3. INTRODUCTION
• Also known as the testicles
• A pair of small, oval-
shaped male reproductive
organs
• Located in the scrotum
(bag of skin that holds and
helps to protect the
testicles)
4. ANATOMY OF
TESTIS
• In humans each testis weighs about
25 grams (0.875 ounce) and is 4–5 cm
(1.6–2.0 inches) long and 2–3 cm
(0.8–1.2 inches) in diameter.
• Tunica Albuginea: The tunica
albuginea is a tough, fibrous capsule
that surrounds each testis.
• Lobes: Inside each testis, the tunica
albuginea extends inward, dividing the
testis into approximately 200 to 400
wedge-shaped sections known as
lobes. These lobes serve as structural
units within the testis.
5. ANATOMY OF TESTIS
• Seminiferous Tubules: Each lobe contains multiple,
coiled tubules called seminiferous tubules. These
tubules are where the process of sperm production,
known as spermatogenesis, takes place.
• Sertoli Cells: These cells, also found within the
seminiferous tubules, provide support and
nourishment to developing sperm cells during
spermatogenesis.
• Leydig Cells: These interstitial cells, located in the
spaces between the seminiferous tubules, are
responsible for producing testosterone, a crucial
male sex hormone.
7. SPERMATOGENESIS
• The seminiferous tubules, in
which the sperm are produced,
constitute about 90 percent of
the testicular mass.
• This is the process by which
spermatogonia cells within the
seminiferous tubules divide and
differentiate into sperm cells. It's
a complex and tightly regulated
process that culminates in the
production of fully mature sperm.
9. Interaction of Testosterone with
Dietary Foods
• Certain foods, including oysters, leafy greens, fatty
fish, and olive oil, may encourage the body to
produce more testosterone. Foods that contain
zinc, vitamin D, and magnesium may be key.
• Exercising and reducing stress can also help boost
low testosterone.
10. Interaction of Other Hormones
with Dietary Foods
• There is no such interaction of food with other
hormones, Overall, maintaining a balanced diet,
maintaining a healthy weight, and adopting a
healthy lifestyle are important for supporting
normal inhibin B levels and overall testicular
function in males.
• Additionally, dietary factors that affect overall
health, such as obesity or excessive alcohol
consumption, can indirectly impact hormone levels
14. INTRODUCTION
• Ovaries are the female gonads
• the primary female reproductive organs. These
glands have three important functions:
• Secrete hormones,
• Protect the eggs
• they release eggs for possible fertilization
15. SIZE AND LOCATION
• Human females are typically born with two ovaries stemming
from the uterus.
• Before puberty, ovaries are just long bundles of tissue
• As the female matures, so do her ovaries. When mature,
ovaries are about the size of a large grape.
• The ovaries lie on either side of the uterus
16. FUNCTIONS
• Ovaries have two main functions in the body – to house and
release eggs (ova) and to make hormones, including
estrogen, progesterone and testosterone.
17. FUNCTIONS
Development of the
female
reproductive
organs
Development of
female physical
characteristics (e.g.
breasts, pubic hair)
Regulating the
menstrual cycle
Fertility
Pregnancy
Bone health –
growth and mineral
density
Protecting blood
vessels from
damage
Supporting the
immune system
19. Interaction of Inhibin A & B
with Dietary Foods
While the effects of specific foods on inhibin
levels are not as extensively studied as with
other hormones, overall dietary patterns and
lifestyle factors can influence their production.
20. Estrogen and
Progesterone
• Estrogen and progesterone
levels rise and fall across the
menstrual cycle in response
to hormone signals from the
pituitary gland.
• A menstrual cycle is the
length of time between the
first day of one period to the
first day of the next period.
This normally takes between
24 and 35 days, however can
be longer or shorter
21. Interaction of Estrogen with Dietary Foods
The interaction between estrogen and food involves various factors, including phytoestrogens, dietary
fiber, alcohol, processed foods, organic choices, dairy products, and red meat.
1. Phytoestrogens: Found in foods like soy products, flaxseeds, sesame seeds, and certain fruits and
vegetables, phytoestrogens can exert weak estrogenic effects in the body. Their consumption may
influence estrogen levels, although the overall impact can vary among individuals.
2. Dietary Fiber: High-fiber diets from sources like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can aid in the
excretion of excess estrogen from the body, helping to regulate estrogen levels.
3. Alcohol: Excessive alcohol consumption can disrupt estrogen metabolism and clearance, potentially
leading to elevated estrogen levels. Limiting alcohol intake is important for maintaining balanced
estrogen levels.
4. Processed Foods and Added Sugars: Diets high in processed foods and refined carbohydrates
may contribute to insulin resistance and obesity, which can disrupt estrogen balance in the body.
22. Interaction of Estrogen with
Dietary Foods
5. Organic Choices: Some studies suggest that
exposure to pesticides and environmental toxins found in
non-organic foods may disrupt hormone balance,
including estrogen levels. Choosing organic options may
reduce this potential exposure.
6. Dairy Products: High intake of dairy products,
particularly those derived from conventionally raised
cows, may influence estrogen levels in certain individuals.
7. Red Meat: Consumption of red meat, particularly
processed and unprocessed varieties, may be associated
with elevated estrogen levels in some studies. Factors
such as the presence of hormones in meat or cooking
methods may contribute to this effect.
23. Interaction of Progesterone with
Dietary Foods
When it comes to progesterone, dietary factors can also play a role in influencing its levels in the
body. Here's an overview of how certain foods and dietary patterns may interact with progesterone:
1. Healthy Fats: Including sources of healthy fats in your diet, such as avocados, nuts, seeds, and
olive oil, can support hormone production, including progesterone. These fats provide the
building blocks necessary for hormone synthesis.
2. Whole Grains: Whole grains like oats, quinoa, brown rice, and barley are rich in B vitamins and
other nutrients that support hormone balance. Consuming whole grains as part of a balanced
diet can help promote progesterone production.
3. Leafy Greens: Dark leafy greens such as spinach, kale, and Swiss chard are rich in magnesium,
which is important for hormone regulation, including progesterone synthesis.
4. Vitamin B6-Rich Foods: Foods high in vitamin B6, such as chickpeas, salmon, potatoes,
bananas, and poultry, can help support progesterone production. Vitamin B6 is involved in the
metabolism of hormones, including progesterone.
5. Zinc-Rich Foods: Zinc is another important nutrient for hormone production, and including zinc-
rich foods like oysters, beef, pumpkin seeds, and lentils in your diet can support progesterone
levels.
Spermatogenesis is the process by which male organisms produce sperm cells, or spermatozoa, in their testes. It is a complex and highly regulated process that involves multiple stages and the action of various hormones. Here is a detailed explanation of spermatogenesis, including the hormones that play a role in this process:
Primordial Germ Cells: Spermatogenesis begins during embryonic development when primordial germ cells, which are undifferentiated cells, migrate to the developing testes. These primordial germ cells will eventually differentiate into sperm cells.
Puberty: The process of spermatogenesis largely begins at puberty when the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis becomes activated.
The HPG axis operates through a feedback mechanism, where the sex hormones produced by the gonads exert negative feedback on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, regulating the secretion of GnRH, FSH, and LH.
Hormonal Regulation: a. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH): The hypothalamus releases GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to produce two important gonadotropin hormones: b. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates the Sertoli cells in the testes. These cells are located within the seminiferous tubules and play a crucial role in supporting spermatogenesis. FSH helps promote the maturation of sperm cells and the production of inhibin, a hormone that provides negative feedback to the pituitary, regulating FSH secretion. c. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH acts on the Leydig cells in the testes, stimulating the production of testosterone.
Testosterone: Testosterone, produced by the Leydig cells under the influence of LH, is a key hormone in spermatogenesis. It is essential for the development and maintenance of the male reproductive system and the promotion of spermatogenesis.
Spermatogenesis Stages: a. Spermatogonial Phase: Spermatogonial stem cells undergo mitotic division to form spermatogonia. b. Meiotic Phase: Spermatogonia undergo meiosis to produce haploid secondary spermatocytes, which further divide to form haploid spermatids. c. Spermiogenesis: Spermatids undergo a series of morphological changes to develop into mature spermatozoa. These changes include the formation of the acrosome, elongation of the tail, and the loss of excess cytoplasm.
Sertoli Cells: Sertoli cells, under the influence of FSH, provide physical support and nourishment to developing sperm cells. They also secrete various growth factors and proteins essential for spermatogenesis.
Inhibin: As mentioned earlier, Sertoli cells produce inhibin, which helps regulate the secretion of FSH from the pituitary by providing negative feedback.
Epididymis: After spermiogenesis, the mature sperm cells are transported to the epididymis, where they undergo further maturation and gain motility.
Testosterone is the main hormone that promotes the development and maintenance of male characteristics. Testosterone can be converted into a more active male sex hormone, called dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) is important for sex differentiation in the unborn baby during early pregnancy. It is produced in male babies by the testes, where it shuts down the development of Mullerian (female) ducts. These ducts would otherwise develop into parts of the female reproductive tract (fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina). This allows the development of the epididymis, vas deferens and the seminal vesicles of the testes. Estradiol is produced in small amounts in men by the Leydig cells of the testes. Levels of estradiol in the blood of men are similar to (in fact slightly higher than) those in women after menopause. In men, estradiol contributes to bone health and the maturation of sperm. Inhibin B is released from the Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. It plays a key role in regulating follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) release from the pituitary gland.
Testosterone naturally reduces with age, but levels may also be low because of medical conditions or medications.
Some people choose to increase their testosterone levels by using alternative treatments, though many of these lack scientific backing.
Usually, a person should only take testosterone supplements if they have a medical condition that causes low testosterone.
Obesity
Pituitary disorders
HIV
Cancer treatment
Damaged testicles
Diabetes
Testicular cancer
Inflammatory disease
Alcoholism
Autoimmune diseases
Infection
Kallmann syndrome
Kidney failure
Liver
Pharmaceutical drug
Primary hypogonadism
Aging
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus, a region in the brain, produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in response to signals related to the body's need for sex hormones (like testosterone).
Pituitary Gland: GnRH travels to the pituitary gland, which responds by releasing luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) into the bloodstream.
LH and FSH: These hormones, LH and FSH, travel to the testes, where they have specific functions:
LH: Luteinizing hormone stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce and release testosterone, the primary male sex hormone.
FSH: Follicle-stimulating hormone plays a role in sperm production (spermatogenesis) by stimulating the Sertoli cells in the testes.
Development of the Female Reproductive Organs: Ovaries are part of the female reproductive system and play a central role in the development of other female reproductive organs. During embryonic development, the ovaries differentiate from the gonadal ridges and contribute to the formation of the fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina.
Development of Female Physical Characteristics: Ovaries are responsible for producing sex hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone. These hormones play a critical role in the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females, including the growth of breasts, the distribution of body fat, and the development of pubic hair.
Regulating the Menstrual Cycle: Ovaries are central to the regulation of the menstrual cycle. Each month, one of the ovaries releases an egg (ovulation), and they also produce hormones that influence the uterine lining and other aspects of the menstrual cycle. The cyclical release of hormones from the ovaries helps control the timing of menstruation.
Fertility: Ovaries are essential for female fertility. They release eggs (oocytes) during ovulation, which can be fertilized by sperm to initiate pregnancy. In addition to producing eggs, the ovaries secrete hormones that influence the receptivity of the uterus to a fertilized egg and support the development of a pregnancy.
Pregnancy: During pregnancy, ovaries continue to produce hormones, including progesterone, which is vital for maintaining the uterine lining and preventing its shedding. This hormone is crucial in the early stages of pregnancy and helps sustain the developing embryo until the placenta takes over hormone production.
Bone Health – Growth and Mineral Density: Estrogen, a hormone produced by the ovaries, plays a significant role in maintaining bone health. It promotes the development and maintenance of bone density, and its decline during menopause can lead to a loss of bone density and increased risk of osteoporosis.
Protecting Blood Vessels from Damage: Estrogen also has a protective effect on blood vessels, helping to maintain their health. It can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by promoting healthy blood vessel function.
Supporting the Immune System: Estrogen and other ovarian hormones can influence the immune system's function, potentially enhancing immune responses and protection against infections. This influence can vary depending on hormonal fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle.
Estrogen Estrogen refers to a group of three hormones: estradiol (E2, which is the main female hormone in women prior to menopause), estriol (E3, which is increased in pregnancy) and estrone (E1, the main form of estrogen after menopause). Estrogen regulates the menstrual cycle, breast development, fertility and pregnancy. Estrogen is also important in keeping bones healthy as it prevents the breakdown of bone and helps the absorption of calcium from the gut. Progestrone Progesterone regulates the menstrual cycle, maintains pregnancy, strengthens the pelvic floor muscles, prevents milk production and helps the unborn baby to develop. During the menstrual cycle, progesterone prepares the uterus (womb) for pregnancy by thickening the lining of the uterus ready to receive the fertilised egg and support the growth of the placenta. Testosterone Testosterone is made in small amounts from the ovaries. In women, like in men, testosterone is important for bone health and muscle mass, making new blood cells, and sex drive (or libido). In women, most of the testosterone made by the ovary is converted into estradiol (E2). AMH Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) is important during development of the ovarian follicles Inhibilin A AND b
Inhibin A and Inhibin B are released from cells within the ovarian follicles. They play key roles in regulating follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) release from the pituitary gland at different stages of the ovarian cycle.
Overall, maintaining a balanced diet rich in whole, nutrient-dense foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins while limiting processed foods, alcohol, and excessive intake of red meat may help support balanced estrogen levels.
At the start of the menstrual cycle, both estrogen and progesterone levels are low. This signals the pituitary gland to make follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). When FSH levels increase, around 10-20 follicles begin to grow and their eggs start to mature. The follicles produce estrogen, which start to prepare the uterus (womb) for pregnancy. The rising estrogen levels signal the pituitary gland to release luteinising hormone (LH), which in turn, signal the ovaries to produce more and more estrogen. This forms a positive feedback loop. This sharp increase in LH causes a mature egg to be released from the ovarian follicle. Only one egg generally reaches maturity and is released at about midway through the menstrual cycle. This is called ovulation. When the egg is released, the positive feedback loop ends, and estrogen and LH levels fall.
After the egg is released, the remains of the ovarian follicle form a structure called the corpus luteum. This structure releases progesterone and estrogen to continue preparing the uterus (womb) for pregnancy. In most cases, fertilisation does not occur, and the corpus luteum decomposes and stops producing progesterone. Without the progesterone, the uterine lining breaks down and is discarded with the egg and other cells, mucus and fluid during menstruation (or a period).
The menstrual cycle is a monthly series of physiological changes that occur in a woman's body in preparation for the possibility of pregnancy. It typically lasts about 28 days, although it can vary from person to person. The menstrual cycle is divided into several stages, which include the following:
Menstruation (Day 1-5): The menstrual cycle begins with menstruation, commonly referred to as a woman's period. During this stage, the uterine lining, known as the endometrium, sheds and is expelled from the body through the vagina. This stage typically lasts around 3 to 7 days.
Follicular Phase (Day 1-13): The follicular phase begins on the first day of menstruation. During this stage, the pituitary gland releases follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which stimulates the development of ovarian follicles, each containing an immature egg (oocyte). Only one of these follicles will mature into a dominant follicle, while the others degenerate. Estrogen levels rise, preparing the uterine lining for a potential pregnancy.
Ovulation (Around Day 14): Ovulation is the release of a mature egg from the dominant follicle in one of the ovaries. This is triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH). Ovulation typically occurs around the middle of the menstrual cycle, and the egg is released into the fallopian tube, where it can be fertilized by sperm.
Luteal Phase (Day 15-28): The luteal phase begins after ovulation. The empty follicle, now called the corpus luteum, secretes progesterone and some estrogen. These hormones help thicken the uterine lining, making it more suitable for implantation in case fertilization occurs. If fertilization doesn't happen, the corpus luteum degenerates, and hormone levels drop, leading to the start of a new menstrual cycle.
Menstruation (Start of New Cycle): If fertilization and implantation do not occur, hormone levels drop, and the uterine lining begins to break down. This signals the start of a new menstrual cycle, and menstruation begins again.
