The central nervous system presentation dawn part 1

BY,
DAWN V TOMY M.PHARM.,
ASST. PROFESSOR,
DEPT. OF PHARMACOLOGY,
ST.JOSEPH’S COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, CHERTHALA.
Wednesday, December 17,
2014
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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
2014
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INTRODUCTION
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
• The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium.
• The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord. Brain communicate
with the peripheral nervous system (PNS) through the spinal cord.
• The spinal cord starts from the base of the skull, continues
through the foramen magnum, lies caudally to the brain and is protected
by the vertebra and terminates at the first or second lumbar vertebra.

The brain is situated in the cranial cavity formed by the cranial and
facial bones. It is protected by the meninges. It is nourished and
cushioned by the Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) formed in ventricles.
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ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN

STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN.
An adult brain weighs between 1.3 to 1.4 kg and has a volume of about 1200 cc.
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BRAIN
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Major parts of the brain:
•Cerebrum
• Frontal lobes
• Parietal lobes
• Occipital lobes
• Temporal lobes
• Insula
•Diencephalon
•Epithalamus
•Thalamus
•Subthalamus and
•Hypothalamus
•Brainstem
• Medulla oblongata
•Pons
•Midbrain
•Cerebellum
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Major Parts of the Brain
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FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN.
• It helps to maintain homeostasis.
• Interprets sensations.
• Determines perception.
• Stores memory.
• Reasoning.
• Makes decisions.
• Coordinates muscular movements.
• Regulates visceral activities.
• Determines personality.
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Brain Development
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BLOOD FLOW
Supply: Internal carotid and vertebral arteries.
Return: Internal jugular veins (from head to heart)
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BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (BBB)
The endothelial cells of the brain
capillaries along with thick basement
membrane and astrocytes forms tight
junctions which selectively passes
substances from blood to brain.
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CSF AND CEREBRAL VENTRICLES
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Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Interventricular
foramen
Lateral
ventricle
Fourth
ventricle
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• There are four (4) ventricles
• The ventricles are interconnected cavities
within cerebral hemispheres and brain stem.
• The ventricles are continuous with the
central canal of the spinal cord.
• They are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• The four (4) ventricles are:
• Lateral ventricles (2)
• Known as the first and
second ventricles
• Third ventricle
• Fourth ventricle
• Interventricular foramen.
• Cerebral aqueduct.
Lateral ventricle
Third ventricle
Fourth ventricle
Interventricular
foramen
Cerebral
aqueduct
(a)
To central canal
of spinal cord
Third ventricle
Cerebral
aqueduct
(b)
To central canal
of spinal cord
ST.JOSEPH’S COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, CHERTHALA. 2014

A lateral ventricle is located in each hemisphere of
the cerebrum. Anteriorly, the lateral ventricles are
separated by a thin membrane, the septum
pellucidum. The 3rd ventricle is a narrow cavity along
the midline; superior to the hypothalamus and
between the right and left halves of thalamus. The
4th ventricle lies between the brain stem and the
cerebellum. The 4th ventricle is continuous with the
central canal of spinal cord.
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Formation of CSF in the ventricles.
CSF is produced in the choroid plexuses which are network of
capillaries in the walls of the ventricles.
The ependymal cells that cover the capillaries form
cerebrospinal fluid from the blood plasma by filtration and
secretion process.
The ependymal cells joined by tight junctions in the choroid
capillaries forms the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier
permitting selective diffusion, thereby protecting the brain
and spinal cord from potentially harmful blood-born
substances.
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
Pia mater
Central canal of spinal cord
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•Circulates in ventricles, central
canal of spinal cord, and the
subarachnoid space.
• Completely surrounds the brain
and spinal cord.
• Excess or wasted CSF is absorbed
by the arachnoid villi.
• It is a clear fluid similar to blood
plasma.
• Volume is only about 120 ml.
• Nutritive and protective function.
• Helps maintain stable ion
concentrations in the CNS.
Third ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle
Subarachnoid space
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater
Pia mater
Subarachnoid space
Filum terminale
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater
Arachnoid
granulations
Choroid plexuses
of third ventricle
Blood-filled
dural sinus
Choroid plexus of
fourth ventricle
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THE COMPOSITION OF CSF.
Total volume of CSF is 80 to 150mL in an
adult. It contains Glucose, Proteins, Lactic
acid, Urea, Cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and
Mg2+) and Anions (Cl- and HCO3
-). It also
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contains WBCs.
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FUNCTIONS OF CSF
The CSF contributes to brain and spinal cord homeostasis in 3 ways.
1. Mechanical protection: It serves as shock absorbing medium that protects the
delicate tissues of the brain and spinal cord from impacts by not letting them hit
the bony walls of the cranial and vertebral cavities. The fluid also buoys the brain
floating it in the cranial cavity.
2. Chemical protection: Provides an optimal chemical environment for accurate
neuronal signalling. Ionic composition to be maintained in homeostasis as even
slight changes in them can affect the production of action potentials and
postsynaptic potentials.
3. Circulation: CSF is a medium for exchange of nutrients and waste products
between the blood and nervous tissue.
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Meninges
Skin
Subcutaneous tissue
Bone of skull
Dura mater
Pia mater
Subarachnoid space
Falx cerebri
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• The meninges
• Membranes of CNS
• Protect the CNS
• Three (3) layers:
• Dura mater
• “Tough mother”
• Venous sinuses
• Falx
• Arachnoid mater
Scalp
Cranium
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Meninges
• “Spiderweb-like”
• Space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Pia mater
• “Faithful mother”
• Encapsulates blood vessels
Meninges
Cerebrum
(a) (b)
Gray matter
White matter
Tentorium
cerebelli
Vertebra
Dural sinus
Arachnoid
granulation
Arachnoid
mater
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Protective covering of the brain:
The cranium and the cranial meninges surround and protect the brain.
The cranial meninges are continuous with spinal meninges. They are:
1. The outer dura mater (The cranial dura mater has 2 layers and
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spinal dura mater has only one layer).
2. The middle arachnoid mater and
3. The inner pia mater.
The space between Dura mater and arachnoid mater is known as
subdural space and that between arachnoid mater and pia mater is
knows as subarachnoid space which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).
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The parts of brain are separated by 3
extensions of the dura mater. They are:
1. The falx cerebri which separates 2
hemispheres of cerebrum.
2. The falx cerebelli which separates 2
hemispheres of cerebellum and
3. The tentorium cerebelli which separates
the cerebrum from the cerebellum.
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Meninges of the Spinal Cord
Spinal cord
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Spinal cord
Pia mater
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater
Ventral root
Dorsal root
Dorsal root
Spinal nerve
Epidural space
Dorsal root
ganglion
Thoracic
vertebra
Spinal
nerve
Dorsal root
ganglion
(a) (b)
Subarachnoid space
Dorsal branch
(dorsal ramus)
Ventral branch
(ventral ramus)
Ventral root
Epidural space
Body of vertebra
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STRUCTURE OF CEREBRUM.
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Structure of the Cerebrum
Central sulcus
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• Corpus callosum
• Connects cerebral hemispheres
(a commissure)
• Gyri
• Bumps or convolutions.
• Sulci
• Grooves in gray matter
• Central sulcus.
• Fissures
• Longitudinal: separates the
cerebral hemispheres
• Transverse: separates cerebrum
from cerebellum
• Lateral fissure (sulcus) of
Sylvius.
Central sulcus
Gyrus
Sulcus
Frontal lobe
Lateral fissure of sylvius
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
(a)
Central sulcus
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
(b) (c)
Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe Occipital lobe
Insula
Temporal lobe
Longitudinal
fissure
Transverse
fissure
Cerebellar
hemisphere
Retracted
temporal lobe
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Lobes of the Cerebrum
Central sulcus
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• Five (5) lobes bilaterally:
• Frontal lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Temporal lobe
• Occipital lobe
• Insula aka ‘Island of
Reil’
(c)
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Frontal lobe
Insula
Retracted temporal lobe
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Functions of the Cerebral Lobes
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Functional Regions of the Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral cortex:
Thin layer of gray matter that constitutes the outermost portion of
cerebrum, contains 75% of all neurons in the nervous system
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Motor areas involved with the control
of voluntary muscles
Concentration, planning,
problem solving
Frontal eye field
Central sulcus
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Cerebellum
Brainstem
Auditory area
Front lobe
Lateral sulcus
Interpretation of auditory
patterns
Sensory areas involved with
cutaneous and other senses
Sensory speech area
( Wernicke’s area)
Combining visual images,
visual recognition of objects
Visual area
Temporal lobe
Motor speech area
(Broca’s area)
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Motor Areas (pre-central sulcus)
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• Primary motor areas
• Frontal lobes
• Control voluntary muscles
problem solving
Frontal eye field
Central sulcus
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Cerebellum
Brainstem
Auditory area
Front lobe
Lateral sulcus
Interpretation of auditory patterns
Sensory speech area
visual recognition of
objects
Visual area
Temporal lobe
Motor speech area (Broca’s area)
• Broca’s area
• Anterior to primary motor
cortex
• Usually in left hemisphere
• Controls muscles needed
for speech
• Frontal eye field
• Above Broca’s area
• Controls voluntary movements
of eyes and eyelids
ST.JOSEPH’S COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, CHERTHALA. 2014

Motor Areas
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Hand, fingers,
and thumb
Upper
face
Teeth and
gums
Tongue and
pharynx
Sensory area
Parietal lobe
Trunk
Arm Pelvis
Foot and
toes
Longitudinal
fissure
Frontal lobe
Motor area
Central sulcus
Thumb,
fingers,
and hand
Facial
expression
Salivation
Vocalization
Mastication
Swallowing
Forearm
Thigh
Leg
Lips
Neck Pelvis
ForearmArm
Thigh
Leg
Genitals
(a) Motor area (b) Sensory area
Trunk
Foot and
toes
Longitudinal
fissure
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Sensory Areas (post-central sulcus)
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• Cutaneous sensory area
• Parietal lobe
• Interprets sensations on
skin
• Visual area
• Occipital lobe
• Interprets vision
• Auditory area
• Temporal lobe
• Interprets hearing
• Sensory area for taste
• Near base of the central sulcus
• Sensory area for smell
• Arises from centers deep within
the cerebrum
problem solving
Frontal eye field
Central sulcus
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Cerebellum
Brainstem
Auditory area
Front lobe
Lateral sulcus
Sensory speech area
objects
Visual area
Temporal lobe
Motor speech area
(Broca’s area)
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Sensory Areas
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Hand, fingers,
and thumb
Upper
face
Teeth and
gums
Tongue and
pharynx
Sensory area
Parietal lobe
Trunk
Arm Pelvis
Foot and
toes
Longitudinal
fissure
Frontal lobe
Motor area
Central sulcus
Thumb,
fingers,
and hand
Facial
expression
Salivation
Vocalization
Mastication
Swallowing
Forearm
Thigh
Leg
Lips
Neck Pelvis
ForearmArm
Thigh
Leg
Genitals
(a) Motor area (b) Sensory area
Trunk
Foot and
toes
Longitudinal
fissure
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Association Areas
• Regions that are not primary motor or primary sensory areas.
•Widespread throughout the cerebral cortex.
• Analyze and interpret sensory experiences.
• Provide memory, reasoning, verbalization, judgment, emotions…
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problem solving
Frontal eye field
Central sulcus
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Cerebellum
Brainstem
Auditory area
Front lobe
Lateral sulcus
Sensory speech area
objects
Visual area
Temporal lobe
Motor speech area
(Broca’s area)
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Association Areas
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• Frontal lobe association areas
• Concentrating
• Planning
• Complex problem solving
• Parietal lobe association areas
• Understanding speech
• Choosing words to express
thought
• Temporal lobe association areas
• Interpret complex sensory
experiences
• Store memories of visual scenes,
music, and complex patterns
• Occipital lobe association areas
• Analyze and combine visual
images with other sensory
experiences
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Hemisphere Dominance
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• The left hemisphere is dominant in most individuals
• Dominant hemisphere controls:
• Speech
•Writing
• Reading
• Verbal skills
• Analytical skills
• Computational skills
• Nondominant hemisphere controls:
• Nonverbal tasks
• Motor tasks
• Understanding and interpreting
musical and visual patterns
• Provides emotional and intuitive
thought processes
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Memory
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• Short term memory
•Working memory
• Closed neuronal circuit
• Circuit is stimulated over and
over
•When impulse flow ceases,
memory does also unless it
enters long-term memory via
memory consolidation
• Long term memory
• Changes structure or
function of neurons
• Enhances synaptic
transmission
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FUNCTIONS OF CEREBRUM.
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Functions of the Cerebrum
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• Interpreting impulses
• Initiating voluntary movements
• Storing information as memory
• Retrieving stored information
• Reasoning
• Seat of intelligence and personality
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STRUCTURE OF BASAL NUCLEI
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Basal Nuclei /Basal Ganglia
Longitudinal
fissure
Right cerebral
hemisphere
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Basal nuclei are masses of grey
matter deep within the white
matter of cerebral hemisphere with
connections to the cerebral cortex
and thalamus.
The basal nuclei form part of the
extrapyramidal tracts and are
involved in initiating muscle tone
in slow and coordinated activities.
• Caudate nucleus, putamen, and
globus pallidus.
• Produce dopamine.
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Brainstem
Putamen
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Caudate
nucleus
Globus
pallidus
Basal
nuclei
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Longitudinal
fissure
Right cerebral
hemisphere
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Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Brainstem
Putamen
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Caudate
nucleus
Globus
pallidus
Basal
nuclei
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 Basal ganglia lateral to thalamus is the
lentiform nucleus (lens shaped) divided
into 2 as:
a. Globus pallidus (globus=ball,
pallidus=pale) closer to thalamus.
b. Putamen (putamen=shell) closer
to cerebral cortex.
 Caudate nucleus (caud=tail) ‘C’ shaped,
large head, tail arches over the
thalamus.
 Caudate nucleus along with putamen
and globus pallidus is known as corpus
striatum.
 Subthalamic nuclei interconnect the
globus pallidus in each cerebral
hemisphere.

 To help regulate initiation and termination of movements in coordination with cerebral
 Putamen precedes or anticipates body movement.
 Caudate nucleus responsible for eye movement.
 Globus pallidus helps to regulate the muscle tone required for specific body movements.
 It also controls subconscious contractions of skeletal muscles.
 They initiate and coordinate cognitive processes such as attentions, memory, planning, and
o Obsessive compulsive disorder.
o Schizophrenia and
o Chronic anxiety all due to the dysfunction in circuits between basal ganglia and the
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Functions:
cortex.
may act with the limbic system to regulate emotional behaviours.
 It estimates the passage of time.
 It is associated with psychiatric disorders like:
limbic system.

STRUCTURE OF DIENCEPHALON
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Diencephalon
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• Between cerebral hemispheres and above the brainstem.
• Surrounds the third ventricle.
•Thalamus.
• Epithalamus.
• Hypothalamus.
• Optic tracts.
• Optic chiasm.
• Infundibulum.
• Posterior pituitary.
• Mammillary bodies.
• Pineal gland.
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Diencephalon
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Thalamus:
•It makes up 80% of the diencephalon.
•The thalamus consists of two masses of nerve cells
(nuclei) and fibres, situated within the cerebral
hemispheres just below the corpus callosum, one on each
side of the third ventricle.
•It sends axons to regions of the cerebral cortex.
•Nuclei act as relay stations for incoming sensory
messages.
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Functions:
•Relays all sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex. Sensory input
from the skin, viscera and special sense organs is transmitted to the
thalamus (Receives all sensory impulses except smell).
•Afferent impulses converge on the thalamus. Nuclei organize and
amplify or tone down signals (Gateway for sensory impulses
heading to cerebral cortex).
•Channels impulses to appropriate part of cerebral cortex for
interpretation.
•Helps motor functions by transmitting information from the
cerebellum and basal ganglia to the primary motor area of the
cerebral cortex.
•Also helps in maintaining consciousness.
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Diencephalon
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Hypothalamus:
•It is composed of a number of group of nerve cells.
•It is situated inferior and anterior to the thalamus, immediately
above the pituitary gland (pituitary gland projects inferiorly).
•The hypothalamus is linked to the posterior lobe of the pituitary
gland by nerve fibres and to the anterior lobe by a complex system
of blood vessels.
•Maintains homeostasis by regulating visceral activities.
• Links nervous and endocrine systems (hence some say the
neuroendocrine system.
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Functions:
• Control of the endocrine system (The secretion of hormones from both lobes
of the pituitary gland).
• The control of the autonomic nervous system (mainly visceral control center
of the body).
• The control of emotional responses (e.g. pleasure, fear, rage sexual
behaviour including mating and child rearing), control of behavior.
• Regulation of body temperature.
• Regulation of hunger and thirst sensations.
• Regulation of sleep-wake cycles: Biological clocks or circadian rhythms
(e.g. sleeping and waking cycles) by hormone melatonin from pineal gland.
• Formation of memory.
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Diencephalon
Epithalamus:
• Forms part of the “roof” of the third ventricle, consists of a
tiny group of nuclei Includes the pineal gland (pineal
body), which secretes the hormone melatonin under
influence of the hypothalamus and the habenular nuclei.
Infundibulum:
• A hollow funnel shaped stalk that connects the
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Hypothalamus and the posterior lobe of pituitary.
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a. Allows us to shift between thoughts.
b. Interprets pain as unpleasant – cingulate gyrus (cingul=belt) lies above corpus callosum.
2. Dentate gyrus (dentate=tooth head) – lies between hippocampus (seahorse shape) and
3. Amygdala (amygda=almond shaped) stimulation of it produces fear and aggression. It composed of
4. Septal nuclei – lies in the septal area formed by regions under corpus callosum and the paraterminal
5. Mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus – they are the 2 round masses near the cerebral peduncles.
6. Anterior and medial nucleus – it participate in limbic circuits.
7. Olfactory bulbs – flattened bodies of olfactory pathway that rests on the cribriform plate of the ethmoid
8. Fornix, striaterminalis, striamedullaris, medial forebrain bundle and mammillothalamic tract are
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The Limbic System (the emotional brain)
1. Limbic lobe – rim of cerebral cortex on the medial surface of each hemisphere.
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Parahippocampal gyrus lies in the temporal lobe below.
parahippocampal gyrus.
groups of neurons located close to caudate nucleus.
gyrus (cerebral gyrus).
bone of the skull.
interconnected by bundles of myelinated axons.

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Functions:
 It plays an important role in a range of emotions including pain,
pleasure, docility, affection and anger (helps in experiencing intense
pain or extreme pleasure).
 It is also involved in olfactory (smelling) and memory.
 Stimulation of limbic system area produces tameness and affection.
 Hippocampus functions in memory.
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THE STRUCTURE OF BRAIN STEM
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Brainstem
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Three parts:
1. Medulla Oblongata
2. Pons
3. Midbrain
Spinal cord
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Diencephalon
Midbrain
Pons
Corpus
callosum
Corpora quadrigemina
Cerebral
aqueduct
Reticular
formation
Medulla
oblongata
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Medulla Oblongata
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Optic nerve Optic chiasma
Mammillary body
Pons
Pyramidal tract
Thalamus
Superior
colliculus
Inferior
colliculus
Cerebral
peduncles
Olive
Spinal cord
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Optic tract
(a) (b)
Third
ventricle
Fourth
ventricle
Cerebellar
peduncles
Medulla
oblongata
• Enlarged continuation of
spinal cord
• Conducts ascending and
descending impulses between
brain and spinal cord
• Contains cardiac, vasomotor,
and respiratory control
centers.
• Contains various nonvital
reflex control centers
(coughing, sneezing,
swallowing, and vomiting)
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Pons
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Optic nerve Optic chiasma
Mammillary body
Pons
Pyramidal tract
Thalamus
Superior
colliculus
Inferior
colliculus
Cerebral
peduncles
Olive
Spinal cord
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Optic tract
(a) (b)
Third
ventricle
Fourth
ventricle
Cerebellar
peduncles
Medulla
oblongata
• Rounded bulge on underside
of brainstem.
• Between medulla oblongata
and midbrain.
• Helps regulate rate and
depth of breathing.
• Relays nerve impulses to and
from medulla oblongata and
cerebellum.
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Midbrain
• Between diencephalon and pons
• Contains bundles of fibers that join lower parts of brainstem and spinal cord with
higher part of brain
• Cerebral aqueduct
• Cerebral peduncles (bundles of nerve fibers)
• Corpora quadrigemina (centers for visual and auditory reflexes)
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Reticular Formation
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•The reticular formation is a
collection of neurones in the core
of the brain stem (runs through
the central core of the medulla,
pons and midbrain), surrounded
by neurons which conduct
ascending and descending nerve
impulses between the brain and
the spinal cord. It has widespread
connections ideal for arousal of
the brain as a whole
•Filters incoming sensory
information.
• Arouses cerebral cortex into
state of wakefulness.
Spinal cord
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Diencephalon
Midbrain
Pons
Corpus
callosum
Corpora
quadrigemina
Cerebral
aqueduct
Reticular formation
Medulla
oblongata
2014 ST.JOSEPH’S COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, CHERTHALA.

Functions:
The reticular formation is involved in:
 Coordination of skeletal muscle activity associated with voluntary
 Coordination of activity controlled by the autonomic nervous system,
 Selective awareness that functions through the reticular activating
system (RAS) which selectively blocks or passes sensory information
to the cerebral cortex (Maintains consciousness, alertness and also
functions in sleep and arousal from sleep).
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motor movement and the maintenance of balance.
e.g. cardiovascular, respiratory and gastrointestinal activity.
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Types of Sleep
75
• Slow wave
• Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
• Non-REM sleep
• Person is tired
• Decreasing activity of
reticular system
• Restful
• Dreamless
• Reduced blood pressure and
respiratory rate
• Ranges from light to heavy
• Alternates with REM sleep
• Paradoxical sleep
• Some areas of brain active
• Heart and respiratory rates irregular
• Dreaming occurs
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STRUCTURE OF CEREBELLUM
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Cerebellum
Corpus callosum
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• Situated inferior to occipital
lobes, posterior to pons and
medulla oblongata
• Has two hemispheres.
• Vermis connects hemispheres.
• Cerebellar cortex (gray matter).
• Arbor vitae tree of life (white
matter).
• Cerebellar peduncles (nerve fiber
tracts).
• Dentate nucleus (largest nucleus
in cerebellum).
Thalamus
Superior
peduncle
Pons
Middle peduncle
Inferior peduncle
Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum
Longitudinal
fissure
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Functions:
•Integrates sensory information concerning
position of body parts.
•Smoothens and coordinates contractions
of skeletal muscles.
•Regulates posture and balance.
•Cognition and language processing.
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