),521-4.
S.I. 1991 No. 472 The Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1991,HMSO, London,UK

lactic acid

C3H6O3

Mol. Wt. 90.08


Synonyms Milk acid; 2-hydroxypropionic acid
RTECS No. OD 2800000

EINECS NO.200-018-0

Uses In the treatment of infective skin and vaginal disorders. Infusions to provide a source of bicarbonate for
treatment of metabolic acidosis. Food preservatives and cosmetics.
Occurrence In sour milk as a result of fermentation by lactic acid bacteria

Phys icaI properties
M. Pt. 16.8"C B. Pt. 122°C at 15 mmHg Flash point 110°C (closed cup) Specific gravity 1.249
Solubility Water: miscible. Organic solvents: ethanol, furfurol

Safety phrases Avoid contact with skin and eyes (S24/25)

Ecotoxicity
Fish toxicity
LC50(l8hr) trout 100 mg 1-1 (1).
Mechanism of hepatic lactate uptake was studied in the gulf toadfish by following the accumulation of 14C lactate
by isolated hepatocytes in uitro. Lactate uptake is by passive diffusion in toadfish hepatocytes. Lactate uptake by
toadfish hepatocytes further differed from lactate uptake by mammalian tissues in that rates were not altered by

14

changes in either extracellular pH or extracellular sodium ion concentration. Rates of lactate conversion into
glucose and carbon dioxide were measured and compared with uptake rates; it appears the rates of lactate
metabolism are not limited by passive diffusion (2).
LCo (26-72 hr) Daphnia 170 mg 1-1 (3).

Environmental fate
Degradation studies
Methanogenic bacteria Methanosarcina spp. and Methanobacterium spp. were capable of metabolising lactate under
methanogenic conditions (4).
Biodegradation occurs in anaerobic environments with transformation rate constants decreased as the food chain
ascends acetate >lactate >glucose (5).
Anaerobic degradation by a mixed microbial culture, without sulfate and with both sulfate and molybdate, lactate
was rapidly consumed and propionate and acetate were produced, whereas with sulfate alone, only acetate
accumulated. Propionate oxidation was strongly accelerated by the presence of sulfate (6).
BOD5 0.63 mg 1-1 0 2 Warburg Sewage (7).
BOD10 0.88 mg 1-1 0 2 standard dilution sp. culture (8).
COD 100% ThOD (8).
Tubifex tubifex (0-2 hr), 80-85% of 1 C lactate was found in the intermediary products, with glutamate and malate
4
as the main constituents. During aerobic long-term incubation (12-24 hr) the largest proportion of label was
incorporated into proteins. In the absence of oxygen most of the radioactivity remained in the intermediaries,
mainly in alanine and succinate; during initial period of aerobic incubation, high amounts of W-carbon dioxide
were released (9).
100 ppm was treated by activated sludge process in a rotary cylinder type biological treatment at 20°C for 120 hr.
70-100%of lactic acid was removed (rotating tube) (10).

Acute data
LD50 oral mouse 4875 mg kg-1 (12).
LD50 oral guinea pig 1.81 g kg-1 (1).
LDL, oral rabbit 500 mg kg'(13).
LD50 subcutaneous mouse 4500 mg kg-1 (14).
Injection of 22.5 mg 1-1 into jugular vein of anaesthetised rabbits initially increased breathing rate but no change
or decrease in tidal volume. This was followed by deep and fast respiration (15).
Subcutaneous 16 mice (18 months) 125 mg, 2 lymphomas, 1sarcoma and 1 pulmonary tumour were observed
(16).
Bacterial metabolites (lactate) in the gut contents and the blood in relation to the faecal excretory cycle were
studied in anaesthetised rabbits. The level of organic acids in the alimentary tract varied cyclically with the faecal
excretion pattern. Lactate originates from the stomach; it was available for extrahepatic tissue metabolism (17).
The effect of glucose concentration (0-20 ml) on lactate uptake at low lactate concentrations was studied in
perfused livers from 48-hr starved rats with perfusate pH values of 7.4 and 6.8. Lactate uptake was independent
of glucose concentration (0.18-1.80mg 1-1), but was slightly inhibited with time at 3.60 mg 1-1 glucose (18).
Irritancy
Dermal rabbit 500 mg (4 hr) caused severe irritation and 750 mg (24 hr) caused severe irritation (19).

15

Genotoxicity
Sacchararnyces cerevisiae and Salmonella typhimuriurn with and without metabolic activation, negative (16).
Salmonella typhirnuriurn TA97, TA98, TA100, TA104 with and without metabolic actigation, negative (20).
In vitro Chinese hamster ovary K 1 cells 900-1261 mg 1-1 induced chromosomal aberrations at the initial pH of -6.0
with and without metabolic activation. No clastogenic activity was observed when the culture medium was first
acidified with each of the acids and then neutralised with sodium hydroxide (21).

Other effects
Lactic acidosis has been proposed to be one factor promoting cell death following cerebral ischaemia. It has been
demonstrated that cultured neurons and glia are killed by relatively brief (10 min) exposure to acidic solutions of
pH <5. The onset of death after exposure to moderately acidic solutions was delayed in some cells, such that
death of the entire cell population became evident only 48 hr after acid exposure (22).

Legis1at ion

Other comments
Toxicity reviewed (24).
Reviews on experimental toxicity and human health effects listed (25).
Analysis of the concentration of low molecular weight organic acids in soil, in the unsaturated zone, and in
groundwater was undertaken. An unexpectedly high concentration of organic substances in natural surroundings
that had significant dependence on the extractable amount of organic acids and on the pH value of the extract
was observed. A clear connection between the spectrum of extractable organic acids and the microbiological
activity was found in a depth profile from the soil down to the groundwater. In general, the spectrum of organic
acids reduces to increasingly simpler substances with increasing depth (26).
Metabolism reviewed (27).

References
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

Verschueren, K. Handbook of Enuironniental Data on Organic Chemicals 2nd ed., 1983, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
USA.
Walsh, P. J. J. Exp. B i d . 1987,130,295-304.
Meinck, F. et a1 Les eaux residuaires industrielles 1970.
Soubes, M. 1. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1989, 5(2), 193-198.
Phelps, T J. I. Microbiol. Methods 1991,13(4), 243-254.
.
Qatibi, A. I. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1990, 58(4), 241-248.
Meissner, 0. Wasserwirtsch.-Wassertech.,
WWT 1954,4, 166.
Zobell, C. E. Bid. Bull. 1940, 78, 388.
Bock, S. et a1 Conzp. Biochem. Physiol., B: Comp. Biochenr. 1989,92B(1), 35-40.
Muto, N. et a1 Henkyu Hokoku - Krrnto Cakuin Dnigaku Kogakitbu 1987,31(2), 257-266 (Japan.) (Chem. Abstr. 112,83347~).
J. lnd. Hyg. Toxicol. 1941, 23,259.
Food Agri. Organ. U. N . Report Series, 1967, 40, 146.
lnd. Eng. Chem. 1923,15,628.
Z. Gesammte. Exp. Med. 1944,113,536 (Ger.).
Ducros, G. et a1 Pediatr. Res. 1991,29(6), 548-552.
Fawell, J. K. et a1 Environmental Toxicology:Organic Pollutants 1988, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, UK.
Vernay, M. BY. J. Nutr. 1987, 57(3), 371-381.
Sestoft, L. et a1 Clin. Sci. 1988,74(4), 403-406.
Marhold, J. V. Sbornik Vysledku Toxixologickeho Vysetreni h t e k A Priprauku 1972, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Al-Ani, F, Y. et a1 Mutat. Res. 1988,206, 467-470.
Morita, T. Mutat. Res. 1990,240(3), 195-202.
Nedergaard, M. I. Neurosci. 1991,11(8), 2489-2497.

16

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

L2


BIBRA Toxicity Profile 1991, British Biological Industrial Research Association, Carlshalton, UK.
Nieuwenhuyse (Bte 6), B-1160 Brussels, Belgium.
Cordt, T. et a1 Vom Wasser 1990,74,287-298 (Ger.) (Chem.Abstr. 113, 103034~).
Baessler, K. H. Ernaehr.-Umsch. 1988,35(3),71-74 (Cer.) (Chem.Abstr. 109,52147s)

lactonitrile
CH3CH(OH)CN
C~HSNO
Synonyms acetocyanohydrin;

Mol. Wt. 71.08


2-hydroxypropionitrile


EINECS NO.201-163-2

Uses Solvent, intermediate in production of lactate and lactic acid.

Physical properties
M. Pt. -40°C B. Pt. 183°C Flash point 76.6"C Specific gravity 0.9834 at 20°C with respect to water at 25°C
Volatility v.den. 2.45
Solubility Organic solvents: ethanol

Ecotoxicity
Fish toxicity
LC50 (24 hr) pinperch 0.215 mg kg-1 (1).
LC50 (96 hr) fathead minnow 0.9 mg kg-* (2).
LC50 (96 hr) guppy 1.37 mg kg-1 (3).
Median threshold limit (24-96 hr) bluegill sunfish 4.0 mg 1-1 (3).
LDL, subcutaneous frog 200 mg kg-1 (4).

Environmental fate
Degradation studies
60% ThOD after 8 days at 20"C, 10 mg 1-1 of feed (5).

Acute data
LD50 dermal rabbit 20 mg kg-1 (6).
LDL, subcutaneous rabbit 5 mg kg-1 (4).

Legis1at ion

Other comments
A retrospective structure-activity relationship (SAR) comparison has been reported of acute, sub-chronic toxicity,

17

teratogenicity and biochemical mechanism studies of a series of structurally similar aliphatic nitriles, including
lactonitrile (8).

Refere nces
Garrett, J. T. et a1 Texas 1. Sci. 1951,3,391-396.
Jones, H. R. Environmental Control in the Organic and Petrochemical lndulries 1971, Noyes Data Corporation.
3. Nikunen, E. et a1 Environmental Properties of Chemicals, Research Report 91/1990 1991, VAPK-Publishing, Helsinki, Finland.
4. Arch. Int. Phnrmacodyn. Ther. 1899,5,161.
5. Ludzack, F. J. et a1 I . Water Pollut. Control Fed. 1960,32, 1173.
6. Am. lnd. Hyg. Assoc. I. 1969,30,470.
7. S. I. 7 991 No. 472 The Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1991, HMSO, London, UK.
8. Johnson, F. R. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1986, 7(4),690-697
1.

L.

L3

P-lactose
HOH2C

OH
Mol. Wt. 342.30
Synonyms P-D-glucopyranose, 4-O-P-D-galactopyranosy1; lactose, P; P-D-laCtOSe

C2201
1H21


EINECS NO.227-751-9

Physical properties
M. Pt. 253-255°C

Other effects
It is a potent inhibitor of the lytic activity of natural killer cells as well as of the cytotoxic T-lymphocytes activated
in mixed lymphocyte cultures (1).

Legis1at ion

Other comments
Oral preclinical and clinical safety data are reviewed (3).

18

References
1.
2.
3.

L4

Kornbluth, J. et a1 Cell. Immunol. 1984,88(1), 162-173.
S. I. 1997 No. 472 The Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes m d Substances) Regulations 1991, HMSO, London, UK.
Baldrick, I? et a1 Food Chem. Technol. 1997,35(7), 719-733

lanthanum
La
La

Mol. Wt. 138.91


EINECS NO.
231-099-0

Uses La3+ used in experimental biology as a specific antagonist of Ca*+ (1).
Oxide in glass to improve optical properties.
Occurrence Estimated abundance in earth’s crust: 5-18 ppm in ores monazite, bastnaesite and cerite.

PhysicaI properties
M. Pt. 920°C B. Pt. 3454°C Specific gravity 6.166 at 25°C

Ecotoxicity
Fish toxicity
LC50 (28 day) rainbow trout 0.02 mg kg-1 as lanthanum salt (2).
Bioaccumulation
Adult rainbow trout were exposed to various unspecified concentrations of *4OLa3+.
The dissociation constant for
gill metal binding was 43 mg 1-1 for La3+ (3).
Accumulation within mussels and limpets was 0.904 and 1.14 pg g-1 La3+,respectively. The highest concentration
within the mussel was 6.89 pg g-1 La3+ in the digestive gland (4).

Genotoxicity
Drosophila rnelanogaster yw and mus 302D1 strain at 10,20 or 30 Gy, chromosome loss 0.31,0.89 or 0.46%
respectively; recessive lethals 0.40,1.3 or 2.4%,respectively, and translocations 0.69% at 10 Gy and 0% at 20 and 30
Gy (5).

Other effects
High levels of lanthanum, antimony, arsenic, cadmium and lead and low levels of selenium salts found in the
lung tissues of smelter workers who died from lung cancer, compared with control groups, suggested a
multifactorial genesis for the development of lung cancer and a protective effect of selenium in occupational
exposure to certain carcinogens (6).
Intravenous, mice (concentration unspecified) as lanthanum salt caused significant elevation in alanine
transaminase activity and serum lipid peroxide 24 hr later. Degradation of hepatocytes and disappearance of
glycogen in the cytoplasm were observed (7).

19

Legislat ion

Other comments
Cytoxicity reviewed (9).
Four field studies detailing application of lanthanum salts in ecological research are reported. Studies covered:
(I) Accretion and erosion of sediment in wetlands;
(11) Fire ant behaviour in a crop;
(111) Adsorption of chelated and nonchelated ions to aquatic roots;
(IV) Sorption by aquatic insect larvae (10).
Effects on cell growth and reproduction were studied in the unicellular cellular organism Tetrahymena pyriformis.
Elements with higher molecular weights showed lower nutritive values and higher toxicities (11).
If radioactive lanthanum was released in sufficiently large quantities from nuclear power stations it could
contribute significantly to early bone marrow damage in humans (12).

References
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

L5

Weiss Ann. Rev. Phramacol. 1974,14,343.
Birge, W. J, et a1 Aquatic toxicity tests on inorganic elements occurring in oil shale 1980, EPA 600/9-80-022. NTIS, Springfield,

VA, USA.
Reid, S. D. et a1 Can. 1. Fish Aquat. Sci. 1991,48(6), 1061-1068.
Smith, D. R. et a1 Mar. Biol. 1989,102,127-133.
Fritz-Niggel, H. et a1 Radial. Environ. Biophys. 1988,27,133-141.
Gerhardsson, L. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. Suppl. 1986, 59(7), 256-259.
Chen, Q. et a1 Zhongguo Yaolixue Yu Dulixue Zazhi 1990,4(2), 131-133.
S. 1. 1991 No. 472 The Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1991, HMSO, London, UK.
Das, T. et a1 B i d . Trace Elem. Res. 1988,18, 201-28.
Knaus, R. M. Eur. 1. Solid State Inorg. Chem. 1991, 28 (Suppl.), 379-382.
Liv, Y. et a1 Beijing Dnxue Xuebao, Ziran Kexueban 1986, (3), 101-104 (Ch.)
(Chem. Abstr. 106,2044~).
Alpert, D. J. et a1 Environ. Effects 1987, 28(1), 77-86

lanthanum trichloride

C13La

Mol. Wt. 245.26


Synonyms lanthanum chloride (LaC13); lanthanum chloride (LaZC16)
RTECS No. OE 4375000

EINECS NO. 233-237-5

Uses Reagent for the conversion of carbonyls into thioacetal under mild conditions.

Physical properties
M. Pt. 907°C
Solubility Organic solvents: ethanol

Acute data
LD50 oral

rat 4180 mg kg-1 (1).

LD50 intraperitoneal rat 106 mg

kg-1 (2).

20

LD50 subcutaneous mouse 2420 mg
LD50 intravenous rabbit 148 mg

kl1.
g()

kg-1 (1).

Other effects
Intravenous mice (concentration unspecified) as lanthanum chloride caused significant elevation in alanine
transaminase activity and serum lipid peroxide 24 hr later. Degradation of hepatocytes and disappearance of
glycogen in the cytoplasm were observed (3).

LegisIatio n
Limited under EC Directive on Drinking Water Quality 80/778/EEC, guide level 25 mg chloride 1-1. Approximate
concentration above which effects might occur 200 mg 1-1 (5).

References
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Envzron. Qual. Safety, Supp. 1975,1, 1.
Arch. lnd. Health 1957,16,475.
Chen, Q. et a1 Zhongguo Yaolixue Y u Dulixue Zazhi 1990,4(2), 131-133.
EC Directive Relating to the Quality of Water Mended for Human Consumption 1982,80/778/EEC, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, 2 rue Mercier, L-2985 Luxembourg

~~

L6

lasiocarpine

C21H33N07

Mol. Wt. 411.50

CAS Registry No.303-34-4

Synonyms 2-methyl-2-bu tenoic acid 7-[(2,3-dihydroxy-2-(l-methoxyethyl)-3-methyl-l-oxobutoxy]methyl]2,3,5,7a-tetrahydro-lH-pyrrolizin-l-y1 [1s-[
ester,
la(Z),7(2S*,3R*),7aa]]-

Uses As an emetic and in the treatment of snake bites in South East Asia.
Occurrence Isolated only from plant species of the family Boraginaceae; Heliotropium europaeum, Heliotropium
lasiocarpum and Symphyturn caucasicums.

Physical properties
M. Pt. 94-95.5"C
Solubility Organic solvents: benzene, diethyl ether, ethanol

Acute data
LDL, intravenous mouse 85 mg kg-1 (2).
LDL, intravenous guinea pig 50 mg kg-1 (3)
LDL, intravenous monkey 20 mg kg-1 (2).
No adequate evidence for carcinogenicity to humans, sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity to animals, IARC
classification group 2B (4).
Oral (104 wk) o", 0 Fischer 344 rats at 7/15 or 30 ppm in diet. Mean body weights of the high-dose cr", 9 rats were
lower than the control groups, weights of mid-dose rats were lower only in second year and weights of low-dose
rats were unaffected. All surviving d rats developed tumours except for one low-dose and one high-dose animal.
Among 0 rats 23 low-dose and 22 high-dose animals developed tumours. It is carcinogenic in Fischer 344 rats,
producing hepatocellular tumours and angiosarcomas of the liver in both sexes and haematopoietic tumours in 9
animals (5).
Intraperitoneal injections (dose unspecified) were given to rats fed aflatoxin B1 in the diet and also pretreated with
lasiocarpine to produce an antimitotic effect. Liver tumours developed after a similar time (18 wk) and in similar
numbers to those in rats given aflatoxin alone. The tumours were associated with post-necrotic cirrhosis or
advanced portal scarring not seen in rats receiving aflatoxin alone (6).
Suckling rats showed toxic signs and died with severe liver lesions when their mothers were given total doses of
125 mg kg-1 body weight twice wkly. The mothers showed no outward ill effects (7).
In vivo rats, metabolised via pyrrole formation (8).
Most of the toxic effects appeared to be mediated via the very reactive dehydroalkaloid metabolites that are
produced by the liver mixed function oxidases. The toxicity is not related to the level of activity of this enzyme
system (9,lO).
Dehydroheliotridine has been isolated and identified as a product of microsomal oxidation (11).

Genotoxicity
Salmonella typhimuriurn TAlOO with metabolic activation positive (12).
Salmonella typhimuriurn TA98, TA1535, TA1537 with and without metabolic activation negative (12).
Salmonella typhimuriurn TA1535 with and without metabolic activation negative (13).

Other effects
In vitro rat hepatocytes significant toxicity observed (14).
Low doses produce severe haemorrhagic necrosis of the liver, gastro-intestinal haemorrhage, sometimes
congestion and oedema of the lungs, congestion of the adrenals and sometimes pyloric, duodenal and rectal
ulceration (species unspecified) (15-17).

Legis1at ion
Included in Schedule 4 (Release into Air: Prescribed Substances) Statutory Instrument No. 472, 1991 (18).

22

Other comments
Reviews on environmental toxicology and human health effects listed (19).
It is a pyrrolizidine alkaloid.

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

L7

Toxicol. App. Pharmacol. 1970,17,290.

I. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1959,126,179.
Chen, K. K. et a1 1. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1940,68,123-129.
IARC Monograph 1987, Suppl. 7, Lyon, France.
National Toxicology Program Research und Testing Division 1992, Report No. TR-039, NIEHS, Research Triangle Park, NC,
USA.
Reddy, J. K. et a1 Arch. Pathol. 1972,93,55-60.
Schoental, R. J. Pathol. Bact. 1959,77, 485-495.
Buhler, D. R. et a1 Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1986,197(3), 611-620.
Mattocks, A. R. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 1972, 5,227-242.
Mattocks, A. R. et a1 Chem.-Biol. Interact. 1971,3,383-396.
Jago, M. V. et a1 Mol. Pharmacol. 1970,6,402-406.
Zeiger, E. Cancer Res. 1987,47,1287-1296.
Shinada, T. et a1 Cancer Res. 1989,49,3218-3228.
Moore, D. J. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1989,101(2), 271-284.
Bull, L. B. et a1 1. Pathol. Bact. 1958,75,17-25.
Bull, L. B. et a1 The Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids 1968, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Schoental, R. et a1 1. Pathol. Bact. 1957,74,305-319.
Nieuwenhuyse (Bte 6), B-1160 Brussels, Belgium

lauramide DEA

Mol. Wt. 287.44
Synonyms lauridiethanolamide; lauroyl diethanolamide; lauric acid diethanolamide;

C16H33N03

N,N-bis(hydroxyethy1)lauramide; N,N-bis(p-hydroxyethy1)lauramide; N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)dodecanamide;
Ablumide DEA; Emalex "-7;

Amidex L-9

RTECS No. JR 1925000

EINECS NO.204-393-1

Uses In pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Detergents and cleansers. Acaricide and mite repellent.

Physical properties
Solubility Water: c1 mg ml-1 at 24°C. Organic solvents: acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide, ethanol

Acute data
LD50 oral rat 2700 mg kg-* (1).
National Toxicology Program skin painting study on rats and mice, no evidence of carcinogenicity (2).

23

Genotoxicity
Chinese hamster ovary cells with and without metabolic activation sister chromatid exchanges positive and
chromosome aberrations negative (3).

Other effects
The Toxicology Design Committee has approved prechronic testing of lauric acid diethanolamine condensate, a
detergent, in rats and mice by skin painting (4).
Toxicity has been evaluated (5).

References
1.

1. Soc. Cosmet. Chrm. 1962,13,469.

2.

National Toxicology Program Research and Testing Diu. 1999, Report No. TR-480, NIEHS, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
Loveday, K. S. et a1 Enuiron. Mol. Mutagen. 1990,16(4), 272-303.
National Toxicology Program Tox-Tips 1987, 30,31, Bethesda, MD, USA.
B I B R A Toxicity Profile 1990, British Industrial Research Association, Carshalton, UK

3.
4.

5.

L8

lauric acid

C12H2402

Mol. Wt. 200.32


Synonyms dodecanoic acid; ABL; Aliphat No.4; Vulvic acid; Laurostearic acid; Neo-Fat 12

EINECS NO.205-582-1

Physical properties
M. Pt. 44-46°C B. Pt. 225°C at 100 mmHg Flash point >llO"C (closed cup) Specific gravity 0.869 at 50°C
with respect to water at 4°C Partition coefficient log Po, 4.6
Solubility Organic solvents: benzene, chloroform, diethyl ether, ethanol, light petroleum

Ecotoxicity
Fish toxicity
LC50 red killifish (seawater) no mortality occurred at saturation (unspecified duration) (1).
LC50 red killifish (freshwater) 20 mg 1-1 (unspecified duration) (1).
Untreated retort waters were highly toxic to Nitzschia closteriurn, growth inhibited by concentration as low as
0.01% of retort water in sea water. Aliphatic acids are one of the many toxic components of retort waters (2).

Environmental fate
Anaerobic effects
The effect of lauric acid on the microbial formation of methane was investigated using Methanothrix sp. Inhibition
commenced at 320 and 861 mg 1-1, the maximum specific acetoclastic methanogenic activity was reduced to 50%.
Synergistic toxicity observed with capric acid and myristic acid (3).
Under laboratory conditions 60-90% degradation occurred. Results obtained by measuring the amount of
fermentation gas and methane concentration (4).

24

Degradation studies
Activated sludge (6 hr) 4.1% ThOD; (12 hr) 4.3% ThOD; (24 hr) 6.1% ThOD (5).

Acute data
LD50 oral rat 12 g kg-1 (6).
LD50 intravenous mouse 131 mg k g * (7).
Irri tancy
Based on the available data for studies in animals and humans it was concluded that lauric acid is non-irritant
and is safe in present practice of use and concentration in cosmetics (8).

Genotoxicity
Salmonella typhimuvium TA97, TA89, TA100, TA1535, TA1537 with and without metabolic activation negative (9)

Legisl at ion
Log P , exceeds European Union recommended limit of 3.0 (11).
o

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

L9

Onitsuka, S. et a1 Chemosphere 1989,18(7-8),1621-1631.
Mann, K. et a1 Fuel 1987,66(3), 404-407.
Koster, I. W. et a1 Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1987, 53(2), 403-409.
Petzi, S. Seifen, Oele, Fette, Waesche 1989,115(7),229-232 (Ger.) (Chern. Abstr. 111,83456n).
Maloney, G. W. et a1 1. Water Pollut. Control Fed., 1966,41(2), R18-R83.
Acta Phurmacol. Toxicol. 1961,18,141.
Food Drug Res. Labs., Papers 1976,123.
J. Am. Coll. Toxicol. 1987,6(3), 321-401.
Zeiger, E. et a1 Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 1988,11(Suppl. 12), 1-158.
1967 Directive on Classification, Packuging and Labelling of Dangerous Substances 67/548/EEC; 7th Amendment EEC Directive
91/32/EEC 1991, HMSO, London, UK

lauroyl peroxide

C24H4604

Mol. Wt. 398.63


Synonyms bis(oxododecy1) peroxide; didodecanoyl peroxide; dodecanoyl peroxide;
peroxide; Laurox Q; laurydol; LYP 97

Alperox C; dilauroyl

RTECS No. OF 2625000

EINECS NO.203-326-3
Uses Catalyst. Cross-linking agent.

Physical properties
M. Pt. 55°C
Solubility Organic solvents: acetone, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, diethyl ether, ethanol, methanol

* .
25

Supply classification oxidising
Risk phrases May cause fire (R7)
Safety phrases Keep out of reach of children (if sold to general public) - Keep container tightly closed in a cool
place - Keep away from acids - Wear suitable protective clothing, gloves and eye/face protection (S2, S3/7, '314,
S36/ 37/39)

No adequate data for evaluation of carcinogenicity to humans, inadequate evidence for carcinogenicity to
animals, IARC classification group 3 (1).
Subcutaneous mouse 0.1 or 10 mg animal-1 wk-1 throughout life span. Median survival time was 324-331and
368-535 days for the low-dose, high-dose and control groups, respectively. No tumours were observed in controls
or the high-dose group. In the low-dose group 3/50 mice developed a fibrosarcoma at the site of injection (2,3).
Subcutaneous mouse (18 month) 0.05 mg animal-1 2 x wk-* for 12 months. No tumours were observed in treated
mice. One fibrosarcoma was found at the injection site in the control group (3).
Subcutaneous rat (18 month) 11 mg animal-1 wk-1. Median survival times were 537 days for controls and 488
days for treated rats. No tumours were observed at the injection site in any group, although local palpable masses
associated with tissue necrosis, inflammatory reaction and vascular thrombosis were noted in the treated group (4).
Mice were tested to evaluate tumour-promoting, tumour initiating and complete carcinogenic activity for dermal
application. In the tumour promoting study, mice were given a single dermal application of 0.2 mg 7,12dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) followed 1 wk later by applications of 1/10 or 20 mg dilauroyl peroxide 2 x
wk-1 for 25 wk. A dose-related incidence of papillomas was observed at this time. In the tumour-initiation study
mice received a single dermal application of 20 mg lauroyl peroxide, followed by 2 pg 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol
13-acetate 2 x wk-1 for 25 wk. At this time 4/29 controls and 4/28 treated animals had papillomas. In the
complete carcinogenic study, mice received 20 mg animal-1 2 x wk-1 for 25 wk. 1/28 treated animals and 0 / 2 9
controls had papillomas at that time. At 50 wk no squamous-cell carcinoma was observed in any animal (5).
Tested for embryotoxicity in three-day chicken embryos using the air-chamber method. ED50 50-1070 pg egg-1.
Malformations occurred, although dilauroyl peroxide was least potent of the nine peroxides tested (6).
Irritancy
500 mg instilled into rabbit eye for 24 hr caused mild irritation (7).

Genotox icit y
Salmonella typhin-zurium TA98, TAlOO with metabolic activation negative (8).

Other effects
Dermal mouse, single application of 20 or 40 mg animal-1 induced mild hypoplasia and a temporaory increase in
the number of dark basal keratinocytes. No major inflammatory or vascular change was noted (5).

Legis Iatio n
Oxidising agents are included in Schedule 6 (Release into Land: Prescribed Substances) Statutory Instrument No.
472,1991 (9).

Other comments
Physical properties, use, analysis, carcinogenicity,mammalian toxicity, teratogenicity and mutagenicity reviewed
(10).

26

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

LIO

ZARC Monograph 1987, Suppl. 7,65.
Van Duuren, B. L. et a1 I. Natl. Cnncer Inst. 1966,37,825-838.
Swern, D. et a1 Cancer Res. 1970, 30, 1037-1046.
Van Duuren, B. L. et a1 I. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1967,39,1213-1216.
Klein-Szanto, A. J . P. et a 1. Invest. Dermntol. 1982,79,30-34.
1
Korhonen, A. et a1 Environ. Res. 1984, 33(1), 54-61.
Marhold, J. V. Sbornik Vysledku Toxixologickeho Vysetreni h t e k A Pripravku 1972,53, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Yamaguchi, T. et a1 Agric. Biol. Chem. 1980,44,1675-1678.
IARC Monograph 1985,36,315-321

laurylpyridinium chloride

C17H3OC1N

Mol. Wt. 283.88


Synonyms Dehyquart C; DPC; Eltren; 1-dodecylpyridinium chloride; Quaternario LPC

RTECS No. UU 4017070

EINECS NO.203-232-2

Physical properties
M.Pt. 66-70°C

Environmental fate
Adsorption of laurylpyridinium chloride on sodium kaolinite was studied (1).
The adsorption of laurylpyridinium chloride onto different adsorbents was examined at equilibrium
concentrations from 10 to 300 pmol l-1. The adsorption maximum for soils and compost was less than 10 pmol g-1.
There is no significant correlation between adsorption behaviour and organic matter contents in soils and
composts (2).
The reaction of the cationic surfactant laurylpyridinium chloride with model humic substances was studied. The
compound was bound to the humic substance, whereby the products contained between 25-70% of the surfactant.
Reaction with in situ generated model humic substance gave products containing higher laurylpyridinium
chloride contents than those prepared by precipitation reactions with the various humic substances, indicative of
multilayer binding. Both the former and the sodium hydroxide extract revealed a drastic reduction of free
carboxylic groups following reaction with laurylpyridinium chloride (3).

Irri tancy
Eye guinea pig 5% (w/v) was found to be extremely irritating (4).

27

Other effects
Human mixed lymphocyte reaction 94% inhibition and toxic to cells (5).

Legislation
Limited under EC Directive on Drinking Water Quality 80/778/EEC. Guide level 1 pg 1-1 (7).

Other comments
Cationic surfactant biodegradability was studied in river waters (8).
With increase in the ionic strength of the medium, which contained 2 ml sheep red blood cells in a buffer,
haemolytic activity of laurylpyridinium chloride decreased (9).

References
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Mehrian, T. et a1 Langmuir 1991, 7(12), 3097-3098.
Gerke, J. et a1 Chem. Erde 1990,50(4), 247-253 (Ger.) (Chem. Abstr. 114,145850j).
Gerke, J. et a1 Chem. Erde 1991,51(1), 23-28 (Ger.).
Bracher, M. et a1 Mol. Toxicol. 1987,1(4), 561-570.
Coy, E. A. et a1 Znt. I. lmmunopharmacol. 1990,12(8), 871-881.
S. I. 1991 No. 472 The Enz~ironmentnl
Protection (Prescribed Processes nnd Substances) Regulations 1991, HMSO, London, UK.
EC Directive Relating to the Quality of Water Intendedfor Human Consumption 1982,80/778/EEC, Office for Official
Ruiz Cruz, J. Grmas Aceites (Seville) 1987, 38(6), 383-388 (Span.) (Chem.Abstr. 109,98379~).
Murmatsuo, N. I. Ipn. Oil Chem. SOC. 1990, 39(8), 555-559

L11

Pb
Pb
Mol. Wt. 207.20
Synonyms C.I. 77575; C.I. pigment metal 4; lead flake

RTECS No. OF 7525000

EINECS NO.231-100-4

Uses Construction material for tank linings, piping. For x-ray and atomic radiation protection. Pigments for
paints. Bearing metal and alloys. Storage batteries. Solder and other lead alloys.
Occurrence Occurs in galena, galenite, lead sulfide, cerussite, anglesite, lancarksite, massicot and matlockite ores.
Extent of occurrence in earth's crust -15 g ton-1, or 0.002%.

Physical properties
M. Pt. 327.4"C B. Pt. 1740°C Specific gravity 11.34 at 20°C with respect to water at 4°C
Volatility v.p. 1 mmHg at 973°C

DE-MAK 0.1 mg m-3 (inhalable fraction of aerosol)
FR-VME 0.15 mg m-3
JP-OEL 0.1 mg m-3

28

SE-LEVL 0.1 mg m-3 (total dust); 0.05 mg m-3 (respirable dust)
UK-LTEL 0.15 mg m-3
US-TWA 0.05 mg m-3

Ecotoxicity
Fish toxicity
LC50 (28 day) rainbow trout 0.22 mg kg-1 (Pb salt) (1).
EC50 (96 hr) giant gourami 26 mg kg-1 (Pb salt) (2).
LOEC chronic survival rainbow trout 0.0007 mg kg-1 (Pb salt) (3).
In preference-avoidance response determinations under uniform illumination in a countercurrent trough, lake
Whitefish Coregonus clupeaforrnis avoided lead ion concentrations >10 pg 1-1 (4).
EC50 (96 hr) reproduction Nauicula incerla 11 mg kg-1 (Pb salt) (5).
LC50 (48 hr) Daphnia rnagna 0.3 mg kg-1 (Pb salt) (6).
LC50 (48 hr) Bufo arenarum 0.47-0.90 mg 1-1. Concentrations 20.25 mg Pb2+ (Pb salt) 1-1 interfered with normal
embryo development (7).
EC50 (96 hr) Pernu uiridis 8820 pg 1-1 (Pb salt) (8).
EC50 (48 hr) Daphnia rnagna 3.61 ppm (Pb salt) (9).
Pickerel frogs Rana palustris and bullfrogs Rana catesbeiana were exposed from the egg stage to lead-contaminated
surface water from a trap and skeet range. 100% range water containted 840-3150 pg 1-1 with the filterable from
accounting for -4-5% of the total. Hatching was not affected in either species. R. paIlustris tadpoles exhibited 100
and 98% mortality after 10 days of exposure to 100 and 75% range water, respectively. Range water did not
significantly effect the mortality of R. catesbeiana during 10 days of exposure. Exposure to lead in the range water
did not adversely affect the growth of surviving tadpoles of either species after 10 wk. In both species the
intestinal mucosa of tadpoles exposed to range water was reduced in thickness. R. palustris tadpoles that died in
100% range water had stunted tail growth, incurvation of the spine, hydropsy, and generally reduced body size

(10).
Bioaccumulation
Lead uptake is slow and reaches equilibrium only after prolonged exposure. Crassostrea uirginica (49 day) exposed
to 25/50! 100,200 mg Pb2+ 1-1 in water, final concentrations in soft tissues were 17,35,75 and 200 mg kg-1 lead,
respectively (11).
A bioconcentration factor of less than 1 was observed in earthworms in soils with 15-50mg lead kg-1 soil (12,13).
Arca granosa accumulated lead in soft tissue and blood. Distribution order: internal organs >gill >mantle >blood.
Positive correlation with lead concentration in seawater (14).
Arternia salina exposed to concentrations of 5 l g 1-1 accumulated 250 pg 1-1. Lead had a synergistic effect on heavy
metal uptake in combined heavy metal element solution (15).
Several species of fish, molluscs and crustacea accumulate lead. Main storage tissues are digestive tract and
exoskeleton. Spherocrystals and lysosomes are prominent in accumulation and elimination (16).
Tissue distribution of lead was studied in four species of raptor from Southeast Spain. The bone was found to be
the principal organ of accumulation followed by kidney, liver and brain. This distribution suggested that the birds
had been exposed to a low level of lead over a long period of time. Relationships were found among bird size, age
and nearness to areas of human activity (17).

Environmental fate
20 mg (Pb salt) 1-1 inhibited denitrification in rotating disc and 20 mg (Pb salt) 1-1 inhibited nitrification and
denitrification in activated sludge (18).
0.5 mg 1-1 was toxic to Nitmornonas (19).

29

Atotobacter exposed to high concentrations showed inhibited urease activity. Inhibition threshold concentration
range 30-500 ppm (20).
Cores of marine sediment were used as model systems to examine the degradation of digested sewage sludge in
the marine environment at the sediment-water interface. Lead added to the model systems in the sludge was
immobilised by the sediment and not exported from the model (21).
Adsorption to sediment occurs rapidly and almost quantitatively (22).
Inorganic lead tends to form highly insoluble salts and complexes with various anions and is tightly bound to
soil, therefore availability to terrestrial plants is drastically reduced and effects to plants are normally only
observed at very high environmental concentrations 100-1000 mg kg-1 (23).

Acute data
LDL, oral pigeon 160 mg kg-1 (24).
TDL, oral mouse 4800 mg kg-1 (25).
Lowest lethal dose oral woman 450 mg kg-1 (26).
LDL, intraperitoneal rat 1000 mg kg-1 (27).
LD50 intraperitoneal rat 400 mg kg-1 body weight lead oxide (371 as lead) (28).
LD50 intraperitoneal rat 220 mg kg-1 body weight lead tetroxide (20 as lead) (28).
LD50 intraperitoneal guinea-pig 2000 mg kg-1 body weight lead chloride (1490 as lead) (28).
American kestrel (7 month) 0,lO or 50 mg kg-1. Lead levels increased in liver and bones though no adverse effects
were observed (29).
Oral American kestrel (10 day) 125 or 625 mg kg-1 body weight. Reduced haematocrit, haemoglobin levels and
plasma creatine phosphorylase activity was observed (30).
Oral d bobwhite quail (4 wk) 10 lead shot. Increased mortality was observed, >go% of d dosed with 30 lead shots
wk-1 died within 4 wk (31).
Oral rat (6 month) single concentration lead or combined heavy metals in non-toxic, minimal or toxic
concentrations. Every single metal affected the concentrations of some of the other metals in the liver, brain,
femoral bone, spleen and kidney. The changes are due to compensatory mechanism and/or toxic effects of the
metal (32).
Renal tumours have been induced in rats following administration of large doses (33).
Gavage (12 month) d, 9 Fischer 344 rat, 10 mg twice a month. One lymphoma and 4 leukaemias in 47 treated rats.
No significant difference from control rate (34).
Lead salts are gonadotoxic and embryotoxic (35,36).
Caused a reduction in the number of pregnancies in successfully mated mice compared with controls (37).
Reduced foetal birth weight, neonatal body weight and motor activity and induced skeletal deformities in mice
(38).
Developmental toxicity in humans not determined; in rabbits negative; and in rats, mice and hamsters positive
(39).
d rats were injected intraperitoneally with 10 mg kg-1 body weight of lead acetate weekly for 6 or 9 weeks. After
6 weeks of lead exposure epididymal sperm counts were unchanged, as was percentage of motile sperm. After 9
weeks of exposure numbers of motile sperm and epididymal sperm counts were reduced. An increase in reactive
oxygen species was observed (via chemiluminescence) and a decrease in sperm-oocyte penetration rate (40).
Sequentially administered stable lead isotopes were used to investigate changes in blood lead during pregnancy
in five cynomolgus monkeys. Bone lead mobilisation decreased during the first trimester by 29-56% and then
increased during the second and third trimesters, up to 44% above base levels. From 7-39% of lead found in the
foetal skeleton originated from the maternal skeleton (41).

30

The Dictionary of Substances and Their Effects (DOSE): Volume 05 K–N

The Dictionary of Substances and Their Effects (DOSE): Volume 05 K–N

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