1) Thomas Paine raised the issue of agrarian justice in the late 18th century, arguing that the poor deserved compensation for land taken through enclosures, but his ideas focused only on land distribution and lacked theoretical rigor.
2) In the 19th century, the concept of justice in economics focused on Pareto optimality and efficiency rather than separate notions of justice. Agrarian justice was seen as a subset of overall economic justice.
3) Recent literature proposes alternative concepts
This document summarizes and compares the Utopian social theories of Saint-Simon, Fourier, Owen, and Proudhon. Saint-Simon proposed a harmonious society led by scientists and administrators where the state would gradually become unnecessary. Fourier envisioned communities organized around human passions. Owen established self-sustaining communities for workers but his New Harmony experiment failed. Proudhon was a critic of previous Utopians and advocated for economic reforms. The document asserts that the Saint-Simonian model, which emphasized large-scale scientific planning, was the most practical of the Utopian plans.
The christian democracy: separation of Church and State, liberal democracies
#democracy #christian-democracy #liberal-democracies #west #Esotericism #Esoterism
https://bittube.tv/post/5c2d853f-fa9e-45d7-b77b-b91bda57dbfe
https://odysee.com/@periodic-reset-of-civilizations:c/The-christian-democracy--separation-of-Church-and-State,-liberal-democracies:3
https://tube.midov.pl/w/bBJjmAV381711NNNVEx36Z
https://www.bitchute.com/video/Mfv3zlrfKVys/
All the platforms I Am on:
https://steemit.com/links/@resetciviliz/link-s
▶ BITCOIN
34c3XCeSyoi9DPRks867KL7GVD7tGVcxnH
▶ ETHEREUM
0xAc1FBaEBaCc83D332494B55123F5493a113cE457
▶ FINEARTAMERICA
https://fineartamerica.com/profiles/periodicreset-ofcivilizations
▶ TEESPRING
https://periodic-reset.creator-spring.com
▶ ZAZZLE
https://www.zazzle.com/store/periodic_reset/products
Fire in-the-minds-of-men-origins-of-the-revolutionary-faith (1)Ladystellas
Fire In the Minds of Men Origins of the Revolutionary Faith
Synopis of the book by J.H. Billington documenting the history of Illuminist revolutions
by David Chilton, 1984
Everything suggests that the strategy devised by the PT (Worker Party) for achievement and maintenance in power in Brazil took into account the lessons of Gramsci. From the Lula government, in civil society, social sectors were conquered by the PT with the “Bolsa Familia” income transfer program, in addition to unions and social movements in general that have been co-opted by PT. The structures of the Brazilian state and state enterprises were also occupied by members of the PT. More recently, the judiciary was also conquered after the departure of President Joaquim Barbosa because its presidents of the Supreme Court and top electoral court former members of PT. The victory of PT in the presidential elections of October 26 would close the maintenance of the Executive Branch. Possession of the Executive and the Judiciary, the Legislature would be entirely at the mercy of the PT. The conquest of the state by PT in Brazil would materialize in practice. From the foregoing, it can be stated that Brazil's future will be dictated by the hegemonic power of the PT and its allies if Dilma Rousseff win the next elections. Instead of putting into practice the Gramscian way of social emancipation, we instead have in Brazil playing the dictatorship exercised by the PRI party that controlled the political life of Mexico for 71 years, through the control of the state apparatus and a system based on corruption, forming the "Perfect Dictatorship" term used because the official party to have been sustained in power without punches preserving the elections and the multiparty system.
This document provides a summary of the final exam essay for a course on human beings and civilization. It discusses three main topics: 1) The relationship between new sense perception and political participation in the era of mechanical art reproduction. 2) The role of art in making alternatives or better democracy by connecting Aristotle and Plato's views of democracy. 3) How democratic political change is associated with alternative forms of capitalism in modern society. For each section, key ideas from referenced texts by Walter Benjamin and Karl Marx are discussed.
1. Marx viewed history as a struggle between social classes, primarily the haves and have-nots.
2. He believed society progressed through six stages: primitive communism, slave society, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and finally communism.
3. Under capitalism, the working class would become increasingly exploited and would eventually rise up in revolution to overthrow the capitalist system and establish socialism, setting the stage for a future communist society without social classes.
This document lists various concepts from history, science, politics, philosophy and more. It touches on ideas from prehistoric times through modern eras without additional context or explanation. The high-level concepts mentioned span developments in fields like writing, politics, economics, science, technology, society and culture over huge stretches of human history.
The document is an introduction to Frédéric Bastiat's essay "The Law". It provides background on Bastiat, a 19th century French economist, and his views on how the law has been perverted from its proper purpose of protecting individual rights to life, liberty, and property, into an instrument of legal plunder that is used to deprive citizens of their rights for the benefit of others, especially the state. It summarizes some of Bastiat's key arguments about the dangers of legal plunder and forecasts the negative societal effects that will result.
This document summarizes and compares the Utopian social theories of Saint-Simon, Fourier, Owen, and Proudhon. Saint-Simon proposed a harmonious society led by scientists and administrators where the state would gradually become unnecessary. Fourier envisioned communities organized around human passions. Owen established self-sustaining communities for workers but his New Harmony experiment failed. Proudhon was a critic of previous Utopians and advocated for economic reforms. The document asserts that the Saint-Simonian model, which emphasized large-scale scientific planning, was the most practical of the Utopian plans.
The christian democracy: separation of Church and State, liberal democracies
#democracy #christian-democracy #liberal-democracies #west #Esotericism #Esoterism
https://bittube.tv/post/5c2d853f-fa9e-45d7-b77b-b91bda57dbfe
https://odysee.com/@periodic-reset-of-civilizations:c/The-christian-democracy--separation-of-Church-and-State,-liberal-democracies:3
https://tube.midov.pl/w/bBJjmAV381711NNNVEx36Z
https://www.bitchute.com/video/Mfv3zlrfKVys/
All the platforms I Am on:
https://steemit.com/links/@resetciviliz/link-s
▶ BITCOIN
34c3XCeSyoi9DPRks867KL7GVD7tGVcxnH
▶ ETHEREUM
0xAc1FBaEBaCc83D332494B55123F5493a113cE457
▶ FINEARTAMERICA
https://fineartamerica.com/profiles/periodicreset-ofcivilizations
▶ TEESPRING
https://periodic-reset.creator-spring.com
▶ ZAZZLE
https://www.zazzle.com/store/periodic_reset/products
Fire in-the-minds-of-men-origins-of-the-revolutionary-faith (1)Ladystellas
Fire In the Minds of Men Origins of the Revolutionary Faith
Synopis of the book by J.H. Billington documenting the history of Illuminist revolutions
by David Chilton, 1984
Everything suggests that the strategy devised by the PT (Worker Party) for achievement and maintenance in power in Brazil took into account the lessons of Gramsci. From the Lula government, in civil society, social sectors were conquered by the PT with the “Bolsa Familia” income transfer program, in addition to unions and social movements in general that have been co-opted by PT. The structures of the Brazilian state and state enterprises were also occupied by members of the PT. More recently, the judiciary was also conquered after the departure of President Joaquim Barbosa because its presidents of the Supreme Court and top electoral court former members of PT. The victory of PT in the presidential elections of October 26 would close the maintenance of the Executive Branch. Possession of the Executive and the Judiciary, the Legislature would be entirely at the mercy of the PT. The conquest of the state by PT in Brazil would materialize in practice. From the foregoing, it can be stated that Brazil's future will be dictated by the hegemonic power of the PT and its allies if Dilma Rousseff win the next elections. Instead of putting into practice the Gramscian way of social emancipation, we instead have in Brazil playing the dictatorship exercised by the PRI party that controlled the political life of Mexico for 71 years, through the control of the state apparatus and a system based on corruption, forming the "Perfect Dictatorship" term used because the official party to have been sustained in power without punches preserving the elections and the multiparty system.
This document provides a summary of the final exam essay for a course on human beings and civilization. It discusses three main topics: 1) The relationship between new sense perception and political participation in the era of mechanical art reproduction. 2) The role of art in making alternatives or better democracy by connecting Aristotle and Plato's views of democracy. 3) How democratic political change is associated with alternative forms of capitalism in modern society. For each section, key ideas from referenced texts by Walter Benjamin and Karl Marx are discussed.
1. Marx viewed history as a struggle between social classes, primarily the haves and have-nots.
2. He believed society progressed through six stages: primitive communism, slave society, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and finally communism.
3. Under capitalism, the working class would become increasingly exploited and would eventually rise up in revolution to overthrow the capitalist system and establish socialism, setting the stage for a future communist society without social classes.
This document lists various concepts from history, science, politics, philosophy and more. It touches on ideas from prehistoric times through modern eras without additional context or explanation. The high-level concepts mentioned span developments in fields like writing, politics, economics, science, technology, society and culture over huge stretches of human history.
The document is an introduction to Frédéric Bastiat's essay "The Law". It provides background on Bastiat, a 19th century French economist, and his views on how the law has been perverted from its proper purpose of protecting individual rights to life, liberty, and property, into an instrument of legal plunder that is used to deprive citizens of their rights for the benefit of others, especially the state. It summarizes some of Bastiat's key arguments about the dangers of legal plunder and forecasts the negative societal effects that will result.
the domination of Euro-American capitalism and Eurocentric views in the social sciences.
History is marked by the growth of human productive capacity, and the forms that history produced for each separate society is a function of what was needed to maximize productive capacity.
This document summarizes an essay by Steven Best that argues for greater cooperation between the animal liberation movement and the political left. It provides background on the animal advocacy movement, including its origins in animal welfare and the emergence of animal rights and liberation philosophies. Best asserts that human and animal liberation are interrelated and the left could benefit from engaging with animal rights perspectives in working to end all forms of hierarchy, domination, and environmental destruction.
1. The document discusses the concepts of nature and domination from prehistory to modern capitalism. It argues that early domination of nature through agriculture introduced new social relationships and transformed societies.
2. Under capitalism, scientific and technological advances are driven by economic interests and often do not achieve their stated goals of helping society, instead further concentrating wealth among powerful nations.
3. Genetic engineering of crops like soybeans has increased yields but also created dependence on biotech companies by making seeds infertile after one harvest.
CAPE Sociology Marx theory of_population-1capesociology
Marx believed that population growth is tied to the economic system and the two cannot be separated. To Marx, poverty and unemployment were caused not by overpopulation itself, but by the failure of the capitalist system to provide enough jobs. Surplus population was the consequence of real production and the uneven distribution of wealth under capitalism. Marx also argued that under socialism, reproductive behavior would develop in full harmony with society. However, critics note that communist countries still saw the need to check population growth, contrary to Marx's assumptions, calling into question his view that economic inequality is the sole cause of differences in birth rates.
An English political theorist sought to create a science of politics and was influential in the politics of the Glorious Revolution in England. His most influential ideas were on government and natural rights. Later philosophers examined the questions he raised, influenced by Newton's discoveries and relating to his political ideas. The Enlightenment centered in France, where social critics and philosophers proposed reforms reacting against absolute monarchy and the divine right of kings. They also challenged nobility and clergy privileges and opposed censorship by church or government.
This document summarizes and analyzes a scholarly article about neoliberal multiculturalism in Central America. It provides context on three key topics:
1) How neoliberalism has expanded beyond economics to become a full political project promoting decentralization, limited human rights, and minimal democracy. It also emphasizes developing civil society and approaches to cultural rights.
2) How neoliberal multiculturalism shapes, delimits, and produces cultural difference rather than suppressing it. It induces groups to join the neoliberal project by carefully delimiting cultural rights.
3) The landmark Awas Tingni court case, where indigenous lawyers successfully argued for collective land rights based on an ancestral claim, setting a
This document discusses Marxism in cultural studies. It provides background on Karl Marx, noting that he was a German philosopher who studied law and philosophy. Due to his political publications, Marx lived in exile in London. The document then discusses some key aspects of Marxism, including that it is based on the ideas of Marx and Engels and focuses on issues like social inequality arising from industrialization, the emergence of the working class, economics, oppression based on wealth and access to privilege, and class conflict. It provides three examples to illustrate the three key points of Marxism: power, economic conditions, and class. It concludes that power is the main aspect among these three, as the other two depend on it.
Theory of Society by Karl marx, Mode of Production, Social Formation, Stages of history . very much helpful to the student to learn more about the Marx & his theory.
1. The document discusses the complex relationship between capitalism, religion, and science (including accounting) since the Enlightenment era.
2. It explores how Christianity and Islam have both accommodated and resisted capitalist social orders at different points in history.
3. The rise of calculative sciences like accounting are examined as sites of ideological struggle over Enlightenment ideals between religion and emerging modernist projects.
A Reading of Leslie Marmon Silko’s Almanac of the Dead as a Post-colonial Eco...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Since the turn of the twenty-first century a growing amount of scholarship has focused on the correlations between postcolonial studies and environmental criticism or eco-criticism. Despite the numerous ethical and political connections of global social justice and ecological crisis, postcolonial and eco-critical approaches have historically remained distant from one another. The emergence of postcolonial eco-criticism as a theoretical perspective much recently, however, has aimed to move beyond the mutual unease that has characterized the relationship of these two critical perspectives, formulating a more ecologically aware postcolonialism and a more politically conscious eco-criticism. Postcolonial Eco-criticism thus examines environment from an interdisciplinary point of view, where the very supremacy of the „human‟ over the „nonhuman‟ world is questioned; at the same time positing questions such as what precisely, is meant by the word „nature‟; and whether the examination of “place” should be a distinctive category, much like class, gender, or race which finds sufficient prominence in postcolonial studies. In keeping with this perspective, Leslie Marmon Silko‟s Almanac of the Dead, challenges the assumption that nature is merely a thing for humans to appropriate and misuse. In this novel Silko alludes to the history of Uranium mining and the widespread, indiscriminate effects of that industry—which informs the imperial occupations of forcefully acquiring of tribal lands and its subsequent misuse
Marxist feminism is a subtype of feminist ideology that focuses on dismantling capitalism as a way to liberate women. It believes that economic inequality, dependence, and unhealthy social relations between men and women stem from women's oppression under capitalism. Marxist feminism was developed by Engels and points out that capitalism plays a role in oppressing women, as Marxism sees individuals oppressed by dominant power structures.
Slideshow prepared for a series of lectures on Conservatism for PS 240 Intro to Political Theory at the University of Kentucky, Fall 2007. Dr. Christopher S. Rice, Lecturer.
Conservatism is difficult to define because conservatives value tradition over rigid ideology and focus more on opposing change than proposing solutions. Key conservative beliefs include respecting traditions that have stood the test of time, acknowledging human fallibility, favoring social order over individual liberty, and seeing society as a complex organic system not easily improved by human design. Conservative thought encompasses traditional support for hierarchy, authority, and private property as well as more libertarian support for free markets. Modern variants like neoconservatism emphasize restoring social discipline and traditional values.
Karl Marx was initially inspired by Hegel's philosophy but later rejected theology in favor of materialism. Marxism views society and history through the lens of economic classes and their conflicts. Marx and Engels believed capitalism would inevitably give way to socialism and then communism, with a stateless, classless society. George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four depicts a dystopian future that shows the negative outcomes Marx predicted could result from unchecked capitalism, such as a society divided into distinct social classes and total control by the ruling class. The novel is an example of how Marxism can be applied to literary analysis by viewing the work through the lens of class struggles and conflicts between the proletariat and bourgeoisie.
This document discusses why democratic socialism has failed to materialize despite attempts. It argues that the complex, hierarchical nature of industrial societies powered by fossil fuels is inherently resistant to bottom-up, democratic control and management. Multiple explanations are examined for why revolutions and reforms failed to establish worker-run socialism, but the most comprehensive is that large-scale industrialism is structurally incompatible with nationally confined economic democracy. History shows it fosters corporatist or statist systems rather than genuine democratic socialism.
Malthus's theory of population held that population grows exponentially while food production grows arithmetically, inevitably leading to famine unless checks on population growth occur. The theory was proposed by Thomas Malthus in 1798 based on observations of population growth in Western Europe. Malthus believed population would double every 25 years due to human desire for sex and prosperity, while food production could only increase incrementally through agriculture. This would cause periodic famines, wars, or disease that act as "positive checks" on population growth, or preventive methods like later marriages could act as "preventive checks". The theory was an early attempt to link population growth and economic and social factors but faced criticism for assumptions about constant growth rates and
This document provides an overview of Heathenry as a postcolonial movement. It discusses how Heathenry aims to revive the pre-Christian religions of northern Europe in response to Christianity's imperial expansion. The document also explores the relationship between Heathenry's focus on white racial identity and its claims of postcolonial stances against colonialism. While Heathenry adopts anti-colonial rhetoric to position itself as resisting Christianity, its emphasis on race is problematic and serves to justify racial inequalities by framing colonialism as in the past. The document analyzes debates in postcolonial theory regarding whether postcolonialism implies colonialism is over or recognizes its ongoing impacts.
1. Building and maintaining empires in India and China presented three main difficulties: controlling the aristocracy, standardizing territory, and establishing a stable system of taxation.
2. In India, the caste system posed challenges for control of aristocracy. Early emperors like Mahapadma and Chandragupta developed systems of direct taxation and public works but struggled to overcome the rigid social hierarchy.
3. In China, Confucian ideology prescribed that emperors rule benevolently and maintain the Mandate of Heaven by serving the people. However, determining the rightful emperor based on moral character was imperfect and led to instability.
This document discusses different economic systems including capitalism, socialism, and communism. It defines capitalism as a system based on private ownership and free markets where production is operated for profit. Socialism involves collective ownership of production resources with the goal of a more equal distribution of wealth. Communism is defined as a system where the government owns all property, is ruled by a single party that controls the economy, and aims for complete social and economic equality without social classes or money. Karl Marx is identified as a historian and philosopher who published the Communist Manifesto which outlined his theories of capitalism, class struggle, and the eventual establishment of communism through revolution.
This document is the Communist Manifesto written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It outlines the rise of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat in modern capitalist society. The bourgeoisie established new social classes and conditions of oppression through industrialization and the rise of capitalism. This created a division between the bourgeoisie who own private property and the means of production, and the proletariat who must work for wages. The Manifesto argues that a revolution is inevitable as the contradictions between the bourgeoisie and proletariat intensify.
The document discusses landslides in Bhutan. It argues that while landslides are naturally occurring phenomena in the Eastern Himalayas due to geological instability, human activities have exacerbated the frequency and intensity of landslides in Bhutan. The civil society's growth and deforestation for agriculture, grazing, and infrastructure development have contributed to increased landslides. Additionally, the despotic monarchy has failed to adequately address landslides through information gathering, mapping of risks, and management. Regional development has been uneven, with eastern and southern regions facing increased impacts of landslides due to lack of support from the state.
the domination of Euro-American capitalism and Eurocentric views in the social sciences.
History is marked by the growth of human productive capacity, and the forms that history produced for each separate society is a function of what was needed to maximize productive capacity.
This document summarizes an essay by Steven Best that argues for greater cooperation between the animal liberation movement and the political left. It provides background on the animal advocacy movement, including its origins in animal welfare and the emergence of animal rights and liberation philosophies. Best asserts that human and animal liberation are interrelated and the left could benefit from engaging with animal rights perspectives in working to end all forms of hierarchy, domination, and environmental destruction.
1. The document discusses the concepts of nature and domination from prehistory to modern capitalism. It argues that early domination of nature through agriculture introduced new social relationships and transformed societies.
2. Under capitalism, scientific and technological advances are driven by economic interests and often do not achieve their stated goals of helping society, instead further concentrating wealth among powerful nations.
3. Genetic engineering of crops like soybeans has increased yields but also created dependence on biotech companies by making seeds infertile after one harvest.
CAPE Sociology Marx theory of_population-1capesociology
Marx believed that population growth is tied to the economic system and the two cannot be separated. To Marx, poverty and unemployment were caused not by overpopulation itself, but by the failure of the capitalist system to provide enough jobs. Surplus population was the consequence of real production and the uneven distribution of wealth under capitalism. Marx also argued that under socialism, reproductive behavior would develop in full harmony with society. However, critics note that communist countries still saw the need to check population growth, contrary to Marx's assumptions, calling into question his view that economic inequality is the sole cause of differences in birth rates.
An English political theorist sought to create a science of politics and was influential in the politics of the Glorious Revolution in England. His most influential ideas were on government and natural rights. Later philosophers examined the questions he raised, influenced by Newton's discoveries and relating to his political ideas. The Enlightenment centered in France, where social critics and philosophers proposed reforms reacting against absolute monarchy and the divine right of kings. They also challenged nobility and clergy privileges and opposed censorship by church or government.
This document summarizes and analyzes a scholarly article about neoliberal multiculturalism in Central America. It provides context on three key topics:
1) How neoliberalism has expanded beyond economics to become a full political project promoting decentralization, limited human rights, and minimal democracy. It also emphasizes developing civil society and approaches to cultural rights.
2) How neoliberal multiculturalism shapes, delimits, and produces cultural difference rather than suppressing it. It induces groups to join the neoliberal project by carefully delimiting cultural rights.
3) The landmark Awas Tingni court case, where indigenous lawyers successfully argued for collective land rights based on an ancestral claim, setting a
This document discusses Marxism in cultural studies. It provides background on Karl Marx, noting that he was a German philosopher who studied law and philosophy. Due to his political publications, Marx lived in exile in London. The document then discusses some key aspects of Marxism, including that it is based on the ideas of Marx and Engels and focuses on issues like social inequality arising from industrialization, the emergence of the working class, economics, oppression based on wealth and access to privilege, and class conflict. It provides three examples to illustrate the three key points of Marxism: power, economic conditions, and class. It concludes that power is the main aspect among these three, as the other two depend on it.
Theory of Society by Karl marx, Mode of Production, Social Formation, Stages of history . very much helpful to the student to learn more about the Marx & his theory.
1. The document discusses the complex relationship between capitalism, religion, and science (including accounting) since the Enlightenment era.
2. It explores how Christianity and Islam have both accommodated and resisted capitalist social orders at different points in history.
3. The rise of calculative sciences like accounting are examined as sites of ideological struggle over Enlightenment ideals between religion and emerging modernist projects.
A Reading of Leslie Marmon Silko’s Almanac of the Dead as a Post-colonial Eco...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Since the turn of the twenty-first century a growing amount of scholarship has focused on the correlations between postcolonial studies and environmental criticism or eco-criticism. Despite the numerous ethical and political connections of global social justice and ecological crisis, postcolonial and eco-critical approaches have historically remained distant from one another. The emergence of postcolonial eco-criticism as a theoretical perspective much recently, however, has aimed to move beyond the mutual unease that has characterized the relationship of these two critical perspectives, formulating a more ecologically aware postcolonialism and a more politically conscious eco-criticism. Postcolonial Eco-criticism thus examines environment from an interdisciplinary point of view, where the very supremacy of the „human‟ over the „nonhuman‟ world is questioned; at the same time positing questions such as what precisely, is meant by the word „nature‟; and whether the examination of “place” should be a distinctive category, much like class, gender, or race which finds sufficient prominence in postcolonial studies. In keeping with this perspective, Leslie Marmon Silko‟s Almanac of the Dead, challenges the assumption that nature is merely a thing for humans to appropriate and misuse. In this novel Silko alludes to the history of Uranium mining and the widespread, indiscriminate effects of that industry—which informs the imperial occupations of forcefully acquiring of tribal lands and its subsequent misuse
Marxist feminism is a subtype of feminist ideology that focuses on dismantling capitalism as a way to liberate women. It believes that economic inequality, dependence, and unhealthy social relations between men and women stem from women's oppression under capitalism. Marxist feminism was developed by Engels and points out that capitalism plays a role in oppressing women, as Marxism sees individuals oppressed by dominant power structures.
Slideshow prepared for a series of lectures on Conservatism for PS 240 Intro to Political Theory at the University of Kentucky, Fall 2007. Dr. Christopher S. Rice, Lecturer.
Conservatism is difficult to define because conservatives value tradition over rigid ideology and focus more on opposing change than proposing solutions. Key conservative beliefs include respecting traditions that have stood the test of time, acknowledging human fallibility, favoring social order over individual liberty, and seeing society as a complex organic system not easily improved by human design. Conservative thought encompasses traditional support for hierarchy, authority, and private property as well as more libertarian support for free markets. Modern variants like neoconservatism emphasize restoring social discipline and traditional values.
Karl Marx was initially inspired by Hegel's philosophy but later rejected theology in favor of materialism. Marxism views society and history through the lens of economic classes and their conflicts. Marx and Engels believed capitalism would inevitably give way to socialism and then communism, with a stateless, classless society. George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four depicts a dystopian future that shows the negative outcomes Marx predicted could result from unchecked capitalism, such as a society divided into distinct social classes and total control by the ruling class. The novel is an example of how Marxism can be applied to literary analysis by viewing the work through the lens of class struggles and conflicts between the proletariat and bourgeoisie.
This document discusses why democratic socialism has failed to materialize despite attempts. It argues that the complex, hierarchical nature of industrial societies powered by fossil fuels is inherently resistant to bottom-up, democratic control and management. Multiple explanations are examined for why revolutions and reforms failed to establish worker-run socialism, but the most comprehensive is that large-scale industrialism is structurally incompatible with nationally confined economic democracy. History shows it fosters corporatist or statist systems rather than genuine democratic socialism.
Malthus's theory of population held that population grows exponentially while food production grows arithmetically, inevitably leading to famine unless checks on population growth occur. The theory was proposed by Thomas Malthus in 1798 based on observations of population growth in Western Europe. Malthus believed population would double every 25 years due to human desire for sex and prosperity, while food production could only increase incrementally through agriculture. This would cause periodic famines, wars, or disease that act as "positive checks" on population growth, or preventive methods like later marriages could act as "preventive checks". The theory was an early attempt to link population growth and economic and social factors but faced criticism for assumptions about constant growth rates and
This document provides an overview of Heathenry as a postcolonial movement. It discusses how Heathenry aims to revive the pre-Christian religions of northern Europe in response to Christianity's imperial expansion. The document also explores the relationship between Heathenry's focus on white racial identity and its claims of postcolonial stances against colonialism. While Heathenry adopts anti-colonial rhetoric to position itself as resisting Christianity, its emphasis on race is problematic and serves to justify racial inequalities by framing colonialism as in the past. The document analyzes debates in postcolonial theory regarding whether postcolonialism implies colonialism is over or recognizes its ongoing impacts.
1. Building and maintaining empires in India and China presented three main difficulties: controlling the aristocracy, standardizing territory, and establishing a stable system of taxation.
2. In India, the caste system posed challenges for control of aristocracy. Early emperors like Mahapadma and Chandragupta developed systems of direct taxation and public works but struggled to overcome the rigid social hierarchy.
3. In China, Confucian ideology prescribed that emperors rule benevolently and maintain the Mandate of Heaven by serving the people. However, determining the rightful emperor based on moral character was imperfect and led to instability.
This document discusses different economic systems including capitalism, socialism, and communism. It defines capitalism as a system based on private ownership and free markets where production is operated for profit. Socialism involves collective ownership of production resources with the goal of a more equal distribution of wealth. Communism is defined as a system where the government owns all property, is ruled by a single party that controls the economy, and aims for complete social and economic equality without social classes or money. Karl Marx is identified as a historian and philosopher who published the Communist Manifesto which outlined his theories of capitalism, class struggle, and the eventual establishment of communism through revolution.
This document is the Communist Manifesto written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It outlines the rise of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat in modern capitalist society. The bourgeoisie established new social classes and conditions of oppression through industrialization and the rise of capitalism. This created a division between the bourgeoisie who own private property and the means of production, and the proletariat who must work for wages. The Manifesto argues that a revolution is inevitable as the contradictions between the bourgeoisie and proletariat intensify.
The document discusses landslides in Bhutan. It argues that while landslides are naturally occurring phenomena in the Eastern Himalayas due to geological instability, human activities have exacerbated the frequency and intensity of landslides in Bhutan. The civil society's growth and deforestation for agriculture, grazing, and infrastructure development have contributed to increased landslides. Additionally, the despotic monarchy has failed to adequately address landslides through information gathering, mapping of risks, and management. Regional development has been uneven, with eastern and southern regions facing increased impacts of landslides due to lack of support from the state.
WWBD is a proposed barter marketplace that would allow users to trade goods and services without money. It aims to help college students trade used textbooks between semesters. The site would match users based on location, items for trade, and interests to facilitate direct messaging and secure trades. The initial target is college students but the goal is to expand to the broader community. Key challenges include attracting an initial user base large enough for viable trades and restricting certain goods from the marketplace.
Pratikum ini memperkenalkan penggunaan PowerPoint 2007 untuk membuat presentasi. PowerPoint dapat digunakan untuk menyampaikan informasi secara efektif dengan menambahkan gambar, teks, dan efek. Presentasi yang menggunakan media menjadi lebih menarik dan interaktif serta mempermudah penyampaian informasi kepada audiens.
Este documento describe los pasos para explorar a un paciente con heridas. La exploración incluye inspeccionar la cabeza, ojos, boca, tórax, abdomen, extremidades y herida, evaluando signos de hemorragia, dolor, deformidad u otras lesiones asociadas. La valoración de la herida implica observar la presencia de cuerpos extraños y las características de la piel circundante y el tejido subyacente para determinar el grado de compromiso tisular.
Dokumen tersebut memberikan penjelasan singkat tentang penggunaan PowerPoint 2007 untuk presentasi. PowerPoint 2007 memudahkan pengguna dalam membuat animasi slide dan teks, serta dapat menyimpan catatan dalam dokumen, outline, atau notes page. Presentasi yang menggunakan media memberikan kemudahan dalam memperjelas informasi secara interaktif dan tidak monoton.
Deonte Peterson has completed the Cisco CCNA Routing and Switching: Scaling Networks course and earned a Certificate of Completion. The course prepared him with skills in configuring and troubleshooting technologies like VLANs, RSTP, OSPF, EIGRP, wireless networks, and Cisco IOS software licensing. John T. Chambers, CEO of Cisco Systems, congratulated Peterson on gaining the technological literacy needed to build and maintain computer networks.
Este documento presenta los principios y el proceso del microanálisis de evidencias en investigaciones criminales. Explica siete principios de la criminalística como el uso de agentes, producción de elementos, intercambio de indicios, correspondencia de características, reconstrucción de hechos, probabilidad y certeza. Luego describe el microanálisis como el estudio minucioso de muestras a través de métodos científicos para obtener resultados forenses. Finalmente explica cómo las áreas de química, biología y f
Dokumen tersebut merupakan presentasi tentang pengenalan penggunaan PowerPoint 2007. Presentasi ini menjelaskan beberapa fitur dasar PowerPoint seperti animasi slide teks dan mudahnya membuat dokumen. Presentasi juga dapat disimpan dalam berbagai format seperti file PowerPoint, Outline, atau Notes Page.
mitre 90 degree gearbox 1:1 ratio, gear boxs 90 degrees angle, small 90 degree gearbox 3/4" input shaft, 3/4 inch shaft gearbox, 1 inch shaft to transmission gearbox Input power from 0.1 Kw to 157 Kw. Transmission torque from 10 Nm to 1840 Nm. 1:1 ratio, 1.5:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1 gear reduction ratios, custom speed increaser 1:1.5, 1:2, 1:2.5, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5 gear increasing ratio. Input and output speed from 10 rpm to 1500 rpm, custom higher speed 2000 rpm, 3000 rpm. High efficiency from 95% to 98%. Input and output shaft diameter from 12 mm to 60 mm. 12 types input and output shaft arrangements and rotation directions, shafts can be rotated clockwise and counterclockwise rotation directions. Solid shaft, hollow shaft and flange adapter are suitable, custom multiple spine keys. Horizontal mounting, overhung mounting or wall mounting are suitable. Two way gear box, three way gear box, four way gear box and five way gear box are suitable. Low backlash, quiet running, low temperature, high torque features. Application in printing press, rollforming machines, plastic extruder, sewage auger, bonding equipment, metering auger, sewage agitator, newspaper conveyor, bottling equipment, material handling, web finishing, paper conveying, conveyor, cardboard box equipment, packaging, vertical pump drive, sand spreader, residential mower, snow blower, mining equipment, crane, agricultural, grain wagon, harvester, forage harvester, manure spreader, fertilizer spreader and sewage conveyor etc.
Anay Property Ventures Pvt. Ltd. provides real estate consultancy services and deals in industrial properties in Pune, India. Founded in 2007 under the leadership of Venkatesh Patil, the company has attained success through its unparalleled services such as property buying, selling, leasing, and renting. It also assists clients in obtaining necessary licenses and permissions for industrial projects. The company works with major international clients across various industries.
El documento presenta información sobre el currículo nacional de educación básica en Perú. Describe los objetivos y fines de la educación básica peruana, así como los principios psicopedagógicos y propósitos de la educación básica hasta el 2021. También define las características deseables de los egresados y cómo se deben trabajar los temas transversales en las instituciones educativas.
Este poema de tres oraciones describe a la Virgen María como la más bella de todas las criaturas. Compara su belleza a la luna, las estrellas y las flores, pero dice que nada en la tierra o el cielo puede igualar su pureza y encanto. El poema expresa la devoción del autor hacia la Virgencita Incomparable.
3 lessons i learned from building a killer start upHervé Vũ Roussel
The document outlines 3 key lessons the author learned from building a startup: 1) Validate product-market fit through an MVP to measure user engagement. The author's MVP was a shared kiosk pilot at 3 nursing homes. 2) Pivot to simplify overloaded features and focus on a dead simple product. 3) Understand your target market through ideal customer personas to enable sustainable growth. The author applied these lessons to create Linked Senior, a digital engagement platform for nursing home residents that validated engagement, focused on simplicity, and served users' needs.
The document discusses the Enlightenment era and several Enlightenment thinkers. It notes that the Enlightenment stressed reason and the power of individuals to solve problems. It discusses how Enlightenment thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau approached their goals differently due to their backgrounds and environments. While some of their ideas are not used today, they were instrumental in shaping modern society. Baron de Montesquieu in particular helped shape the United States. The document also notes how Enlightenment thinkers challenged authority by speaking their minds and instigating change, despite facing persecution for their views.
Our subject is political authority, the authority rightfully due a state. So to begin, let's define "state."
state - an organization with an effective monopoly on the legal use of force in a given geographic area.
This definition is from Max Weber, who put it thusly: "A state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory." Having this relatively sharp definition of "state" at our disposal, we can better understand and evaluate historic anarchist thought. We are at an advantage over even luminaries like Proudhon and Spooner, in that we have more experience with the modern state, an institutional analysis of the state, and new reasons to distrust and hate the state. We can stand on the shoulders of anti-statist theorists like Tucker, Nock and Rothbard, leverage our greater understanding of economics, and discover new wisdom and new understanding.
Anti-statists tend to see society and state as inherently opposing institutions. Society is the sum total of all voluntary human interaction. Aggression (the violation of rights, the initiation of force or threat of it) is morally wrong. The state is aggression legalized and legitimized. Anti-statist assertions:
1. Legitimacy - No state has legitimate moral authority to rule an individual. 2. Desirability - All states are unnecessary and undesirable. 3. Purity - All states should be abolished immediately.
The political philosophy that supports all three anti-statist assertions is called "anarchism." Prior to the late 1700's, known anarchist writings were negative, purely a critique of the institution of state. They did not offer a positive alternative. An eloquent example is Vindication of Natural Society by Edmund Burke. Burke stresses that natural society - without artificial government - couldn't possibly be worse than the known bloody and tyrannical history of states. He shows how states fail, and the undesirability of states, but offers no positive vision of a stateless society. Modern anarchists have ideas about how such a society would be organized and brought about. Thus, for full-fledged anarchists there is an additional consideration: How a stateless society may work.
This document provides a summary of a paper titled "Human rights Between theory and Practice" presented by Abdelhamied El-Rafie. The paper discusses the theoretical background of human rights, the international organizational system for human rights, and whether human rights are politicized in practice. It begins with an introduction outlining the questions and hypothesis. Part 1 then discusses the historical and theoretical background of human rights in depth, tracing the philosophical origins and debates around natural rights from thinkers like Aquinas, Grotius, Hobbes, Kant, Locke, Rousseau, Marx and others. It examines the differing views around whether rights are inherent to human nature or created by societies, and questions whether human rights are truly
Human rights have their origins in philosophical debates over moral standards of political organization that are independent of contemporary societies. The paper discusses the historical development of theories of natural rights from Greek philosophers to modern theorists. It traces the shift from divine justifications of natural rights to secular, humanist rationales and the ongoing debates over whether rights are created by societies or exist independently. The paper aims to analyze the theoretical background of human rights and examine whether they are politicized in practice given the international human rights system and geopolitical balances of power.
This document discusses Quesnay and the analysis of surplus in an agrarian capitalist economy. It provides historical context on Quesnay and the Physiocrats, explaining that Quesnay's system described a truly capitalist agrarian economy in France. It analyzes the Physiocratic division of society into three classes and argues that Quesnay was a pioneer in analyzing the physical surplus of grains as the basis for distribution of income and relative prices, establishing him within the classical political economy tradition.
The document discusses key ideas and thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century. Philosophes such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu applied reason and scientific thinking to critique society and propose new forms of government. They advocated for natural rights, limited government, separation of powers, and democracy. As a result of Enlightenment thought, people began questioning authority and the stage was set for revolution.
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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN ISLAM AND UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUM...Kristen Carter
This document provides a comparative study of human rights in Islam and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It summarizes the key events in the development of human rights concepts in Western thought, including the French Revolution, Napoleon's rule, and industrialization leading up to the 1948 adoption of the UDHR. It also outlines the historical oppression faced in pre-Islamic Arabia and how Prophet Muhammad established a society based on universal brotherhood, dignity, and peaceful coexistence after his prophethood in 610 CE. The aim is to highlight the importance of human rights in both Islamic and contemporary global perspectives.
Week 6, Reading Section 6.1 IntroductionIntroductionAs you wi.docxcockekeshia
Week 6, Reading Section 6.1: Introduction
Introduction
As you will recall, from Week 3, the Plagues of the Fourteenth Century had disastrous effects on Europe. Many of today’s developments can be traced as having their root, causative factors in that Century. There were two others: the Protestant Reformation of the Sixteenth Century and successive Religious Wars, culminating in the Thirty Years War, 1618-48 and the English Civil War, 1642-48. In the wake of these events, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, respectively, Philosophers began to question all the presuppositions of Life.
You are about to encounter another such development, which grew from this questioning: Social Contract Theory.
Resource: Social Contract Theory [PDF]
Up to the times of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, few, if anyone, in Europe, questioned the origins of Society and the State. The prevailing theory was Aristotle’s, as it had been imported into Western Christianity, by Thomas Aquinas. This theory said that human beings were “Social Animals.” The underlying interpretation of that position is that human society is a given of human existence and has always been that way.
Week 6, Reading Section 6.2: Thomas Hobbes and John Locke
II. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke
The questions that Social Contract theorists, starting with Thomas Hobbes and continuing with John Locke, asked were: What were the origins of Society? What makes a “good” form of society? How does the State (meaning “government”) come into being?
Both Hobbes and Locke started from what they called the “State of Nature,” a wilderness, where all “men” (Hobbes speaks only of “men”; one wonders from whence he believed “men” came, without mention of women;) begin, having absolute rights and equality. Put another way, if one “man” encountered another, and a conflict arose about a resource, like food, came about, the right to kill would, regrettably, still be available to both. Fortunately, it occurred to our species that that was a lousy way to run a planet. Thus, the idea of “forming society” by “social contracts” occurred to someone. That was the moment that human beings left “the State of Nature,” and founded Society (a/k/a “Civil Society”).
A. Hobbes
Resource: End-of-Life Decisions [PDF]
Hobbes, being a friend and confidant of the Stuart Family, was a monarchist, and presupposed the existence of a “Sovereign.” In The Leviathan, Hobbes suggested that, in forming the Civil Society, people had to surrender their rights, in exchange for two things: (1) protection from each other, and (2) protection from outside threats. The question was: to what or whom did they have to surrender those rights? Hobbes’ answer was “the Sovereign,” a/k/a “the Leviathan,” an allusion to a mythical sea creature. What Hobbes meant was that “the Sovereign,” was the English Monarchy. The Stuart Family at the time, sat on the unified Throne of England, Wales, and Scotland at the time.
Resource: Thomas Hobbes: Moral and Political .
The document discusses the history of values in Europe and the shift between theocentric and humanistic worldviews. It traces the development of key European values like freedom, equality, rule of law, and democracy from ancient Greece to modern times. The values arose gradually through steps like developing humanistic thinking in antiquity, embracing rationality in the Enlightenment, establishing secularity through separation of church and state, and recognizing universal human rights in the 20th century. However, these values have faced threats throughout history from reversions to more theocentric views, and their preservation depends on continued advocacy today.
Spring 2010, History 332 (Dangerous Ideas) - Jansenist "Conspiracies"Stephen Cheng
The document discusses how the Jansenism controversy contributed to the erosion of absolute royal authority in France. Jansenists used print media like the Nouvelles ecclesiastiques to criticize the Jesuits and lack of transparency in government and religious decision making. This called for more accountability and democratic power, threatening the monarchy and Catholic Church. In response, the pope issued a bull condemning Jansenist theology, further inflaming tensions over foreign meddling in French affairs. The controversy challenged absolutism and foreshadowed ideals of the French Revolution.
Thomas Paine’s Dethronement of Hereditary Succession, For The Reign Of Popula...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: In Thomas Paine's view, hereditary succession is a hindrance to the establishment of a politics
that, respects the people. Paine criticizes hereditary succession because it is an obstacle to, freedom, justice and
as well the development of the people. His thinking invites reflection on the foundations of power and the origin
of authority, as well as on the role and place of government in political life. He seeks to limit the power of the
monarch in favor of a government, based on the reason and informed consent of citizens. However, an analytical
and critical approach shows that his vision has significant limitations, notably that of, underestimating the role
that, government can play in protecting individual rights and freedoms. Instead of thinking about limiting
government, this article proposes a reformation that can minimize abuses of power and inequalities. Thus, for
legitimate and effective governance, citizen participation, and accountability are crucial elements.
Keywords: freedom, government limitation, hereditary succession, justice, State.
Loneliness In Of Mice and Men - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. of Mice and men Loneliness Essay | Essay on of Mice and men Loneliness .... Loneliness in "Of Mice and Men." - A-Level English - Marked by Teachers.com. Of Mice and Men - Loneliness - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. Loneliness Theme in 'Of Mice and Men' Free Essay Example. 'Of Mice and Men' Loneliness and Outsiders - GCSE English - Marked by .... Of Mice and Men- Loneliness in Chapter 1 and 2 - GCSE English - Marked .... Loneliness In Of Mice And Men Essay Example - PHDessay.com. Loneliness in Of Mice and Men - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. Of mice and men loneliness and isolation essays. The theme of loneliness in of mice and men. - GCSE English - Marked by .... RELATIONSHIPS AND LONELINESS IN "OF MICE AND MEN" - GCSE English .... Of Mice and Men: Loneliness Video Essay - YouTube. Of Mice and Men Loneliness - Free Essay Examples. Of Mice & Men - Essay - Lonely Characters Discussion - GCSE English .... Loneliness and Isolation in “Of mice and Men” - Presentation English .... Of Mice and Men is a study of loneliness - Discuss. - GCSE English .... The theme of loneliness in his novel 'Of Mice and Men' Essay - Free .... Of Mice and Men Essay - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. ⇉Loneliness in 'of Mice and Men' Essay Example | GraduateWay. Of mice and men loneliness essay conclusion. Loneliness and Isolation Essay - Of Mice And Men - [PDF Document]. ⚡ Of mice and men loneliness essay. An Analysis of Loneliness in of .... Help me do my essay consider the theme of loneliness in 'of mice and ....
Review of History of Economic Thought chapter-3 'The Founders of Political E...Ruby Med Plus
1. This document provides a review and summary of Chapter 3 from Eric Roll's 1938 book "A History of Economic Thought", which focuses on the founders of political economy in the 18th century.
2. It discusses the works and ideas of key thinkers from this era, including Machiavelli, Bodin, Bacon, Hobbes, Petty, Locke, North, Law, Hume, Cantillon, Steuart, and the Physiocrats like Quesnay and Turgot.
3. The review analyzes three streams of thought during this period: 1) The philosophical development of economic thought, 2) The progress of English economic thought from mercantilism, and 3) The
The document discusses the emergence and development of sociology. It traces the roots of sociological understanding back to ancient Greek and Roman literature. However, sociology emerged as a systematic study of society in the West. Significant figures in the development of sociology include Saint-Simon, Comte, and Durkheim. Saint-Simon advocated studying society scientifically like the natural sciences. Comte coined the term "sociology" and emphasized discovering social laws through observation and experimentation. He believed sociology would be the most complex science. The industrial revolution and changes in society led these early theorists to examine social problems and establish sociology as a means to study and reform society.
The document discusses theories of city-states and nation-states. It begins by explaining that early Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle developed political theories while reflecting on the institution of the city-state, establishing foundations for modern democratic societies. Block one examines the theory of the city-state, noting they were different but similar forms of political community compared to modern nation-states. Block two then analyzes the emergence of nation-states in Europe and the development of social contract theory by philosophers like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau to justify the authority of the new secular nation-states.
Affirmative Sabotage Of The Master S Tools The Paradox Of Postcolonial Enlig...Rick Vogel
This document provides an introduction to a volume that examines the contradictory consequences of the Enlightenment for the postcolonial world. It discusses how the Enlightenment ideals of equality, rights, and rationality inspired emancipatory movements but also brought colonialism, slavery, and crimes against humanity. The volume aims to conceptually reposition the Enlightenment's role in decolonization processes while addressing its enduring economic, cultural, social, and political consequences. It explores tensions between viewing Enlightenment concepts as coercive expressions of power versus retaining them as aspirational ideals to critically assess practices and foster transformations.
How Did The Enlightenment Philosophies Influence Modern Political ThoughtMartin Mongiello
The enlightenment philosophies of freedom, democracy, reason, and separation of church and state greatly influenced modern political thought. These ideas challenged traditional systems of monarchy, aristocracy, and religious authority. Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Adams, Hume, and Jefferson promoted natural rights, consent of the governed, and prioritized human reason over tradition and divine right. Their ideas shaped the American and French Revolutions and continue to underpin democratic systems today.
Similar to The agrarian justice a long journey (20)
The document discusses the concept of economic rationality as the principal postulate of neoclassical economics. It states that economic rationality assumes individuals act to maximize their utility, subject to constraints. The document provides an in-depth elaboration of economic rationality, discussing its significance as foundational to utilitarianism and libertarianism. It also examines applications of rationality in development economics and other fields that assume individuals act rationally to maximize their interests.
This document provides an overview of tribal economies in Assam, Northeast India. It discusses 5 models that have been used to represent tribal economies in the region:
1. The region is described as remote, practicing mono-cropping of rice, and experiencing population diaspora.
2. Tribal communities rely on common property resources and collective labor pools. Land and resources are owned communally rather than privately.
3. Shifting cultivation (jhumming) has historically been the dominant form of agriculture, though some sedentary farming also exists.
4. Systems of reciprocity and redistribution fulfilled community needs. Occasional long-distance trade also occurred through trans-Himalayan networks
The document discusses state and civil resistance in Bhutan. It makes three key points:
1) The Bhutanese state promotes a monolithic conception of nation that underplays cultural plurality. It forces a single official history, culture and language on the diverse population. This has led to social resistance among minority groups.
2) The state uses medieval institutions like Driglam Namjha and Tsa-Wa-Sum to maintain social hierarchy and strengthen its control over civil society. These institutions codify strict social etiquette and servitude that subordinates the masses to the ruling elite.
3) The state's nationalist ideology and invented cultural traditions have resulted in the violation of human rights. This has spurred organized resistance like the
1. The document discusses the conceptualization of agricultural production functions and argues that there is not a single, uniform production function for agriculture. Due to the differentiated nature of peasantry with unequal access to resources, it is more accurate to conceptualize a hierarchy of production functions rather than a single aggregate function.
2. It presents the standard neoclassical model of a production function which assumes profit-maximization and a uniform technology. However, it argues this oversimplifies the complex realities of agricultural production for differentiated peasants who may prioritize debt repayment over profits.
3. The document proposes estimating separate production functions for different peasant classes through regression analysis of farm-level data from Purnia, India to empirically test
1) The document discusses resource asymmetry and food deficit in Bhutan, particularly between its eastern and western regions. The eastern region has more agricultural land and cattle while the western region has more forest, horticulture land, labor, and machinery-owning households.
2) There is also asymmetry between villages and households within each region. The eastern region has more land for maize cultivation while the western region has more land for rice and wheat.
3) Bhutan has struggled with agrarian justice for a long time under its absolute monarchy system until 2007. Achieving equity in income, resources, and assets is important for alleviating poverty in Bhutan's agricultural economy as it transitions to democracy and commercialization.
1. Bhutan has faced high levels of poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, and income/food insecurity due to its reliance on agriculture and lack of skilled human resources. Economic growth has not benefited marginalized groups.
2. The development of quantitative data and planning capabilities started slowly in Bhutan in the 1960s. Gross domestic and national product estimates were not compiled until 1980, hampering development planning.
3. While infrastructure and social services were prioritized early on, explicit goals around economic growth and income increases were not adopted until the 1980s. Developing human resources is now seen as key to boosting productivity and reducing poverty in Bhutan.
This document discusses rational agency and moral practice from the perspective of philosophical psychology. It argues that while rationality and morality are often linked in philosophical theories, real-world observations show frequent instances of goal neglect, apathy, and impulsivity that undermine moral practices. These deviations may be explained by constraints on agency arising from brain malfunctions like lesions in the prefrontal cortex or irregularities in brain circuits controlling impulses and reward processing. The document examines these "dual constraints" as challenges to theories linking universal rationality and morality, and argues philosophical psychology can help account for divergences between reason and moral behavior resulting from issues of brain health, cognition, and environmental information.
This document summarizes the history of migration from the rural Bihar region of India. It discusses both colonial-era forced migration as well as post-colonial voluntary migration in the 19th and 20th centuries. During the colonial period, a large number of Bihari laborers were forcibly migrated as indentured workers to other British colonies. Within India, Biharis migrated to work on rice and jute plantations in Bengal. In the post-colonial period, Bihar continued to experience large-scale voluntary migration to other states like Punjab due to better wages and employment opportunities in agriculture and other odd jobs. Higher earnings potential induced Biharis to accept lower wage work elsewhere.
1. In Bhutan, economic growth and measuring national income were not priorities until the 1960s when the country began pursuing independent national development programs and policies.
2. The first estimates of gross national product and gross domestic product were not compiled until 1980. Measurement of economic growth through national income aggregates began in the late 1980s.
3. Historically, Bhutan had a largely agricultural economy. While some agricultural surplus was traded regionally, most production was consumed locally. The extent of trade and Bhutan's overall national income in the past are not well documented or estimated.
Global capitalism is penetrating the agricultural sector in South Asia through international organizations and private corporations. This has led to a tripartite conflict between rural populations/domestic movements, international institutions, and nation-states in South Asia over control of the agricultural landscape. Small farmers make up most of the rural population but have very little land and resources. Both domestic movements and international NGOs are advocating for agrarian justice and fighting against practices that harm agriculture. Nation-states want to maintain autonomy and their role in rural areas, which is increasingly difficult in a globalized system dominated by large international actors. The future of nation-state control over agriculture in South Asia is unclear as globalization increases the power of these outside forces.
1. The document discusses the conceptualization of agricultural production functions and argues that there is not a single, uniform production function for agriculture. Due to the differentiated nature of peasantry with unequal access to resources, it is more accurate to conceptualize a hierarchy of production functions rather than a single aggregate function.
2. It presents the standard neoclassical model of agricultural production which assumes profit-maximization and a given production technology. However, it argues this oversimplifies the complex realities of agricultural production for differentiated peasants who may prioritize debt repayment over profits.
3. It proposes a regression analysis of agricultural production for a district in India to test the hypothesis that there is a hierarchy of production functions for different peasant classes
1) The document discusses resource asymmetry and food deficit in Bhutan, particularly between its eastern and western regions. The eastern region has more agricultural land and cattle while the western region has more forest, pasture land, and rural labor.
2) There is also disparity in land and livestock ownership within regions and between households. Small farmers own most of the land while a minority of wealthy herders own most livestock.
3) The eastern region grows more maize while the western region grows more rice. Overall, Bhutan faces shortages of agricultural resources like land and labor as well as food insecurity.
How to Get CNIC Information System with Paksim Ga.pptxdanishmna97
Pakdata Cf is a groundbreaking system designed to streamline and facilitate access to CNIC information. This innovative platform leverages advanced technology to provide users with efficient and secure access to their CNIC details.
AI 101: An Introduction to the Basics and Impact of Artificial IntelligenceIndexBug
Imagine a world where machines not only perform tasks but also learn, adapt, and make decisions. This is the promise of Artificial Intelligence (AI), a technology that's not just enhancing our lives but revolutionizing entire industries.
Cosa hanno in comune un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ?Speck&Tech
ABSTRACT: A prima vista, un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ potrebbero avere in comune il fatto di essere entrambi blocchi di costruzione, o dipendenze di progetti creativi e software. La realtà è che un mattoncino Lego e il caso della backdoor XZ hanno molto di più di tutto ciò in comune.
Partecipate alla presentazione per immergervi in una storia di interoperabilità, standard e formati aperti, per poi discutere del ruolo importante che i contributori hanno in una comunità open source sostenibile.
BIO: Sostenitrice del software libero e dei formati standard e aperti. È stata un membro attivo dei progetti Fedora e openSUSE e ha co-fondato l'Associazione LibreItalia dove è stata coinvolta in diversi eventi, migrazioni e formazione relativi a LibreOffice. In precedenza ha lavorato a migrazioni e corsi di formazione su LibreOffice per diverse amministrazioni pubbliche e privati. Da gennaio 2020 lavora in SUSE come Software Release Engineer per Uyuni e SUSE Manager e quando non segue la sua passione per i computer e per Geeko coltiva la sua curiosità per l'astronomia (da cui deriva il suo nickname deneb_alpha).
“An Outlook of the Ongoing and Future Relationship between Blockchain Technologies and Process-aware Information Systems.” Invited talk at the joint workshop on Blockchain for Information Systems (BC4IS) and Blockchain for Trusted Data Sharing (B4TDS), co-located with with the 36th International Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering (CAiSE), 3 June 2024, Limassol, Cyprus.
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
Dr. Sean Tan, Head of Data Science, Changi Airport Group
Discover how Changi Airport Group (CAG) leverages graph technologies and generative AI to revolutionize their search capabilities. This session delves into the unique search needs of CAG’s diverse passengers and customers, showcasing how graph data structures enhance the accuracy and relevance of AI-generated search results, mitigating the risk of “hallucinations” and improving the overall customer journey.
Pushing the limits of ePRTC: 100ns holdover for 100 daysAdtran
At WSTS 2024, Alon Stern explored the topic of parametric holdover and explained how recent research findings can be implemented in real-world PNT networks to achieve 100 nanoseconds of accuracy for up to 100 days.
Sudheer Mechineni, Head of Application Frameworks, Standard Chartered Bank
Discover how Standard Chartered Bank harnessed the power of Neo4j to transform complex data access challenges into a dynamic, scalable graph database solution. This keynote will cover their journey from initial adoption to deploying a fully automated, enterprise-grade causal cluster, highlighting key strategies for modelling organisational changes and ensuring robust disaster recovery. Learn how these innovations have not only enhanced Standard Chartered Bank’s data infrastructure but also positioned them as pioneers in the banking sector’s adoption of graph technology.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 6DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 6. In this session, we will cover Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI webinar offers an in-depth exploration of leveraging cutting-edge technologies for test automation within the UiPath platform. Attendees will delve into the integration of generative AI, a test automation solution, with Open AI advanced natural language processing capabilities.
Throughout the session, participants will discover how this synergy empowers testers to automate repetitive tasks, enhance testing accuracy, and expedite the software testing life cycle. Topics covered include the seamless integration process, practical use cases, and the benefits of harnessing AI-driven automation for UiPath testing initiatives. By attending this webinar, testers, and automation professionals can gain valuable insights into harnessing the power of AI to optimize their test automation workflows within the UiPath ecosystem, ultimately driving efficiency and quality in software development processes.
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into integrating generative AI.
2. Understanding how this integration enhances test automation within the UiPath platform
3. Practical demonstrations
4. Exploration of real-world use cases illustrating the benefits of AI-driven test automation for UiPath
Topics covered:
What is generative AI
Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath integration with generative AI
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Climate Impact of Software Testing at Nordic Testing DaysKari Kakkonen
My slides at Nordic Testing Days 6.6.2024
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The agrarian justice a long journey
1. The Agrarian Justice
The Agrarian Justice: A Long Journey 1
Abstract
In the realm of population opinion, the problem of agrarian justice had been raised
systematically as an issue by Thomas Paine way back towards the close of eighteenth
century in the Europe and America. The Paineian ideas did not however constitute a
theoretical rigorous model on the concept of justice. It was moreover confined to the
issue of distribution of land only. In the theoretical economics, which developed
towards the close of nineteenth century, the dominant concept has been that of the
Pareto optimality as the chosen criterion of judging the worthwhile of an activity. There
has been no separate and distinct conception of justice. In the mainstream economics,
the subject of justice is today simply reduced to be the problem of attainment of
economic efficiency in terms of Pareto optimality on the part of an individual economic
agent, who is a party to exchange in a competitive market of a free world. The
agricultural sector of economic activity is treated as no exception in this world-view.
The agrarian justice is merely a subset of justice in the economic realm. In the recent
literature, there are however alternative concepts of justice, and specific treatment given
to the theme in general. These are undoubtedly characterized by the conceptual tensions
and theoretical debates surrounding it. It is nonetheless arguable that the new horizons
are worth visiting. The comparison between the ideas of John Rawls and John Roemer
in the context of contemporary demands for agrarian justice is worth undertaking to
strike on the new horizons on the theme of justice. The journey is long but worth
treading upon to gain further insight.
Key Words: justice, equity, distribution, agrarianism, Pareto optimality, efficiency, John
Rawls, John Roemer, political economy, utilitarianism
Prologue
A civilized and moral economic agent has unfailingly been concerned about justice
rather specifically. The impersonality in judgment, fairness in deals and impartiality in outcomes
has continuously been the passionate concern for many. There is a history of centuries of
efforts and a concomitant history of pervasive failures in this endeavor across the epochs of
civilization. The countryside has been no exception in this regard. In the realm of ‘subsistence
goods’, the problem of agrarian justice had been raised systematically as an issue by Thomas
Paine way back towards the close of eighteenth century in the Europe and America. The
Paineian ideas did not however constitute a theoretical rigorous model on the concept of justice.
Despite these lacunae, it had nonetheless motivated a number of theoreticians down the ages to
devote themselves to the enquiry on the theme of justice in the countryside. The Paineian
proposal was important as being a precursor of the single-tax movement, which was
popularized a century later again by Henry George in his “Progress and Poverty”. Agrarian
justice has thus been a battle cry of the advocates of land reforms for a long time. The irony is
1
It was originally published in the Assam University Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 2007, with an extended title.
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2. The Agrarian Justice
this that the concept associated with it has been just narrow enough to include merely the
concerns with the distribution of land in the countryside.
Gone are the days of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, however. In the twentieth century
and continuing to the new millennium, there is resurgence of interests in the concept of justice
in all the camps of thought. This is not to undermine the fat that there are significant departures
from the accepted verdicts on the theme of justice in the contemporary literature. There are
modern specific contributions of Richard Hare and Jack Harsanyi in the utilitarian camp, and
Robert Nozick in the libertarian setting. There is also John Rawls on the liberal platform. There
is John Roemer on the socialist podium. In other words, there are undoubtedly new horizons
emerging in the field. An impartial assessment would be a pointer to statements that these are
in the nature of contribution to the new economics of agrarian justice but the debates are not
wholly settled. Recently, the issues of just distribution of food and ensuring food security in
general have become an important consideration. The activists on the front of environment and
ecology have also joined the bandwagon of justice proponents recently on the matter of
distribution of seeds and both underground and surface water in the countryside. All in all, the
arguments have not only centered that agrarian justice is a precondition of economic growth but
rather a direct demand for instituting egalitarian distribution of resources and commodity have
been made for the sake of justice having an intrinsic value in the life of human beings. In the
actual world, the attainment of justice in matter of land distribution, water uses and food
entitlement has not been however an easy task.
In what follows is simply this. It is argued presently that there are conceptions of justice beyond
the moral philosophy and normative economics shared by the frameworks of utilitarianism and
libertarianism. These new horizons are worth visiting. The chapter is divided into three principal
sections. The political economy of agrarian justice, the mainstream economics of justice and the
contemporary theorizing on justice under the framework of ideas of the liberal philosophy of
John Rawls and the analytical Marxian economics of John Roemer are dealt in these sections.
The conclusion follows at the last with a view to compare the ideas of the two giants in the
context of contemporary demands for agrarian justice.
1. Political Economy of Justice
In retrospect, there is a tradition that harks back to the analysis in Book VII of
Aristotle’s Politics. In this tradition, the “goods of the body” (subsistence goods), “amenities”
(convenience and luxury goods) and “psychic goods” (goods of the soul or mind) are
distinguished from each other. It is asserted that these goods are desired in an ordinal sequence
with each successive level becoming important after the preceding level is satisfied. Under such
framework of analysis, the agrarian household provides the goods of first level, which is related
with the basic production and consumption unit in the subsistence agriculture. The artisans and
merchants, who thrive on strength of the specialization and village exchanges in the rural-urban
continuum, provide the amenities of second level. The third level however reflects the desires of
a healthy citizen, who is not drawn into the debauchery and self-indulgence. Such a person finds
the honors and status associated with the public service and statesmanship combined with
mental and ethical self-improvement to be the rewarding life of a “friend of wisdom”, a
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3. The Agrarian Justice
philosopher (Lowry, 1999). The classical conception of justice as it stands in this tradition is to
be achieved in matter of all these goods produced at various levels in the society. In the
Aristotelian tradition, there are thus two kinds of emphasis attached with the conception of
justice: one, the fulfillment of material needs and attainment of personal endowments of the
agents; second, the satisfaction of personal subjective values of individuals with regard to the
human interaction in the society. Justice is in essence a virtue of individuals in the polis (a citystate).
In the post-Aristotelian European Enlightenment tradition, justice has been considered a
provision of maintaining people in their perfectible rights, and distributing these rights rather
equally among the people as mediated by the just institutions in the society. It is difficult but to
judge as to what is that which is right. Justice has also been conceived in yet another simple way:
‘giving people what they deserve’, and giving them ‘equally’. It is again always difficult to
determine as to what is that which people deserve. It is equally controversial as to what should
be the criteria of desert and in which form to give something to the people. Be that as it may.
What is however clear that justice is is essentially related with some conception of ‘fairness’ and
‘impartiality’.
A perusal of recent concrete history as influenced by the post-Aristotelian European
Enlightenment tradition leads us to Thomas Paine (1793) who wrote the pamphlet on the
“Agrarian Justice”. This was printed in English in Paris. Since there were some sentences,
which the publisher suppressed under asterisks in the preface to the London edition, it is worth
quoting the first Paris edition. Paine declared:
“It is not charity but a right, not bounty but justice that I am pleading for. The present state of
civilization is as odious as it is unjust.”
The significance of the declaration may be retrospectively gauged from the historic fact that an
edition of the pamphlet was brought out in London by Thomas Williams, who was prosecuted
by the Crown for publishing Paine’s “Age of Reason.” The Painein conception of justice was
actually a reaction to a dominant sermon published by the Bishop of Llandaff, entitled “The
Wisdom and Goodness of God in Having Made both Rich and Poor.” Paine reacted by denying
that God ever made any rich and poor. It was rather declared by Paine that: “He made only male
and female, and gave them the earth for their inheritance.” It is however the Men and Women, who
created the landed monopoly. It was thus declared that the poverty and wretchedness of life of
human beings are the direct result of the landed monopoly created in the country. The landed
monopoly creates the greatest evil in the form of land alienation and dispossession, and these
are instances of pervasive injustice.
Cultivation is at least one of the greatest natural improvements ever made by human invention. It has
given to created earth a tenfold value. But the landed monopoly that began with it has produced the
greatest evil. It has dispossessed more than half the inhabitants of every nation of their natural
inheritance, without providing for them, as ought to have been done, an indemnification for that loss,
and has thereby created a species of poverty and wretchedness that did not exist before (Thomas Paine,
1797).
Paine proposed a plan to deal with the problem of poverty by providing for the taxation of
accumulated property. The tax revenue collected must permit the machineries of the state to
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4. The Agrarian Justice
give each man and women reaching the age of twenty-one the sum of fifteen pounds, and every
person fifty years of age or over ten pounds per year. This was the demand of a system of
‘social insurance’, which called for the system of graduated inheritance taxes and ground rents.
The state was made responsible to bring the justice to the poor through the first measures.
The Paineian proposal was identified with the philanthropic movement, which was started in
Paris in 1786-87, and was later introduced in America. The classic pamphlet was issued as a
proposal to the French Government, at a time when readjustment of landed property had
become necessary through the Revolution. In the name of justice, what was required was to
distribute the income from the land among the poor and destitute. It was in this way that the
state could reduce and rather eliminate the phenomenon of poverty amidst plenty. A century
later, in “The Crime of Poverty”, Henry George thus declared:
In a rude state of society, there are seasons of want, seasons when people starve; but they are seasons when
the earth has refused to yield her increase, when the rain has not fallen from the heavens, or when the
land has been swept by some foe-not when there is plenty. And yet the peculiar characteristic of this
modern poverty of ours is that it is deepest where wealth most abound …………………….…. in a
rude state of society, as among the ancient Hebrews, giving each family its lot and making it inalienable
we might secure something like equality. But in a complex civilization that will not suffice. It is not,
however, necessary to divide-up the land. All that is necessary is to divide-up the income that comes from
the land. In that way, we can secure the absolute equality. Nor could the adoption of this principle
involve any rude shock or violent charge. It can be brought about gradually and easily by abolishing taxes
that now rest upon capital, labour and improvements, and raising all our public revenues by the taxation
of land values; and the longer you think of it the clearer you will see that in every possible way will it be a
benefit (Henry George, 1885).
It is worth arguing retrospectively with the benefit of hindsight that neither Thomas Paine nor
Henry George could at all advocate the establishment of an agrarian society on the line of
reasoning advanced by many erstwhile land reformers who preceded and followed them. There
was no proposal for the redistribution of land holdings among the masses. There was no need
underlined for the changes in the inheritance rules and laws pertaining to the real estate and
land. Paine’s proposal was too moderate for some contemporary Agrarians. Thomas Spence’s
pamphlet on “The Rights of Infants”, which was published in 1797, was dealing with the
strictures on Paine’s Agrarian Justice. There was in a true sense a need of redistribution of
landed property itself to bring justice in the countryside, and Paineian and Georgian proposals
skirted the issue away from the public galore. In the radical circles, the agrarian question
remained an unsettled issue, therefore. It is further clear that the political economy of agrarian
justice had been narrow in reach and thus confined to merely a commodity called the land. The
time has changed, and history has unfolded. It was a problem of landed monopoly only till
yesterday in the domain of political economy, but it constitutes today the entire set of problems
related with the distribution of land, water as well as the food in the countryside. There is no
doubt that there are senses of injustice pervading in matter of land ownership, water uses, and
food entitlement in the third world countries in particular, which demand resolution.
2. Mainstream Economics of Justice
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5. The Agrarian Justice
In the theoretical realm, there has been a growth of a discipline of mainstream
economics proper. This has been orchestrated by making the erstwhile discipline of political
economy to move away from the discipline of moral philosophy and philanthropic ideas. The
political economy practitioners have contributed to the making of the discipline of Economics
proper with an aspiration and irresistible desire to model the subject theoretically on the line of
the physical sciences. This has been a die-hard aspiration on part of the enlightened and gifted
practitioners of the political economy. The concepts of rational economic agent, economic
equilibrium, and optimality have been the major theoretical heuristic devices in the mental
experiment of an economist of neoclassical mainstream persuasion. These concepts have
undoubtedly been influenced by the categories of physical sciences, which have been least
connected with the conception of justice. The conception of justice has therefore been kept out
of scope of economics proper in the last two centuries.
It has been argued that the individual economic agent has desires and beliefs, and that the agent
takes action consistent with his/her desires and beliefs. The human agent is a conscious actor,
who is capable of deliberation and reasoning. Since an economic agent has therefore always the
reason behind an action, s/he is, alternatively speaking, “rational” (Hamlin, 1986; Blaug, 1992).
This is Utilitarianism. This is so much in contrast with the desire-less and belief-less physical
atom in the Nature, following which the human agent is modeled in the economic analytic
framework. Be that as it may. A rational agent, be that a peasant or a rural worker, is further
assumed to be autonomous as well. The agent has unconstrained “negative” freedom in
exchanging the property endowments and resources with another rational agent in an ideal
competitive environment. The agent has absolute rights to life and liberty in the sense that
nobody may justifiably interfere with his life and liberty, except in cases of self-defense or
legitimate punishment (Harsanyi, 1982). In the schema, there are negative rights of noninterference, and the positive rights to aid or assistance from another agent and the state are not
warranted. This is the economics of Libertarianism. The economics of utilitarianism and
libertarianism constitute the core of neoclassical mainstream economics proper.
The framework of analysis that emerges thus holds that there is a universe of atoms-ininteraction-with-each-other in the physical science, and as a counterpart, there is an economy of
individual economic agents in interdependence relations in the economic science. A rational
and free agent is conceived to be in action, and posited to attain a bliss point called the
‘equilibrium’. A rational and free agent of the utilitarian and libertarian world is conceived
theoretically in economic interaction with another rational agent, and that too, only in the arena
of exchange of resources and commodities in the economy. The agent-to-agent exchange takes
place through the mechanism of demand and supply forces in the market. This is equally true of
the countryside. In the course of economic interaction in the form of exchange among the
peasant and worker economic agents, the price, bid by the fictitious auctioneer, that equates the
demand and supply is called the equilibrium price. This price establishes the equivalence-inexchange since the equivalent is exchanged for the equivalent. The quantity-price relation is
therefore unfailingly and explicitly harmonious. All the endogenous forces (internal to the
model) conductive to changes come to a resting place at the equilibrium. The equilibrium is a
state of consistent harmony, peacefulness, and restfulness, whenever and wherever the actor
undertakes action in the economic realm (Caldwell, 1982; Hahn, 1973). The equilibriums
achieved are the efficient outcomes of the interactions among the rational and free peasant and
worker agents in the economic realm. In other words, the only activity of vital significance in
the material realm of human life called the economic exchange attains ultimately the economic
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6. The Agrarian Justice
equilibrium, that is, a state of bliss signifying the market clearance by the operation of classical
theorem of Invisible Hand. The neoclassical mainstream theory of capitalist market in
combination with the rigorous theorem of economic exchange built around the widely accepted
postulates of scarcity-need view of the prices is a simple mathematised story. The attempt at
mathematization of economics since the beginning of present century and its general
acceptability and respectability has subsequently added rigor, elegance, and sophistry to this
methodological device of equilibrium in the abstract economic theory. The application of
mathematics turned this useful fiction into virtual look-alike reality. In retrospect, the gravity
had been the similar tool in the hands of physical scientists.
The rationality heuristic together with the concept of equilibrium requires an optimality
principle in economics. The optimality principle requires the agent behaviour and empirical
phenomenon to be explained as “maximizing” or “minimizing” some objective functions,
subject to a well-defined set of constraints. In the economic universe, a peasant or a worker as a
rational individual agent is therefore presumed to be a maximizing entity. The agent is projected
here to be calculating the optimal consequence of his action in the market with the lightning
speed and that too in the environment of perfect information in the economy (Schoemaker,
1991). The optimality is a state of maximum possible individual efficiency in the activities and
processes in the economy. A Pareto optimal situation is an idealized of the world, where the
affairs of an economy come to a rest. A situation where no individual agent can be made better
off without making someone worse off is considered to be the arrangement of maximum
possible social welfare attainable. The economic exchange at equilibrium price is proved as
being consistent with the Pareto optimality or maximum social welfare as well. The maximum
social welfare is declared coterminous with the justice for all. The maximal level of justice is
subsumed in the state of maximum possible social welfare attainable. The attainment of
economic justice is endogenous to the optimal economic process, and is consistently tied with
the attainment of the “first-best-world”.
In such a world-view, the property rights are demarcated, and the property is a guarantor of
liberty, and the actual capitalist market of an economy orchestrated through the mechanism of
economic exchange is considered merely a replica of the thought-experiment of an economist.
Such a state of the world, which is characterized by the postulates of individual rationality,
process equilibrium, and economic optimality, does signify the attainment of the “first-bestworld” of economic efficiency. This state of the world is also declared a “just” and “fair” state
of the world. The individual rationality postulate and Pareto optimality in production and
exchange are argued to ensure the maximum possible justice for all. There is undoubtedly no
role for the state to play in the theatre of justice, therefore. The rationality, freedom, and justice
are integrated conceptions in the intricate framework of utilitarian and libertarian worldview,
premised on the given distribution of property rights and endowments in land and other
resources in the economy. The Pareto optimality is the article of faith of the neoclassical
economists of all variants. The concept and principle of optimality was first used in physics to
gain numerical results for otherwise intractable problems. In economics, the problems were as
such not that much stubborn as it was in Physics. There has however been an irresistible desire
to model the subject on the line of science. This is as much for the economists, who are diehard followers of the Utilitarianism and Libertarianism. This is in precise terms all about the
contemporary mainstream economics, which has long left the embryo of philosophy out of
which it came out in the world of academy.
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7. The Agrarian Justice
It is then tragic that the mainstream mental experiment of an economist reduces all human
beings into an egoist, self-interested and greedy personae. In the framework of such a narrow
conception of economic agent, first, it relegates all forms, patterns and systems of exchange
among the agents to the background seat, and thereby, neglects the existence of market-like and
non-market exchange institutions in the social economy. It ignores the concrete observation
that the economic exchange is merely specie within the large genre of exchange activities in the
human society. It thereby discards the role played by non-price factors in the form of norms,
customs and power forces in the economic arena. The classical notion of something akin to
natural equilibrium as a long run phenomenon is moreover very differently accommodated as
the neoclassical economic equilibrium tool and technique of short run analysis of social entities
and framework therein. Second, the most tragic aspect of the mainstream economics is simply
however this that it further fails to explain the phenomenon and process of in-equivalence-inexchange, and correspondingly the exploitation and injustices of the parties to exchange, and
the chaos in the circulation and production spheres of the economy. The utilitarian belief on the
notion of justice in the market does not address at all the contemporary issue of social and
economic justice. Neither does it address the issues of justice (as these are understood today)
nor does it guarantee the attainment of such justices beyond the market. The libertarian concept
of liberty and freedom is also far-off from the popular demands of positive economic freedom
and social justice.
3. Contemporary Theorizing on Justice
The contemporary theorizing on justice and specifically agrarian justice is built on the
critique of the mainstream economic perspective only. There is no doubt that the Paretooptimality is regarded to be a criterion for optimal resource allocation, and a conception of
justice is implicit in the Pareto optimality category in the mainstream economics. This criterion
implies however controversial views on distributional justice. The Pareto optimality has rather
been seen to be going easy along with a great amount of economic inequality and social
discrimination in the world. This is not to say that the concept of justice is a clean terrain. The
indeterminacy of the rigorous formalistic analyses that make up the contemporary economics
literature in this field is well known. It is nonetheless underlined in the recent writings that there
is the need to incorporate the concerns of political economy of justice of eighteenth and
nineteenth century in the contemporary mainstream economics proper. A new thinking on the
economics of agrarian justice must take the contemporary issues of exploitation and injustices,
and resolve these in time. The frameworks of conceptualization of justice advanced by John
Rawls and John Roemer do simply this.
John Rawls has published two classic works in the liberal tradition: A Theory of Justice (1971), and
Political Liberalism (1993). It is the most widely discussed theory of distributive justice in the
liberal world in the past three decades, which has been proposed by Rawls in these classic
works. Rawls proposes the following two principles of justice: (1) each person has an equal
claim to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic rights and liberties, which scheme is compatible
with the same scheme for all; and in this scheme the equal political liberties, and only those
liberties, are to be guaranteed their fair value; and (2) the social and economic inequalities are to
satisfy two condition: (a) they are to be attached to the positions and offices open to all under
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8. The Agrarian Justice
conditions of fair equality of opportunity; and (b) they are to be to the greatest benefit of the
least- advantaged members of the society (Rawls, 1993). In the Rawlsian scheme of justice, the
principle (1) must govern the distribution of liberties, and principle (2a) must regulate the
distribution of opportunities. In the Rawlsian system of justice, the principle (1) has priority
over the principle (2). It is in addition to (2b) that it is possible to think of the principles (1) and
(2a) as principles of distributive justice. John Rawls insists on the formal Equality plus the
Difference principle. There should be formal equality in the distribution of liberties and there
should be the maximization of welfare of the worst-off in the society to stain the distributive
justice. It is in line with the Liberal idea. It is in this way that the Rawlsian principles of justice
make all the principles of justice the principles of distributive justice. What is noteworthy is this
that even the principles of retributive justice are to be included on the basis that they distribute
negative goods.
Rawls is not opposed to the principle of strict equality per se. There has been a tradition of
advancing the principle of strict equality as the principle of justice: equal respect for persons. The
main moral motivation for the Difference Principle is indeed similar to that for the principles of
strict equality. The Difference Principle of Rawls do materially collapses to a form of strict
equality under empirical conditions, where the differences in income in the society have no
effect on the work incentive of people. The overwhelming opinion though is that in the near
future, the possibility of earning greater income will bring forth greater productive effort, and
this will certainly increase the total wealth of the economy and, under the Difference Principle,
the wealth of the least-advantaged in the society. The concern of Rawls is but about the absolute
position of the least-advantaged group rather than their relative position. If a system of strict
equality maximizes the absolute position of the least-advantaged in society, then the Difference
Principle advocates strict equality. If it is however possible to raise the absolute position of the
least-advantaged further by having some inequalities of income and wealth, the Difference
Principe of Rawls do not hesitate at all to prescribe the inequality up to that point where the
absolute position of the least-advantaged can no longer be raised (Stevens, 2001). There has
been extensive discussion of the Difference Principle in the last thirty years, and so. Amartya
Sen, the Nobel Laureate of India, does agree with the Rawlsian egalitarian conception of justice.
John Rawls has used the Utilitarianism as the main theory for comparison with his own in ‘A
Theory of Justice’. The Utilitarian objection to the Difference Principe is that it does not maximize
utility. What is distinctive in Rawlsian framework is the opposition to the Utilitarianism of
mainstream economics.
Rawls views his work as a manifesto against utilitarianism in two ways: first, that he advocates a
maximandum of an index of primary goods, not utility; second, that he advocates looking only at the
minimum of a set of individual “welfare” levels, not the sum. The first point contrasts Rawlsian justice
with welfarism in general, the second with utilitarianism (in our sense) in particular. In the philosophical
literature, and in Rawls himself, both of these objections are seen as ones against utilitarianism
(Roemer, 1996, p.128).
It is clear that John Rawls has put forward the reciprocity paradigm of justice. The justice in the
sense of impartiality is the result of consensus among the rational and autonomous agents
through agreements, and therefore, the mutual advantage may be struck by bargaining among
self-interested agents in the economy. James Buchanan and David Gauthier are recent
proponents of the bargaining models of rational actors. The fairness for a group of people, call
them either the mass of peasantry or an army of labourers in the countryside, involves arriving
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9. The Agrarian Justice
at the rules and guiding principles of social organization that pay similar attention to interests,
concerns and liberties of everyone. In the Rawlsian framework, the basic liberty is a priority, and
the basic goods need to be shared on a reciprocal basis so as to maximize the opportunity of the
worse-off in the society. In the Rawlsian framework, the justice is in short the fairness.
The Difference Principle is however criticized as a primary distributive principle because it
mostly ignores the claims that people do deserve certain economic benefits in the light of their
actions and contributions. The advocates of Desert-based Principles of justice do argue that
some may deserve a higher level of material goods because of their hard work and
contributions, even if their unequal rewards do not also function to improve the position of the
least-advantaged in the society. The advocates of strict equality paradigm of justice do further
argue that the inequalities permitted by the Difference Principle are unacceptable even if they do
benefit the least-advantaged in the society. The argument is this that the relative position of the
least-advantaged is more important than their absolute position. The Libertarians do object that
the Difference Principle involves unacceptable infringements on the liberty, since it may require
redistributive taxation to the poor. The Libertarians do commonly object that such taxation
does involve the immoral taking of just holdings. It is also argued that the explanations of how
people come to be in more or less advantaged positions may be relevant to their fairness, yet the
Difference Principle wrongly ignores these explanations.
John Roemer (1996) begins by framing the concept of distributive justice in terms of “the
allocation of scarce (or limited) resources among alternative used”, and sets himself the task of
applying modern mathematical tools of neoclassical economics to the efforts of political
philosophers and economists to resolve the problems of distributive justice (Todd, 1999).
Roemerian justice advocates an equal opportunity policy. Roemer offers a version of egalitarianism
base on the idea of equality of opportunity for the people. According to this version, the
opportunities for a certain good are equal when people who are alike in all qualities that are
beyond their control have equal chances of achieving that good. The justice is attained when an
equal opportunity policy do necessarily equalize outcomes in so far as they are the consequences
of causes beyond a person’s control, but allow differential outcomes in so far as they result from
autonomous choices (Roemer, 1996). Roemer does not argue for a specific set of factors
“beyond a person’s control”, which may affect a person’s success. The Roemerian point is
simply this that the equality of opportunity would demand far more equality of outcome than
we now experience, even if the idea of what is “beyond a person’s control” is understood in a
narrow and uncontroversial sense (Scanlon, 1995). In the Roemerian system of justice, a system
for choosing among applicants to become opera singers, basketball players, or mathematics
professors is said to violate equality of opportunity just because it makes success depend on
differences in innate ability they are beyond the applicants’ control.
It is clear that the Roemerian idea of equality of opportunity is only partially related to the
notion that commonly goes by that name. The equality of opportunity, as most people
understand it, is violated when some candidates for a position are preferred to others on
grounds that are not relevant to that position. It is also violated when unfortunate circumstance,
such as lack of education, prevent some people from competing fairly on the basis of their
relevant abilities (Scanlon, 1995). It is the concept of relevant competition, and “relevant
competition” appeals to the idea that competition is fair, and the fairness is ensured when it
tests for the relevant abilities (as well as for personal qualities such as determination and
discipline that are displayed in competitors’ “autonomous choices”). Roemer does not accept
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this version of equality of opportunity as a complete conception of justice. It is argued that the
version says nothing about the size of the rewards that can justly be attached to various
positions. Roemer rather appeals to the idea that a competition is unfair when competitors have
unequal chances of winning, due to factors beyond their control. The “relevant competition”
version of equality of opportunity is more plausibly based on the idea that the social reasons for
having a position often entail relevant grounds for selecting individuals for that position.
Roemerian justice asserts that it is an abuse of power to choose among applicants on some
other basis, such as racial prejudice or friendship. It is asserted that the applicants are treated
unfairly when unequal starting points prevent them from competing “on their merits.” A “levelplaying-field” is a precondition of fairness and justice.
There are oppositions to the Roemerian conception of justice also. It is argued that the
Utilitarian paradigm is lacking in criteria of justice other than the untrammeled satisfaction of
people’s desires or preferences, or at least the choices the people would make, given a chance.
This however does upon up the need to incorporate an unlimited domain of possible
preferences of people in the society. If one has to determine whether a state is better than
another, one would have to take account of the people who, for example, care more about
someone else having less than they care about themselves having more, or people who care only
that they have the same or conversely something different, from what their neighbors have.
These people can be very difficult to satisfy (Blunder, 2004). Roemer, by virtue of the fact of his
reliance on the Utilitarianism by way of incorporation of neoclassical tools and techniques, do
unfailingly place himself at the centre of such criticism. This is despite his faith in Marxism.
The Roemerian conception of justice is narrow because the crucial and challenging question in
the field of distributive justice is completely ignored. The challenging issue is the distribution
over time. The critics do argue that one could justify maximizing the profits by liquidating the
whole earth over the next 125 years under an individually-oriented analytic system, since it
would not adversely affect a single person with a current vested economic right in the future.
But, is it justice? It cannot be treated a state of justice with the future generation. In order to
have system of distributive justice, one must therefore design a system of administrative and
policy values that do necessarily transcend the individual interests. There is need to think in
terms of the community. There is need to develop an abstract commitment to the human race,
which is the ultimate identification for anyone who presumes to raise the question of justice.
Thomas Scanlon (1995) has rightly remarked that John Roemer’s emphasis on the dichotomy
between those consequences people are responsible for and those they should be protected
against pushes him to almost say rather implausibly that those whom we think should be helped
are not responsible for their actions. This position leaves him open to conservative objections
of the kind that he very properly seeks to avoid. In short, both Rawlsian as well as Roemerian
justice has been the target of numerous criticisms from the perspective of all the other theories
of distributive justice.
Epilogue
The conception and the problematic of justice have traveled a long distance from the
ancient writings of Aristotle to the medieval reasoning of John Stuart Mill to the modern
formulation of John Rawls and John Roemer. It is clear that the classic work of Thomas Paine
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11. The Agrarian Justice
on the agrarian justice is in need of drastic revision and modification in the light of rather
specific modern conceptual and theoretical works on justice. The Utilitarianism and
Libertarianism may accomplish the necessary improvements required for the Paineian agrarian
justice. The Utilitarian conception of justice of Mill and Sidgwick have however been rather
one-sided and narrow, and have not been found to be standing healthy even after the defense
put back by Jack Hare and John Harsanyi in the modern era. This is also the case with the
theorizing of justice in the Rawlsian and Roemerian schemes. The requirement of modifications
in the old thinking that the new-horizon ideas of Rawls and Roemer bring to bear on the theme
of justice would not be sufficient in the backdrop of criticisms leveled against these paradigms
of late.
It is agreed that every modern theory of justice begins from the premise that citizens must be
treated as equals in some respect (Sen, 1992). There must either be equality in the distribution of
welfare (Harsanyi, 1982) or the primary goods (Rawls, 1971) or the capability (Sen, 1992) or the
opportunity (Roemer, 1996). John Rawls advocates however a taxation proposal to bring
equality in matter of primary goods, and John Roemer advances the income policy to attain the
equality of opportunity. None of the conception of justice is premised on the direct equal
distribution of the land, water and food. Such a conception would be needed in future so that
an answer to the following questions is found. Are there all forms and types of rural markets the
arena of freedom and liberty? In there any popular sense of agrarian justice connected with the
provision of rights to land, privilege to water, and entitlement to food? Why do the rational
peasant lord, employer and lender abrogate the rights to freedom of a tenant, labor and
borrower peasant, and indulge in the discrimination against the latter for owning qualities that
are not necessarily connected with the productive efforts? In other words, what is the
explanation of the regularities behind the imposition of unfair and unjust implicit and explicit
terms of contract among the peasantry in the land and labour markets? A long journey is
awaited on the road to agrarian justice.
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