educational

1. PRESENTED BY KIOGORA (MRS)

2. • By the end of this course, the learners will be
able to acquire knowledge, skills and attitude
in learning/teaching.

3. Learners will be able to:
• Define learning
• State the principles of learning
• Outline the characteristics of learning
• Describe the conditions for learning
• Describe the principles and conditions for
adult learning
• Discuss the theories of learning
• Highlight the conditions that make an
environment conducive to learning

4. CT SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• Define teaching
• State reasons for teaching
• Describe the principles of teaching
• Explain the six tasks of a teacher
• Describe the traditional teaching process
• Describe the innovative teaching process

5. Ct…..
• Discuss the traditional teaching methods
• Outline the types of skills and the methods
used for teaching them
• Discuss the innovative teaching methods
• Highlight the factors to consider when
choosing teaching/learning methods
• State how attitudes are taught
• Describe clinical teaching
• Define a curriculum

6. CT ……
• State the components of a curriculum
• Discuss factors influencing the development
of a curriculum
• Explain the major approaches to curriculum
development
• Write educational objectives
• Discuss various instructional media/teaching
aids
• Describe aspects in evaluation of student
performance

7. -Learning is a process resulting in some
modification in the way of thinking,
feeling or doing by the learner.
-In a learning situation, four ingredients are
of particular importance i.e. motivation,
information, practice and feedback.
-These ingredients act as a lubricant for
learning.

8. -Students learn using the following
• Students learn what is relevant and useful
• Students learn when the material is presented
in a logical, sequential order.
• Students learn when they are actively
involved.
• Students learn when they receive feedback on
their performance.

9. • Produces a behavior change in the learner.
• Leads to change that is gradual, adaptable &
selective
• Results from repetitive practice & experience.
• Is not directly observable, it is abstract.
• NB: There are activities the learner must do
in order to learn.

10. -Learning is a consequence of experience from
repetitive acts.
-People need to be able to check what they are
learning, try it out for themselves & correct
mistakes.
-This is related to motivation & it produces a
sense of satisfaction from the learning when
the learner sees that he/she can also perform.

11. -Learning evolves from competence
through repetition.
-This applies both to skills & knowledge.
-Learning is something that people do or
participate in doing i.e. practice makes
perfect.

12. -Learning is easier if it is organized
systematically
-It should start from known to the
unknown.
-As you teach, you should relate new
information to the old information that
the learner already knows.

13. -The art of helping adults to learn is called
Andragogy while the art of helping children to
learn is referred to as pedagogy.
-Principles & conditions for effective adult
learning include:
• Individual pace
• Active learning
• Integrated learning
• Cumulative learning

14. CT…….
• Learning for understanding & application of
knowledge
• Relevant & useful learning
• Interest for learning
• Progression in learning
• Open minded, reflective & critical learning
• Respect for teachers & students

15.  Also known as gestalt theory
Originated from a group of scholars who
studied the ways in which knowledge is
acquired, stored, correlated & retrieved.
 Cognitive theorists believe that knowing is a
mental process that results in one being
aware of a situation or project.

16. Ct……
• This school of thought is interested on
how stds’ attend to, recognize, transform
& retrieve information.
• The theory argues that: the memory
system is an active organized processor of
information
• Prior knowledge is important in learning

17. Ct….
• We pay attention to what is interesting
• Use of mnemonics ( strategies used by
learners 2 organize relativery meaningful
input in to more meaningful mental
images) enhances retention
• Information that is important is stored
temporary in short-term memory
(working memory)- then any useful
information will be transferred in long-
term memory

18. Ct….
• Any information not stored in long term
memory is forgotten.
• We process information that is well
organized & connected to what we
already know
• Learning is purely individual activity
• Practice enhances retention

19. E.g.
-He proposed three domains of learning.
These were:
a)Affective domain-concerned with
attitudes
b)Cognitive domain-concerned
with knowledge
c)Psychomotor domain-concerned
with muscular & mental activities

20. According to Bloom, there are levels of
learning that a learner must go through:
starting from the basic existing
knowledge to the highest level possible
i.e. from simple to complex
The teacher should cater for relevant
levels of the learner.
Learning skills involve a certain amount
of knowledge & appropriate attitudes for
their proper performance

21.  He emphasized that learning should start
from known to unknown & from simple
to complex.
 He noted that new information fits into
existing knowledge like a key fits into a
lock.

22. Recommended discovery learning
The teacher provides problems for the
learners to work out the answers on their own
& the resources with which they must do so.
The learner must have adequate information
about the resources i.e. their function & use
This is an innovative approach that reminds
the learner he/she can learn if he/she wants
to & that in problem solving, there are many
ways to approach a situation.

24. Contributors of this theory
-looked at learning
objectives to direct goal
-studied the classical
conditioning / stimulus substitution &
positive and negative reinforcement
-was interested in active
participation i.e. learning by practice

25. Ct……
-
 His theory assumptions were that it is
possible to increase the probability that
learning will occur & behavior will be
shaped in the direction the teacher wants,
if the behavior is rewarded.
 Learning is manifested by a change of
behavior
 In order to maintain the strength of that
behavior, reinforcement by continued
rewards is necessary.

26. Ct…….
 To be effective, the reinforcement must be
immediate & should be positive rather than
aversive.
 Successful steps in learning must be as small
as possible, each successful act being followed
by a reward.
 Skinner’s research has been mainly applied to
young children & has not been very successful
with adult learners.
 This theory is the basis of programmed
learning process.

27. He categorized learning into different
domains so that the different conditions
for learning & assessment could be
planned accordingly.
The domains identified by Gagne are
motor skills, verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies &
attitudes.
His approach is a useful, as it helps in
planning effective learning experiences.

28. Ct……
By identifying these areas, the teacher can
plan content for knowledge, skills & attitudes
& assess the learners appropriately.
Gagne insisted that skills could not be learned
unless students were given opportunities to
practice under supervision.
He also added that students must be given
feedback on their performance.
His contributions are related to cognitive
theory.

29. 3: Constructivism theory by Barlet( 1932)
 This sch of thought argues that learners
actively construct /builds new ideas or
concepts (own knowledge )based upon their
current & past knowledge, perception &
experiences.
 Constructivism learning entails personal effort
 Learning should be situated in realistic setting;
testing shd be integrated with task & not
separate
 The teacher act as a facilitator

30. 4: Holistic learning theory
• The basic premise of this theory is that :
individual personality consist of many
elements specifically: the intellect,
emotion, intuitions, impulse
&imagination
• They all require activation if learning is to
be more effective

31. 4; Experiential learning
Is based on the premise that reflection
helps us to correct our mistakes
Learning occurs through:
• Concrete experiences
• Observation & reflection
• Abstract conceptualization
• Active experimentation

32. -Provided a learner-centered view
of learning
His main propositions were that:
• All humans have a natural potential & desire
to learn
• Learning occurs when the student perceives
relevance related to his own purposes
• Significant learning is acquired through doing

33. Ct…..
• Learning is more effective when the
learner is responsible for choosing his
direction, discovering resources &
formulating problems.
• Most learning is self-initiated & involves
the whole person, including his feelings
as well as intellect

34. Ct…
• Self-evaluation is a basic skill & necessary
for effective mature learning.
• Learners should retain a continuing
openness to change.
• Roger’s approach significantly
contributed to adult learning principles
e.g. the use of small group discussions,
where the teacher is a facilitator

35.  According to education should
help stds to look within themselves&
from this self-knowledge.
 Shd develop a set of values which will
guide them in their life of work.
 He emphasizes the importance of
learning for self-enhancement rather
than simply for utility.

36. Ct……
 This view is relevant to adult learners
who decide to continue their education
out of interest, rather than in order to
gain extra degrees or qualifications.
 Implicit in this approach is the
importance of the individual in deciding
what to learn & how to learn it.

37. 6: Action learning theory
• Tries to link the world of learning with
the world of action through a reflective
process within small cooperative learning
groups

38. 7: Adult learning theory
• Adult learners learns differently from
child learners
• They bring a lot of experience to the
learning environment
• Requires active participation in their
learning

39. Conditions that make an environment
conducive to learning
Learning is encouraged in an atmosphere
that:
Encourages learners’ to be active
Emphasizes the personal nature of learning
Accepts that difference is desirable
Recognizes that learners’ make mistakes
Tolerates imperfection

40. Ct…
Encourages openness of mind and trust in self
Makes the individual feel respected &
accepted
Facilitates discovery
Puts emphasis on self-evaluation & co-
operation
Permits questioning & clarification

41. Teaching is an interaction between the
teacher & the learner under the
teacher’s supervision in order to
bring out expected changes in the
learner’s behavior.

42. To assist learners to:
• Acquire, retain, comprehend & be able to
use knowledge
• Understand, analyze, synthesize &
evaluate concepts/ ideas
• Achieve skills at a certain level
• Establish habits which are helpful for
their development
• Develop certain attitudes

43. As a teacher, you should encourage learners to
actively participate during teaching/learning
sessions.
You can do this in many ways:
• Give students activities to perform
• Ask questions
• Set problems or projects
• Give feedback & show / tell them how they could
have done better.

44. • Make your teaching as clear as possible
e.g. by speaking audibly, writing neatly &
selecting your visual aids carefully &
appropriately to convey a meaning to the
learner.
• Ensure mastery by continuously assessing
the learners as well as assessing them at
the end of courses.

45. • Vary teaching methods
• This allows you to take into account the
individual differences of the learners
• Motivate your learners by making sure
that your teaching is interesting, relevant
& rewarding to learners.

46. -Planning is very important & it involves 6 major
key elements.
-The teacher must make key choices regarding:
• What the learner should learn.This can be
done by preparing learning objectives.
• The content,which should be arranged in a
sequence or progression.

47. • Appropriate learning activities & teaching
methods should be selected
• The amount of time to be allocated to
different learning activities,as well as
assessment procedures & methods to be
used.
• Identification of resources needed for
teaching.Learners should be informed about
the teaching plan.
• Evaluation should be carried out for both
teaching & learning

48. -If a teacher cannot communicate,learning becomes
a problem.
-To ensure effective communication,teachers do many
things including:
• Explaining to & advising the learner
• Helping the learners to exchange ideas
• Provoking the learner to think
• Using varied teaching techniques
• Detecting whether the learners understand or not &
taking appropriate measures

49. -Adequate resources must be provided to
ensure effective teaching &learning & these
must be prepared & obtained before teaching
starts.
-A teacher can ensure availability of resources
by:
• Requesting all required resources in advance
• Preparing,selecting or adapting educational
materials for the session

50. Ct…..
• Arranging learning experiences ,especially
those that provide opportunities to practice
skills eg field visits
• Arranging for learners’ attachments & projects
• Involving other health service personnel in
teaching the learner
• Arranging access to materials
(eg.libraries,audio-visual programmes &
microscopes)

51. -Teaching & learning can be difficult for both the
teacher & the learner.
-There’s a need for the teacher to be supportive to
the learner.
-As a teacher you can give such support by:
• Showing the learner that you care
• Listening & attempting to understand your
student
• Helping the learner to identify his/her options so
as to make decisions.
• Providing advice & information that helps your
learner

52. -Assessment of teaching, as well assessment of
the learner, must be planned & incorporated
into all teaching & learning activities
-Assessment is a guide to what should be taught
next & how much
-As a teacher, you can plan for assessment in
many ways eg. you can:
-Design assessments that measure how much
the learner will have learnt

53. Ct…..
• Use the assessment to guide the learner’s
learning
• Use the assessment to give feedback to the
learner
• Use the assessment to decide whether your
learner is competent to provide health care
• Encourage your learners to self assess &
assess others

54. -Continuing education is vital for all health
professionals because of the rapid
increase in knowledge as well as the
rapid changes in technology that
characterize the world today.
-Learners perceive the teacher as a
resource for information, skills & advice.
-Therefore, you as a teacher must stay
informed through self education

55. Ct…….
-This means that you should know the
subject matter that is to be taught &
where to find relevant information.
-You should also know the health care
delivery systems & any other relevant
resources that are locally available.
NB: Learners should be able to see you as a
model for continuing learning

56. -As a teacher, you must seek to maintain a
balance between theory & practice.
-You need to give more time to learning
rather than teaching.
-Skills are best learnt through practice.
-Practical sessions need more time to
reinforce skill learning & application of
theory to practice.

57. -A lesson plan is a written description used
in a teaching/learning situation to guide
the teacher to systematically present the
subject matter in a logical, interrelated &
integrated way such that learning is
reinforced & enhanced.

58. • Subject:
• Topic:
• Date:
• Venue:
• Time:
• Teaching/learning method:
• Broad objective:
• NB; You should always assess your teaching at
the end of the lesson

59. • -Refers to special skills which the teacher is required
to apply for effective implementation of a good
lesson plan in traditional teaching processes.
• -There are six teaching skills commonly taught in all
institutions of higher learning & referred to as micro
teaching skills
-is the skill of appropriately
introducing a topic or starting a lesson & capturing
learner attention.
-the skill of varying focus
movements, speech & content delivery to retain
learner attention

60. is the technique of rewarding
students to promote good behavior & attention.
the technique of using questions to
promote interaction with learners to hold their
attention
that promote
learning
-helping learners achieve “mental” closure
of a learning session in ways that help them to
remember what they learn eg. By encouraging
students to summarise what they have learnt.

61. -In traditional teaching/learning processes,the
emphasis is on the teacher & how he/she
facilitates learning for the students.
-In innovative educational processes,the burden of
learning shifts to the learner.The teacher is
transformed into a facilitator.
-In the innovative teaching/learning process, the
teacher,like in the traditional process,must
identify the area to be taught,define the subject
& topic to be learnt as well as the objectives&
content to be learnt from a curriculum.

62. -These aspects of the teaching/learning process
are inescapable for all teachers
-For innovative teaching/learning methods such
as Problem Based Learning(PBL),the teacher
must then develop tutorial problems which
will be used to guide the achievement of the
objectives as stated in the curriculum.

63. -The teacher will also produce a booklet,which
contains those problems,as they will be used in
teaching the course.
-In addition,the teacher will also develop a tutor
guide to be used by the facilitator for the
course,which must contain the solutions & useful
tips for guiding the learner.
-Innovative learning processes are best described
after the tutorial booklet & tutor guide have been
developed.

64. -After this have been developed,a tutor can then
carry a copy of the booklets for each of his
students & his own booklet& tutor guide to his
tutorial room.
-Innovative processes are, therefore,more difficult
during preparation but easier during tutorials &
actual course delivery
-Inside his tutorial room with his group of
students,the tutor can follow any one of the
following processes to conduct his tutorial

65. -Read through the problem,define terms,clarify
concept,analyse problem & set learning
objectives.Solve any problem(if possible at
this point)eg.on Monday.Students identify
their own learning objectives(SOLO)

66. • -Self-Directed Learning means that the students
study & look for information on their own.They
may do this on Tuesday,Wednesday & Thursday in
preparation for the tutorial session on Friday
-This is the second tutorial during which students
do presentation of gathered information,solution
of problems & synthesis.This would take place on
a Friday

67. • STEP 1:Clarify terms & concepts not readily
comprehensible
• STEP 2:Define the problem
• STEP 3:Analyse the problem
• STEP 4:Draw a systematic inventory of the explanations
inferred in step 3
• STEP 5:Formulate learning objectives
• STEP 6:Collect additional information outside the
group(SDL)
• STEP 7:Synthesize & test the newly acquired
information

68. • STEP 1 to STEP 7:Similar to the 7 steps PBL
Tutorial process
• STEP 8:Meet as groups to draw inventory of
unresolved issues
• STEP 9:Second Self-Directed Learning
• STEP 10:Meet again & synthesize the newly
acquired information

69. -Was developed at Moi University Faculty of Health
Sciences
STEP 1:Group organization:Introductions
:Selection of chairman
:Selection of secretary
• STEP 2:Reading through the problem(aloud)
• STEP 3:Identifyng the problem
• STEP 4:Defining the problem

70. • STEP 5:Raising learning issues
• STEP 6:Resolving issues based on prior
knowledge
• STEP 7:Organization of the unresolved issues
• STEP 8:Developing learning objectives from
the organized unresolved issues

71. • STEP 9:Information gathering from all
available resources
• STEP 10:Students meeting alone under their
chairman to collate information & identify the
objectives based on information that is so far
not available

72. Second Tutorial
• STEP 11:Discussion of available information to
check for correctness & completeness
• STEP 12:Identification of objectives so far not
addressed with a view to identifying the
resources from which to obtain information.

73. • STEP 13;Information gathering on difficult objectives
• STEP 14:Final collation of information & solving of the
problem(students meeting alone under their chairman)
• STEP 15:Identifyng areas that are difficult to
understand & seeking help ,eg.overview (if
necessary)or seminar
• NB:Of all these various processes,the major steps are
encompassed in the 3 step process.This simply presents
a problem to the learner,gives him time to do self-
directed study & enables him to discover & present his
solutions.All this is done with the help of the tutor.

74. -These are modern innovative teaching /learning
skills & are most appropriate for adult learners.
-Super skills, which bear the acronym FAGIPW,
emphasize that a tutor ought to:
• Facilitate
• Advice
• Guide
• Inform
• Participate
• Withdraw

75. Thus the tutor should not simply stand up &
lecture his students for hours
-He/she should enable the students to study &
during tutorials, should freely participate in
their learning under his tutorship

76. -Learning can be great fun,but only if the right method is
applied at the right time to the right type of learner.
-Varying methods of teaching can make learning fun because:
• Individuals are different & one method may be effective for
one learner but not for another.
• Every task involves a no. of sub-tasks,which are carried out
differently.One teaching method may not be appropriate
for all sub-tasks
• A variation of teaching methods results in a variety of
stimuli.This helps to sustain the attention & interest of the
learner

77. -They include among others:
Lecture methods
Tutorial
Demonstration
Practical
Role-plays

78. CT……..
Simulation
Fieldwork
Clinical
Projects
Seminar or workshop
Large group discussions

79. -A practical is where students perform tasks.
-Practicals have many advantages & a few disadvantages
• It provides a better understanding of the lecture
content
• It leads to creativity on the part of the student
• It is effective for stimulating independent thought &
changing attitudes
• It is a good way of achieving a desired level of
competence for the student

80. • It provides immediate feedback on the
performance of the teacher
• It provides time for the individual student to be
helped by the teacher
• It provides an opportunity for developing
interpersonal relationships between teachers &
students
• Is a two way learning process
• It provides an opportunity for detailed discussion
of the students’ work

81. • It is not an economical way of using
manpower & resources
• It takes time to carry out practical work
• It needs administrative staff for preparation &
maintenance of materials
• It needs special accommodation for students
closer to the practical area

82. -A lecture is a lesson given orally by a teacher
• It is economical in the use of time
• Appropriate for large groups
• Use a single lecture theatre
• Delivery of content by expert

83. • Some students may be left behind
• Poor student involvement
• Impersonal
• No respect for individual pace
• Relatively ineffective for changing attitudes
• No immediate feedback
• No creative activity
• Not capable of helping to achieve all educational
objectives
• Students regard knowledge as a closed system
• Does not provide the necessary repetition

84. • Does not teach the skills required
• Students learning concentration decline as the
lecture proceeds
• Information come from a single source
• Little time for questions
• Does not provide for teamwork
• Doesn’t help develop interpersonal
relationships between students & teachers

85. • Less popular with students than other methods
when there are many lectures
• Students of lower ability are probably helped
more in the acquisition of knowledge by
discussion
• For interpretation of knowledge & problem
solving,discussion is probably more effective than
lectures
• To achieve the required standard of clinical
performance,other forms of learning & practical
work are necessary

86. -Learners are taken to the actual area where activities are
taking place,such as a school,factory,water treatment
plant,etc,so that they are able to see &relate to what
they have learnt on the specific topic.
-The field visit may include some practicals
• It provides the actual experience.Some things cannot
be learnt in school.
• Students can observe and/or participate in the use of
theory through first hand experience in actual field
situation

87. • Provides for creative & independent thought
on the part of the student
• Provides an opportunity for developing
interpersonal relationships between
students,teachers & field staff
• It can help promote the desired competence
& attitude
• Provides time for questions & discussions
• Information comes from multiple sources

88. • It is not an economical way of using
manpower & resources
• It creates administrative problems in arranging
programs
• It may confuse students because there is
usually a wide gap between theory & practice
• If it is not well supervised,learning potential
may be lost & it may turn into a social event

89. -A specific learning task is performed by the teacher while
students observe & learn
-This method is mainly used to show learners how to
perform
-In demonstration,an opportunity must be given to the
learners for a return
demonstration to ensure that they have understood.
• It provides an economical way of using manpower &
material
• It provides audio-visual observation of the subject

90. • Students will understand the subject better
when they see a demonstration of a lecture
• It may be a good means of teaching where
resources are readily available
• It provides a way of pacing a student’s way of
learning
• It can provide a wide range of knowledge in a
limited time.

91. • It is a one way learning process from
instructor to students
• Students are just passive observers
• It may not provide for activity on the part of
the students
• It may not provide the necessary repetition
depending on the individual’s pace of learning

92. • It has little regard for students’ individual
differences
• There is no immediate feedback to the
instructor on what has been learned
• It is relatively ineffective for achieving
competence unless students are given
opportunities to practice

93. • Students can work at their own individual pace
• Students can learn at the time& place of their
choice
• Students can request teaching whenever
necessary
• Students can omit any parts they already know
• Teachers can prepare a standardized body of
information

94. • The method can provide for creativity &
independent thought on the part of the student
• It can help achieve the desired competence
• It can provide immediate feedback to the teacher
• Students’ performance does not decline with
time
• Students learn how to express themselves clearly

95. • It is an uneconomical way of using resources
• The programmed materials have been maintained
• It needs administrative staff
• Information usually comes from a single source & may
lead to a one way learning process
• No teamwork &no interpersonal relationships between
students.
• It takes time to prepare materials for individual
learning
• It has no regard for the students’ individual differences

96. -A seminar is a session headed by a teacher,a trained
senior student or an enthusiastic student from the
class,where an assigned subject is discussed.
-The subject has to be prepared beforehand & presented
by the student
-The other students will then discuss,criticize & comment
on the material presented.
-The teacher should be available to be consulted by the
group
-This is important,as the students may need to confirm
factual information with the teacher.

97. • It promotes interpersonal relationships
between students
• Students can learn a lot from each other
• It allows for teamwork & personal flexibility
• Teachers can encourage full participation by
all students
• It provides creativity & independent thought
on the part of the students

98. • It provides immediate feedback of knowledge
gained
• It facilitates exchange of ideas
• It trains students to work independently in
preparing papers for presentation
• It provides greater control of communication
between students & teachers
• Provides a method of learning in the future
• Students performance does not decline with time

99. • It is not an economical way of using
manpower unless senior students act as
supervisors & teachers are only called in as
consultants
• It is too slow to cover more than a limited
amount of subject matter
• It may suffer from interruptions
• It cannot provide the repetition necessary for
individual needs

100. -A tutorial is a discussion session between a teacher
& a small no. of students
-The smaller the no. of students,the more effective
the tutorial is
- no. of students in a tutorial should not be more
than 8.
- However,the best ratio of teacher to student is 1:1.
-A tutorial must not be a mini-lecture given by the
teacher
-The teacher should talk as little as possible &
encourage the students to think & learn
independently

101. • Communication of knowledge is two-way between
teacher & students
• It provides personal contact between students &
teachers.
• Provides activity for the student
• Teachers can give full attention to individual
differences between students.
• It provides an opportunity for detailed discussion of
students’ prepared work
• It provides immediate feedback for both teacher &
student

102. • It encourages the creativity of the learner,including
the application of the knowledge& problem solving
• The learner tends to regard knowledge as an open
system.
• It is relatively effective in changing attitudes.
• It provides more understanding of the lectures
• Less able students can be helped by the teacher
• Students performance does not decline as time
proceeds
• It provides time for questions

103. • It is not an economical way of using manpower
• It moves too slowly to cover&covers only limited
subject matter
• Students need to do some work on the subject
beforehand
• It cannot provide the repetition necessary
depending on the individual
• The instructor or an active student may dominate it.
• It is liable to interruptions

104. -A project is an assignment given to an individual
student,a pair of learners or a group of learners in
which they carry out a piece of independent work
on a particular topic
-The learners have to organize the assignment &
prepare a written report to submit to the teacher
-A project may be relatively simple,eg to be carried
out within a week,or it may be more complex eg
to be carried out over a period of several months
or even a year

105. • It provides activities & calls for creativity on the part of
the student
• It encourages initiative in the student
• It encourages learners to be independent
• Learners can work at their own pace
• It may provide opportunities for inter-personal
relationships between learners & people from other
departments
• The results of a project provide feedback of students’
progress to the teacher
• Information comes from multiple sources

106. • It takes time to carry out a project
• Learners may find the project adds too much
to their workload
• It creates administrative problems in arranging
programmes
• Unless sufficient time is allowed, the learners
may produce a superficial report & gain the
impression that this standard of work is good
enough.

107. -It is an appropriate technique for encouraging
learners to analyse,synthesise & evaluate the
knowledge that they acquire(higher order
cognitive skills)eg they may choose to look
into the causes of a disease or a custom
practiced within a community.
-Group discussion can be instructor-centered or
learner-centred

108. • Allows use of the resources of the members of
the group;there is shared commitment to
learning;learners help each other with difficult
points
• Provides learners with opportunities to interact
with the instructor & fellow learners
• Learners learn to evaluate the logic of & the
evidence for their own & others’ positions,ie,
learning is through self-expression
&intercommunication

109. • Allows learners to become active participants in
the learning process rather than passive
recipients of information from one source.Work
becomes more motivation to learn.
• Provides an opportunity for the synthesis of
varied experiences & data derived from
lectures,laboratories,clinics & readings.The
student grasps the idea of self-learning without
fear of failure

110. • Dominance of vocal& aggressive members over others
in a group may hinder equal growth of all members in
the learning process
• Group discussion does not guarantee that an objective
will be accomplished within a fixed time
• The members of the group must bring to the discussion
a body of information that is sufficiently broad & deep
• Lack of planning by the group leader or the group itself
concerning the agenda & specific learning objectives
• As the size of the group increase,the efficiency &
effectiveness of the method will decrease.

111. -This instruction method is used to enable
learners to develop skills in dealing with “real
life”situations & “problems” in a classroom
setting
-eg. The use of a skills lab & the practical rooms
-It is better to make mistakes in these practical
simulations than in the real setting with real
patients/clients

112. i)The simulation game
-Simulation games are educational games designed to
provide students with the opportunity to practice &
develop skills in problem solving,decision making &
communicating.
-Simulation games enable students to work out real life
situations through the technique of role play.
eg.a)take a written case history.Set M.C.Qs for the learner
to answer after listening to or reading the case history.
b)Present a recording of chest sounds for the learner to
listen to.Ask the learner to report on what he/she
heard.Compare this with the official report.

113. ii)Simulators
-Simulators are operational models such as the
obstetrical phantom or model for first aid
teaching.
-They are devices or models that represent real
life situations & permit the learner to interact
with it in practicing skills relevant to that real
life situation

114. • Simulation can make a link between the training
situation & the real life situation.The more similar
the stimuli in the situations,the more positive
transfer there is from one to the other.
• Simulations provide a responsive
environment.There is always some immediate
feedback
• Simulation is a relatively cheap method & often
provides experience in a low-cost model for a
high-cost environment.

115. • Simulation can telescope time.Problems of real life can
be programmed in advance & dealt over a variable
length of time.The opportunity to confront real
problems in hypothetical setting means subsequent
problems cause less alarm,greater confidence & less
harm to all involved.
• Simulation allows learners to make their first serious
mistakes in a simulated situation rather than in a real
one.
• NB:The usefulness of simulation depends on its
accuracy or true reflection of reality.

116. • Simulation techniques cannot simulate all
dimensions of a real life situation.
• The planning & development time required
for a simulation technique may prove to be
costly.

117. -Role play is when the teacher suggests a situation
& students are given roles to play.
-This technique is somewhat like an ordinary play in
which each participant is assigned a character,but
in this case no lines are learned.
-The individual playing a specific role provides
his/her responses to the situation
-This technique is appropriate for an instructional
objective in the higher cognitive & affective
domains

118. -Role play should deal with a well structured
problem situation
-The problem situation should not be concerned
with the personal problems of the role
players.However,the situation should be
familiar enough for the students to be able to
understand the roles & their potential
responses to the problem

119. -The objectives of the role-play session should
be made explicit.
-Students should volunteer for the various roles
rather than be assigned to them
-Role-play sessions should be analysed by the
group after the session & guidelines for the
analysis provided before the session.

120. • The learner gets an opportunity to practise what
he/she has learned
• The learner is able to express his/her feelings
under the guise of make-believe
• This technique provides the leaner with an
opportunity to actively participate in the learning
process & also to get immediate feedback
• It imitates real life situations
• Gives more relevant perceptions in the student
learning

121. • Not all students may be able to dramatize or play
roles in different hypothetical settings
• Teachers may not be able to construct a real
problem situation or different roles to deal with
it.
• It can be very expensive
• Gives anxiety to students if they do not know
their roles & objectives of the course
• It cannot measure all aspects of performance coz
of the use of substitutes

122. -In this method,the learner learns from a crucial
incident which occurs in the course of study or
work.
-Due to the alarm it causes,he/she learns to prevent
a future occurrence,eg.a nurse who didn’t
observe a post-operative case sufficiently has her
patient bleed to death.On certifying death,the
bed was found to be full of blood

123. • Learning not easily forgotten
• Data is collected directly from the respondent
in his/her own words
• Focus on unusual or extraordinary may be
more helpful than routine data
• Does not force the respondent into any given
framework
• It’s a flexible method

124. • Inexpensive & provides information
• Identifies even rare events that might be
missed by other methods which only focus on
common & everyday events
• Useful when problems occur but the cause &
severity are not known
• Emphasizes the features that will make a
system particularly vulnerable & can bring
major benefits

125. • Such teaching cannot be planned
• Everyday issues may be missed
• Often rely on memory,incident may be equivocal
• Reliability is weak
• Method has a built in bias towards incidents that
happened recently since these are easier to recall
• Will emphasize only rare events,everyday issues
may be missed

126. persuading,talking,encouraging
-refer to the ability to make
decisions,thinking skills,choose appropriate
alternatives & exercise caution.
-relate to the use of
hands,the ability to do things or perform
procedures

127. -Explain the reasons & stages in performing it.
-Students see an expert performing the skill
correctly with an explanation of what you, as
the expert,are doing

128. -Encourage the learner to perform the skill
through projects,simulations,job
experience,fieldwork,workshops,laboratory
case studies,ward rotation & apprenticeship

129. They include:
• Problem Based Learning(PBL)
• Self Directed Learning(SDL)
• Small Group Tutorial (SGT)
• Community Based Education &
Service(COBES)
• Computer Aided Education (CAE)

130. Ct……
• Student-centered, Problem based,
Integrated, Community-oriented,
Electives & Systematic (SPICES)
• Of all the above innovative methods, the
best known is PBL.

131. -In PBL,a problem may mean any of the following:
• A problem that is clinical,theoretical,research-based or
related to real life
• An idea
• A situation
• An event
• An outbreak of disease/disaster
• A newspaper cutting
• A list of objectives
-Innovative methods are often used in combination with
other methods to facilitate student learning.

132. • Communication skills
• Problem solving skills
• Clinical reasoning skills
• Self directed learning skills
• Emotional/social support skills

133. • Thinking skills
• Team-work
• Continuing education skills
-The only disadvantages of innovative educational
methods are:
• Their resource-intensive nature
• The need to have many tutorial rooms to
accommodate the small groups of students
instead of the traditional huge lecture hall.

134. -In the innovative teaching/learning processes,the tutor
plays as many roles & even more roles than the
teachers in the traditional teaching methods.
-These roles include:
• Establishing rapport
• Explaining goals,objectives & functions
• Explaining procedures & roles of students & tutor in
PBL
• Focusing attention
• Keeping the ball rolling
• Encouraging active participation

135. • Referring back
questions,comments,suggestions to group
• Intervening in conflict situations
• Reinforcing group discussions
• Control group
• Distribute&re-direct questions
• Probe further,if necessary

136. • Encourage analysis,synthesis & evaluation of
problem(data)
• Encourage students to develop qualities of
individuals in group
• Intervene to keep group& discussion on track &
stimulate thinking by encouraging hypothesizing
• Maintain continuity & focus
• Encourage students to review& redefine
explanations

137. • Encourage students to make connections,links
of concepts,principles, process,etc
• Encourage evaluation of achievements
• Encourage students to summarize discussions
• Encourage students to act as a change agent
in the group
• Solution giver
• Process helper

138. • Resource linker
• Catalyst
• Encourage group
interaction,reinforcements,agreement
• Act as gate keeper
• Assist students to go through the process of PBL
• Assist students to understand their
abilities/limitations

139. • Active participation ie listening,contribution to the
discussion & asking questions
• Carrying out analysis,synthesis& evaluation of the
whole learning process
• Making connections,linking concepts & applying
principles
• Reviewing & redefining explanations
• Evaluating achievements
• Summarizing at various stages
• Acting as change agent,ie,as a solution giver,process
helper,resource linker & catalyst

140. -There are few guideposts to choosing an appropriate
method:
-The objective is what you want your learner to be able to
do at the end of the session.
-Different objectives require application of different
teaching methods
• -ie.how much time does it require?;where is the
teaching to take place?;how many learners are
involved?at what level are the learners?

141. -You should gather the resources required to
deliver the lesson.
-By gathering resources in advance,you will be
sure that your simulators are functioning well
& can be
manipulated to suit the learning environment.

142. -An attitude is a tendency to behave or think in a
certain way, eg.respect for ideas that other
people have.
-Attitudes are influenced by our values & feelings
-Certain attitudes are formed or changed during
training
-We can best teach attitudes by:
1.Providing information to shape attitudes eg.facts
about AIDS,by lectures,films,stories,etc

143. 2.Providing examples or models to shape
attitudes(advertising goal)
3.Providing experience to shape attitudes eg.
opportunities to work in a hospital
4.Providing discussion to shape attitude eg.by
sharing your own opinions,small-group
discussion
5.Role plays,eg playing the role of
doctor,nurse,patient

144. -Clinical teaching is teaching in the clinical or
practical setting,similar to the environment
within which the learner will practice in
future.
-In clinical teaching,you want your learner to
put the knowledge of a task or skill into action
-You want your student to get involved with the
patient/client
-Involvement brings in emotions & feelings

145. -You must teach the learner to emphasize so
that he/she can nurture or care without
getting carried away by the effects of the
illness or situation
-No learning can take place until certain basic
needs of the learner have been met
-When the basic needs get fulfilled,your learner
will want to learn at a higher level& exercise
mastery of the skills.

146. -As the learner carries out procedures,she/he needs
to learn how to contain personal negative feelings
eg.contempt,revulsion of unpleasant sights or
aversion
-Above all,the learner must learn how to maintain
his/her integrity&the professional code of ethics
&etiquette
-This is necessary because the student will be
learning how to protect his/her patient/client
from malpractice & negligence

147. -Mastery of the theory is important because it
gives you the foundation
-Scientific knowledge adds appropriate technical
skills & encourages you to develop the right
attitudes
-The result is the development of sound clinical
judgement,which is the sign of an experienced
nurse.

148. -As a clinical teacher,you should be:
• A skilled,experienced nurse concerned with
the maintenance & improvement of standards
of patient care
• Concerned to help your learner to develop
his/her potential as a nurse
• Able to gain satisfaction from caring for
patients

149. • Able to gain satisfaction from
teaching,especially individuals & small groups
• Keen to create a favourable environment for
learning.
• Alert to the opportunities available for
facilitating learning in the clinical situation
• A model for your learner

150. -A curriculum is a description of all that takes
place in an educational institution from the
first day of training to the last day of training.
-A curriculum is also the document in which all
the activities ,transactions &the events of a
training programme are described

151. -gives the
justification /rationale & philosophy of the
training program & why the programme is
required
-ie an outline of the
physical,administrative & financial
requirements for the course.It is also a
description of the minimal facilities in terms of
buildings,equipment & personnel

152. -is a description of the
entry requirements for the students &
methods of selection
-describing the
goals & educational objectives of the course.
to be covered in a course according to
stated objectives

153. -are intended to be descriptions of
the teaching/learning methods to be employed during
the educational program
-outlines a logical sequence of events
-a specification of how long each unit or
learning block should last.
-outlines methods of continuous
evaluation,final certification,remedial activities &
referral of failed candidates
-including the title,unit,course
objectives,course content & code for each course
taught in the program

154. -The teachers who teach the main subjects of a
discipline often borrow from their past
experiences & merge them with the current
trends of the discipline
• Eg we now have more nurse graduates who
are prepared in advanced nursing practices &
we can introduce content that was not
included before.

155. -Thus, theories of nursing, trends, research, etc
that were only taught in higher nursing
programmes at university level previously, are
now incorporated in the KRCHN curriculum
-The new content is designed to make the
KRCHN student a more effective practitioner
to provision of quality health care.

156. -What is taught has to reflect what is
current within the contemporary society.
-This means it has to be relevant to the
needs of the local people socially &
culturally eg. HIV/AIDS has had to be
included in the content because it bears a
lot of importance to human existence &
is emphasized in all branches of health
care & development

157. -The cost of implementation of curriculum can
determine the type of health worker trained by a
given country.
-In developing countries, we often train staff at a
lower level of education in skills that are usually
taught to university graduates in highly
industrialized countries.
-This is because in developing countries, university
education adds a cost burden to the limited
resources.
• E.g. midwives in developing countries carry out life
saving measures that are left for experts in
industrialized countries.

158. • Politicians or political investors can
influence the numbers to be trained &
even the level of training.
• E.g. the introduction of the quota system
in the Kenyan basic education system was
politically motivated with the aim that all
ethnic groups might receive equal
attention

159. -They include individuals from professional
associations, ministries of health & education,
boards of examinations, administrators of the
training institutions, teachers & students.
-This group of participants is called internal because
they actually have direct involvement in the
curriculum & so have the greater impact on its
development.
-They develop the curriculum, teach it & evaluate
the curriculum & the students

160.  They do not have direct involvement in the
curriculum devlp, but they are either beneficiaries
of the product, service or provide resources to
facilitate its implementation or may liase with the
institution in various ways.
 This group comprises the community, business,
industry & NGOs, they can easily influence
decisions made by the internal group.
 When consulted properly, the 2 groups ought to
produce a curriculum that enables the desired
change in health care services.

161. out
-It is carried by subject specialists,who
determine the subdivision of content,the
methods & timing of instruction.
-It assumes that medicine is a series of discrete
independent disciplines,the sum of which
form the required body of knowledge for a
competent health worker.

162. -It attempts to integrate or combine in a
meaningful way disciplined knowledge to
impart wholesome learning for student
application.
-Aims at identifying professional competencies
required & teaching to achieve competencies
in a specified setting.

163. 1.The curriculum is organized around the functions of a
health worker in a specified setting
2.The “output”of training is a health worker who can
practice at a defined level of proficiency in accordance
with local conditions.
3.It is assumed that the majority of individuals can master
the required level of proficiency-given appropriate
instruction & sufficient time.
• NB:The approach emphasizes that the setting within
which the health worker will be expected to operate is
an extremely important determinant of the required
level & type of competence

164. -The subject-centred approach emphasizes the
acquisition of disciplined knowledge rather than its
application.
-In the integrated approach,knowledge can be
wholesome & meaningful but integration may fall
short of adequate vertical & horizontal integration.
-The competency-based approach is preferred for
professional training by most curriculum
developers.

165. 1.The dynamic nature of jobs-when jobs change,health
workers may be stranded unless continuing education
is provided & this may be costly
2.Lists of tasks to be mastered-normally,this list is long &
demands that the duration of training be
prolonged.This can also turn out to be costly.
3.It focuses on tasks which health workers perform
(operative competencies)This is a major handicap when
the health worker is exposed to situations which
demand initiative &independent thinking eg.when
drugs/equipment change,the health worker cannot
adopt

166. • Step 1:Identification of health problems/needs
• Step 2:Identification of professional
roles&functions
• Step 3:Performing task analysis on professional
roles & functions
• Step 4:Development of educational goals &
objectives on the basis of professional functions
& task analysis
• Step 5:Identification & selection of subject
matter/content to be learned

167. • Step 6:Identification of teaching/learning
methods
• Step 7:Identification/selection of learning
resources
• Step 8:Identification of assessment tools to
determine learner performance
• Step 9:Curriculum implementation
• Step 10:Curriculum review & change

168. -An objective is a statement describing an
instructional outcome
-The means of achieving those results, the type
of instruction or the performance of the
teacher are not included
-A clearly written objective should enable any
competent teacher to help students gain the
knowledge, skill or attitude specified.

169. -A meaningfully stated objective is one that
succeeds in communicating your intent.
-Therefore,the best statement is the one that is
specific in meaning & not open to ambiguous
interpretations
-Objectives should always describe what “to do”
-It is difficult to teach or assess “to be” eg.to
enjoy,to appreciate,to really understand,to
believe,to internalize

170. -An objective always says what a learner is
expected to be able to do.
-It is the description of the task to be done
expressed by an active verb eg. to write,to
draw,to identify,to compile etc.
-The performance indicator is the act whose
satisfactory performance implies that the
student is able to accomplish the task required

171. -An objective always describes the important
conditions(if any)under which the
performance is to occur
-It includes data,limitations &restrictions

172. -Wherever possible,an objective describes the
criterion of acceptable performance.
-It describes how well the learner must perform
in order to be considered successful
-It is the definition of the acceptable level of
performance expected from the student eg.

173. i)Time limit
-Speed is important but need not be a criterion
in all performances.
ii)Accuracy
-Sometimes the accuracy of a performance is
more important than its speed & sometimes
both speed & accuracy are important
eg.accurate to the nearest gram

174. iii)Quality
-A statement to specify the level of acceptable
performance
• NB:Sometimes it is not easy to read an objective
& identify whether a phrase describes a condition
or a criterion.
-Sometimes the two blend together eg.”be able to
run 400 metres without stopping.”
-“Be able to run 400metres” can be both a
condition & a criterion,but others may say
“without stopping”is the criterion

175. -Learning objectives can be grouped into three
major categories or domains:
1)Cognitive domain
2)Psychomotor domain
3)Affective domain

176. -Is the domain that is given most attention
-It includes objectives concerning knowledge or
information
eg.thinking,naming,recognizing,predicting,etc.

177. -In the cognitive domain,the taxonomy from
simple to higher levels of mental activity is as
follows:
-Ability to memorize,recall or repeat information
presented earlier
Eg.arrange,duplicate,label,list,memorize,name,r
ecall

178. -Ability to interprete or restate the information acquired
on level 1
• Eg.classify,define,describe,discuss,explain,select,transla
te,identify
• -Ability to use or apply information,theories,principles
or laws to new situations
• Eg.apply,locate,choose,sketch,solve,operate,demonstra
te,interprete

179. • -Ability to divide complex knowledge into its
separate parts & to recognize the relationships
• Eg.analyse,appraise,calculate,categorize,compare
,contrast,criticize
• -Ability to bring together separate elements of
knowledge to form new patterns
• Eg.arrange,assemble,formulate,collect,create,des
ign,prepare,write

180. • -Ability to make judgements or appraisals
based on knowledge or given criteria
• Eg.appraise,argue,assess,rate,choose,judge,pr
edict,defend

181. -It includes the skills requiring use & co-
ordination of skeletal muscles,as in the
physical activities of performing,manipulating
& constructing.
-Although no widely acceptable taxonomy of
this domain has been developed,various
suggestions have been proposed.

182. -One recognized grouping(not sequential
taxonomy)is the following:
-Arms,shoulders,feet,legs
-Hands & fingers;eyes & hands;ears,feet &
fingers

183. -Facial expression,gestures,etc
-Producing & co-ordinating sound as in a foreign language
or literature reading.
-Within psychomotor behaviours are included
physical,decision-making & communication skills
related to the various health professions,performing
arts,the manipulation of tools,the operation of
machines & other equipment,speaking & writing.
-Psychomotor behavior are generally easy to observe or
measure.

184. -This involves objectives concerned with
attitudes,appreciation,values &all emotions
ie.enjoying,conserving,respecting,etc.
-This area is very important in education but few useful
learning objectives have been written on it.
-Willing to give attention to an event or activity
-Willing to react to an event through some form of
participation

185. -Willing to accept an event through the expression
of a positive attitude
-Considers values & selects appropriate alternatives
on their merits
-Acts in accordance with the values he/she
accepts,incorporating this behavior into his/her
personality

186. -should be relevant to the health needs of the
community
-conveys the same meaning each time
-no argument/dispute about meaning
-can be attained/performed
-seen to be happening
-quantified in an objective way.
 NB:Objectives which have every quality except
relevance may not be very useful in medical education.

187. 1.They form the backbone of any instructional
programme built on a competency base where
students’mastery of learning is the desired
outcome
2.Objectives inform students what is required of
them so that they can better prepare their work
3.Objectives help the planning team to think in
specific terms & to organize &put into a sequence
the subject matter

188. 4.Objectives indicate the type & extent of
activities that are required for successfully
carrying out learning
5.Objectives provide a basis for evaluating both
the students’learning & the effectiveness of
the instructional programme.
6.Objectives provide the best means for
communicating to colleagues,parents & others
what is to be taught & learnt.

189. • Most objectives relate to the lowest cognitive
level(recall of information) which is the least
important.This means that the really important
outcomes of education receive little attention
• The procedure employed for specifying objectives
applies best to cognitive & psychomotor
behaviours.Only rarely can objectives in the
affective domain be stated in observable &
measurable terms

190. • While objectives may be somewhat useful in subject
areas that have a high sequential content structure,like
mathematics,science & foreign languages,they are of
limited use in the humanities,arts & social sciences
which do not require sequential cognitive organization.
• A teacher cannot specify in advance all potential
outcomes of an instructional programme.The narrow
path of an objective-based programme may hinder
useful unanticipated needs & outcomes.
• Employing measurable objectives is a dehumanizing
approach to learning & makes education too
mechanistic & impersonal.

191. Teaching aids are used to enhance
learning coz we learn more effectively if
we use more than one of our senses i.e. 5
senses.
Modern technology enables learners to
combine the use of several senses which
is achieved through the use of various
types of teaching aids

192. -They include:
• Transparency & overhead projector
• Films & Video cassettes
• Slides = also projected
• comp & Liquefied crystal device (LCD) projector.
• Kaleidoscope ??
-These are powerful because they bring real
situations close to the student.
-It is important that you obtain appropriate aids.
-However, projected aids are expensive & can be
difficult to maintain.

193. -It projects transparencies from a horizontal
table via a prism or mirror & a lens
-A bright image appears on a screen behind the
teacher
-The setting up of the screen depends on the
type of room & the size of the audience.
-There are two possibilities of projection:
a)projection from behind
b)projection slightly to the side (better viewing)

194. Ct…
-When lecturing, stand to the right or left of
the projector so that you can easily point out
the important areas that you want the
learner to grasp.
-You can also view what the learner is seeing
simultaneously
-Expose only what you are discussing & not
the whole transparency so that the learners
can concentrate & take down important
points.
-In this way, the rest of the presentation will
not distract learners

195. When preparing transparencies:
• Do not write too near the edge or you
might lose half of the image; Leave at
least an inch of margin all around.
• For more complex drawings, prepare a
pencil sketch then lay the transparency
over the sketch & copy onto the
transparency. You can also copy a
diagram from a book.

196. • Lettering should not be too small, about
4mm(1/8 of an inch)
• A transparency should convey one theme.
• Put as much information as necessary but as
little as possible on a transparency.
• Ensure clarity & impact
• Leave room for future alterations.
• Store your transparencies with care to avoid
moisture & dirt.

197. Ct….
• Keep content down to 10 lines with 10
words on each line.
• When masking, use thin paper. This
ensures that the lecturer sees the whole
transparency but the audience only the
information that has been revealed.
• Overlays: Do not use more than six build-
ups or brightness will be impared

198. • You are able to face the classroom & point out
features appearing on the screen easily using
a pointer
• It may not be necessary to darken the room
• You are able to project a wide variety of
materials.
• Alternatively, they can be put up on top of
each other showing stages of development of
an idea or structure

199. Ct….
• You can easily trace diagrams & drawings
if you require them
• You increase your learners’ curiosity by
adding many colors to the transparencies
both permanent & non-permanent
depending on the pens & ink used

200. • The acetate sheets are expensive to obtain, but
spoiled & cleaned X-ray film is a useful alternative.
• You should get a transparent & slightly bluish sheet
that can be used in the same way as transparent
acetate sheets
• Special felt pens are used for writing on the
transparent sheets. If they are difficult to obtain,
the glass pencils used in laboratories are a
substitute.
• Erase with water or with spirit for semi-permanent
ink

201.  After projection, do not remove the wire plug
from the socket but switch off the lamp &
keep fan running until the bulb has cooled
down.
 Keep lenses & mirrors free of dirt
 Keep a spare bulb in stock at all times
 Store semi-permanent transparencies
together with master copies of handouts in a
file with unit block or subject concerned, so it
can be found easily &used again the following
year.

202. Liquefied crystal device (LCD)
• In this system, content is typed in the power
point in the computer & projected onto a
screen using the Liquefied crystal device (LCD)
projector.

203. -These are aids that you can find within your
environment
-You can select these well in advance of the lesson &
pre-test them before classroom use.
These include:
• The chalkboard & chalk/ white board & marker
• Pictures/cartoons
• Flipcharts/ charts
• Posters
• Handouts
• flannel boards

204. -are the most easily available, convenient & most
used teaching aid
-Write only the essential points & examples e.g.
your lesson plan outline. This helps the learner
copy & fill in all other relevant information as
you build up from introduction to conclusion.
-Write large enough letters/figures to be seen by
all learners.

205. Ct….
-Plan the board so that information develops
from one stage to the next stage.
-Deliver the lecture to your audience & not to
the board, ie.if you have to write, lecture first,
then write on the board.
-Stand next to the board at an angle so that you
can see your learners frequently.
-Maitain eye contact with the class

206. 1) Templates
 Cut out shapes of plywood or card in advance
to outline figures e.g. a triangle in
mathematics, fix them on the board as you
explain them
2) Bounce pattern:
 This is a thick tough paper in which certain
outline e.g. a map of a country within its
regions has been punched out along the
outline

207. -Hold the paper against the blackboard & flicker a
chalky duster along the line of perforation
-When the paper is taken away,lines of dots appear
which you can join to produce the wanted
drawing
-Use soft chalk soaked in sugar solution to draw on
the board
-The drawing can be wiped off with a damp cloth

208. b)Pictures
-Can be in form of slides, photographs,
picture-drawings, line drawings or
cartoons
-Good & appropriate pictures are
sometimes difficult to obtain or prepare

209. -Are cheap & easy aids to prepare
- Simple charts Can be made from butcher paper,
old calendars, paper boxes, manila paper, etc
- Flip charts are commercial plain papers
-The pictures can be drawn by somebody else or
traced from a book
-The pictures should be labeled in legible
handwriting
-When labeling, remember to:
• Use thick felt pens
• Use different colours for emphasis

210. • Write in lower case letters, not capitals
• Do not write too much / don’t congest it
-When making a presentation using flipcharts,
do not read the chart as you talk.
-As you prepare the lesson or the materials for
teaching, make notes on your lesson plan to
guide your discussion.
-This way, you can read your notes as you teach
& yet be facing the audience

211. -They take longer to prepare than charts
-They may consist of words only,pictures only,or a
mixture of both.
-Unlike flipcharts,posters are usually single-leafed.
-Posters need a lot of planning & testing before use.

212. Ct…
-They can be prepared for two types of viewers:
• For a mixed (heterogeneous)audience eg.on a
street for the public
-In this case, it should deliver the message at a
glance
• For a captive audience, eg.in a class
• NB: When preparing a poster, remember to
make it simple, use simple language & avoid
difficult words or slang & put as little as
possible on the poster

213. -It is the best teaching aid eg.a real baby
instead of a doll
-Try as much as possible to use the ‘real
thing’ in your lesson
-If it is not possible to demonstrate ‘the
real thing’ think of other teaching aids
that are simulations of the real thing.

214. Ct….
-The closer the simulation to the real
thing, the better the teaching aid is.
-This helps the learner to internalize &
transfer the impression he gets to the
real thing
-It also helps the learner to start using the
right attitudes & find the right
expressions to use from the start.

215. -These are written papers given out by teachers
to students
-They act as guides for work to be done, or
references to be looked up.
-They help remind students of the main points
to remember from a learning experience
-They should not be used as substitutes for
manuals, texts & references
-A handout is both a visual aid to learning & an
addition to private study.

216. -It is to help you to:
• Indicate the objectives of the lesson exercise
• Indicate the relevance & define the area to be
covered
• Provide additional theoretical information
• Provide a stimulus for further thinking
• Give instructions for practical work; these
should be specific & complete

217. -A good handout should:
• Set out the structure of a lesson to promote
attainment of the objectives
• Benefit learning
• Provide an infrastructure for the topic
• Emphasize a framework for interaction between the
facilitator & learner
• Help the learner to receive detailed information
• Guarantee the accuracy of the transferred
information

218. -Your introduction should relate the new material to the
learner’s past experience
-You need to summarize the major ideas
-You should use major & minor topics
-You should leave space between paragraphs & sections
for learners to make notes
-You need to simplify your expressions
-You should label your illustrations,tables & graphs
appropriately.A series of diagrams building up to a
complete concept may be more helpful than one
detailed diagram

219. -You are advised to put questions & exercises
within the text to stimulate thinking
-Your content,language & spelling should be
accurate.
-The statements should be consistent with other
texts or manuals which the learners use.
-Your handouts must be clear & arranged in a
logical order with good arrangement of
headings,words & diagrams on the page.

220. -This is the device of choice for teaching
villagers.
-All rural educators should know how to
use it
-It is based on the fact that materials with
rough surfaces tend to adhere to each
other
-If flannel cloth is not available, alternatives
can be found.

221. ct….
-The board is put in front of the class, sloping
slightly backwards
-Cards with a rough backing eg. sand paper, can
be placed on the board in the desired
position.
-The cards can be moved or taken down at will.
-Make cards from large print or written words
eg. newspaper cuttings, photographs or
dissected posters

222. • It tells a story in which you can see things
happen
• It has strong colours that please
• The pictures are large enough to be seen from
some way off.
• It looks like things that people are familiar
with
• It arouses interest & questions

223. • Barazas are usually too big for flannel pictures to be
seen from the back
• When flannels are used in the open air,the wind
may blow the flannel graphs away
• The apparently miraculous way in which the picture
sticks to the board is a distracting novelty.
• NB:Even the best designed teaching aid cannot
replace practical work with patients & in the
community

224. -Good durable teaching aids can be reused.
-Keep your teaching aids neatly in a resource learning
kit(cupboard/store)
-Each item should be labeled clearly for easy access
-Maintain an inventory of the various aids in stock
-When you lend out items, they should be signed for.
-On their return, you should check their condition first
before storing so that you keep readily usable items
in your resource centre or cupboard

225. -Maps &charts are stored rolled up.
-To avoid long searches,their titles should be written
on the back & facing the door so that they can be
seen easily.
-Slides are best kept in hanging files with a list of
contents on the filing cabinet.
-Overhead transparencies & master copies of
handouts are put in a master file together with
other material on that special unit.

226. Ct…
The master copies are given numbers corresponding
to the no. of stencils, which are stored in or near
the stencil room
-These are filed in either alphabetical order or
numerically
-When a handout is needed, it is easy to trace back
the old stencil & run off the quantity needed.
-Handouts need to be updated with current
information.
-Models, samples & specimens may be kept for a
permanent exhibit in the library.

227. -The following steps will ensure that you use teaching
aids appropriately
1. the teaching aids to suit the lesson
2 the teaching aids to ensure they convey the
message you want
-Avoids unpleasant surprises
-During your preview, plan explanations or comments
you may wish to make during presentation of the
lesson
3 how & in what order you intend to use your
teaching aids, you could number them in pencil

228. Ct….
-In your plan, you should; introduce the subject in a
stimulating & interesting way to arouse curiosity,
describe the main body of the lesson & recapitulate
,ie, restate or repeat the lesson in summary to assist
in consolidation of knowledge.
-Having determined the role of the teaching aid, the
learners mind must be prepared to obtain the
maximum benefit from the aid
-Tell your learner what to look for as you explain &
comment where necessary

229. Ct…
4. your teaching aids appropriately & give
adequate explanation
-Your students see you as an expert
-You should check the mechanical equipment to
ensure that it is in working condition.
-If you are working with a community on a field
trip,make sure you have obtained consent from the
involved persons
• 5. your teaching aids with the same class

230. Ct…
-After presenting your teaching aid, find
out if the presentation was successful,
whether the aid achieved its purpose & if
the objective was reached.

231. Evaluation of learners
-Asking & answering questions from the learner
• Questionnaires &assignments to be
completed by the learner
• Weekly test
• NB:It is the aim of the lesson that should
dictate the type of aid to be used

232. -Evaluation involves placing a value on the learner’s
performance in order to make a decision about the
learner& the subject or course that was taught
-Is the formal mechanism or process used to
determine the degree of learning of the learner
-Refers to the process of finding out to what extent
the learner has achieved the set objectives

233. -You should evaluate the learner in order to:
• Help the learner to understand him/herself
• Help in retention & transfer of learning
• Motivate the learner
• Predict the level of learners’ future performance
• Judge the learners achievements
• Monitor the learners progress for the purpose of
providing feedback

234. • Determine teaching effectiveness
• License practice of a profession
• Identify weak & strong areas of a course
• Grade & rank students
• Gauge reputation of school performance
• Protect society,ie,to inform the community of
the extent to which graduates constitute a
potential danger

235. -This is a progressive evaluation in that the
learner & learning are evaluated on a
continuous basis
-It provides feedback on the strengths &
weaknesses of the performer
-It is performed frequently,ie,after small units of
learning

236. -It gives an early diagnosis of the learner’s
problems during the learning process,which
enables corrective measures to be taken
• Eg.placement testing or pretesting which are
conducted for the purpose of gauging to what
extent the learner possesses the skill &
abilities needed to begin instruction

237. -This also helps to determine whether the
student has already mastered some of the
material planned to be included in the
instruction so that you may alter the content
of the lesson.
-You should place the learner at the appropriate
level of the programme
-Use the placement test as a diagnostic test to
identify severe learning problems

238. -It refers to evaluation which is carried out at the end of a
term or course or programme
-It enables you to award grades,award certificates,license
the student for practice and/or select learners for a
further educational programme.
• NB:A good evaluation system should include both
formative & summative evaluation.
-Formative evaluation gives diagnostic feedback to both
teacher& learner,while summative evaluation reveals
the student’s ability to integrate & apply learning

239. -The content evaluated is selected from the
entire course work covered in the term/year
with samples of all learning tasks.
-It should include:
• Knowledge
• Skills
• Attitudes

240. -This can be assessed by essays, short answer
questions, multiple choice questions (MCQs), true-
false questions, matching tasks, completion of
blanks & varbal questions
Essays are easy to set
-It is important to remember to make them valid,
reliable & objective
-They should ask the learner to describe & analyse
issues
-Be very specific & describe exactly what the student
should do.
-Prepare a marking scheme.

241. -It can be tricky & one of the main objectives of
scoring is to award the correct marks for a given
test, exam or evaluation.
-Analyse the correct response by making out a list of
crucial points,which must appear in the answer in
advance.
-You should then compare the student’s answer to
these points & award marks for them,as well as
integration,coordination & organization

242. -In this type of scoring,you should first analyse
the correct responses as in analytical
scoring,then read the script to get an
impression for adequacy.
-You should then transfer the impression into a
grade.
-The papers(scripts)may be sorted out by
quality,ie,25% low,50% middle,25% high

243. -Since you may have many scripts to mark,you need to
organize yourself in order to be able to mark them
fairly.
-The following points can help you achieve this:
• Arrange for independent marking of papers or at least
a sample of them if the class is too large
• Conceal the name of the student,ie,use numbers or
letters
• Grade answers question by question, & not student by
student
• Discuss the answers with students to ensure
learning,ie,provide feedback

244. -These are questions where 4 or 5 answers are
given & the student has to choose the correct
or best answer.
-A typical MCQ has 3 parts:
i)The question itself or the stem
ii)The correct answer
iii)Distracters or incorrect answers

245. • Questions should be simple, straight forward &
should relate to what was taught
• The question should emphasize the aspects you
want to teach
• Choose good distracters
• Do not make incorrect answers ridiculous
• Choose distracters from among the type of mistakes
the students commonly make
• Do not make the correct answers obvious

246. • Can be used to test different sorts of knowledge
• For pre-test & post-test purposes
• To see how effective your teaching is
• To determine whether or not the students are
learning
• Advantages
• Disadvantages / limitations

247. Skills can be assessed through the use of:
• Objective structured clinical examination(OSCE)
• Objective structured practical
examination(OSPE)
-For both methods, candidates pass through a
no. of examination stations to answer or solve
various problems.
-Questions vary from practical skills, knowledge
application & testing of attitudes
-All candidates get the same experience

248. -Practical skills are considered among the more
important components of training in all
professions,that is,failure in practical tests is
equivalent to failure in the whole examination.
-We should not allow excellence in theory to
compensate for failure in practical.
-These examinations must be objective,valid &
reliable
-They should define the competencies a worker
needs to develop to successfully perform the job

249. -This ensures that all examiners have similar expectations
-Assess the student’s skills using rating scales or a
checklist.
-You should set short answers to practical problem
solving skills questions to ensure objective assessment.
-In order to improve the validity of the test,you should
increase the sample of the several stations thus
increasing the range of competencies to be tested.
-Draw up in advance a table of specifications to be tested
on.

250. -This is a comprehensive examination of a
patient where the student spends 15-60
minutes with a patient &then discusses that
patient with a panel of examiners(long case)
-The exam should be set up in the following
manner:
• Brief examination of a patient followed by oral
questions known as viva voce

251. • Assessment of the learner’s actual work
during practice using rating scales
• Assessment of log & procedure books
• Case record & case reports
• Models/phantoms

252. • Identify topics/competencies to be tested on
• Decide the number of stations & timing
• Allocate topics & competencies to be tested
• Set up instructions for examiners rating
scales/check list for each station
• List resources required for each station.

253. -These include:
• Examiners,markers & observers
• Room furniture,bed,clock,bell,etc
• Patients,normal persons & simulation
• Allocate marks for each station
• Allocate marks within the station,ie,for each
item of the question
• Prepare standard/model answers for question

254. • OSPE separates the assessment of process &
product by ensuring that the student performs
the procedure as he/she is being observed.
• Allows adequate sampling of skills
• Allows analytic & objective observation of skills
because the observed skill is quite specific
• Can be used as quick feedback for student &
teachers,especially before certification,as a
revision tool.

255. • The process can appear impersonal
• It takes time to organize
• It can interfere with the provision of other
services

256. -The std’s attitude is an important
ingredient in delivering a good service
-By assessing this skill, a student will learn
the importance of having appropriate
attitude & will better understand what is
expected of him/her
-Attitudes can be assessed indirectly, as the
candidate performs a skill

257. -This will have to be over a long period so that your
assessment is based on repetition of the same
attitude over time.
-Assessing of attitudes should be a continuous
process to give a student the chance to internalize
the specific attitude
-Simulations, which allow the observation of gestures
& actions, are a better way to see the actual display
of attitude

258. -You can use a rating scale based on a table
analysis (TA).
-There are two types of scales:
1 :eg
i) students’ XY forms filled in by the ward in-
charge
ii)A simple satisfactory to unsatisfactory scale

259. 2 -ie a scale on opposite
characteristics
-This can be used on attitudes alone.
• Eg. please tick where the student exhibits this
behavioural characteristic
• Keen & willing- does minimum work
• Accepts instructions- ignores instructions
• Polite to patients- rude

260. -Set up instruction for examiners’ rating
scales/check list for each station
-List resources required for each station
including examiners,markers & observers
-Allocate marks for each station & within each
station,ie,for each item of the question
-Prepare standard/model answers for the
questions

261. -You can develop an assessment tool by following
these basic steps:
• List the objectives you wish to evaluate
• Identify the expected learner
outcomes(knowledge,attitude & skills)
• Specify the tools of assessment such as
essays,MCQs,OSPE,etc
• Allocate marks for each objective & develop a
marking scheme
• Construct questions for the whole test
• Arrange questions from the first to the last

262. -For attitude assessment to be meaningful,both
students & assessors must be well
briefed.Students must know:
• What is being assessed & how.Show them the
form
• Who will assess them & when?Discuss the
form
• What effect the assessment has.How many
marks?Where it means pass or fail

263. -Assessors need to be trained how to use the
form & how their judgement affects students
-The assessment must always be shown to the
student & discussed with the student
• NB:What is assessed is likely to be learnt &
valued by students

264. -In order for an evaluation to be useful, the tool
(examination) used must fulfill the following
requirements
-it should measure what it is supposed
to measure
-it should measure accurately &
consistently what it is supposed to measure

265. -it should be free of individual bias,
especially in marking.
-it should reveal a reasonable
range in the scores between students knowing
the most & students knowing the least.
-in terms of available resources &
no. of students to be examined

266. -This refers to the awarding of marks or a score or a
value to the assignment performed
-Is attaching a grade to a learner’s performance in an
examination.
-Some examples of grading include:
• Percentage of 0-100%
• Pass or fail; Good, Average ,Excellent
• Percentiles
• Letter grades, like A,B,C,D,E & F

267. • Evaluation of student performance is
important mainly because it gauges the extent
to which educational objectives have been
achieved & guides the teacher in deciding
what steps to be planned next to facilitate
learning for the students