This document provides guidance on key terminology for analyzing conversations in life and literature. It defines terms like turn-taking, exchanges, initiating turns, back-channel behavior, topic changes, representation of phonological features, convergence, accent, and Grice's Maxims. Understanding these concepts and how authors manipulate language is essential for gaining a top grade when answering questions analyzing conversations in set texts and transcripts.
The document summarizes Grice's theory of conversational implicature, which proposes that conversations are generally cooperative endeavors governed by a cooperative principle and four maxims: quality, quantity, relation, and manner. It provides definitions and examples of each maxim, and explains how apparent violations of the maxims, known as floutings, can imply additional meanings through implicature.
The passage describes a crowded dentist's waiting room with unpleasant characteristics. Figurative language is used to portray the room as resembling a football stadium in size, and magazines are described as resembling "museum antiques" and "a great pile of waste paper." A nervous man is seen flipping through magazines quickly and sighing loudly, while an old man snores loudly enough to wake an elephant. The passage utilizes exaggeration and metaphor to convey the unpleasant atmosphere and impatience of those waiting.
Here are two possible perlocutionary effects for each utterance:
(1) Neighbour to recently bereaved widow:
- The widow is overwhelmed with emotion and begins weeping
- The widow feels grateful for the expression of sympathy
(2) Lecturer to student: 'You'll find the book on Swahili infinitives quite fascinating'
- The student feels amused at the lecturer's enthusiasm
- The student feels annoyed, thinking the lecturer is being sarcastic
This document discusses semantics and pragmatics, implicature, and Grice's theory of implicature. It defines semantics as the study of literal meaning and pragmatics as the study of intended meaning. Pragmatics considers what is meant rather than solely what is said. Grice's theory proposes that speakers follow a cooperative principle with maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner to ensure conversations are cooperative and successful. Implicature is the additional meaning implied rather than stated. There are different types of implicature including scalar, conversational, conventional, generalized, and particularized.
The document discusses key concepts in pragmatics including context, inference, implicature, speech acts, and Grice's cooperative principle. Context guides pragmatic meaning and inference beyond literal semantics. Speech acts are social actions performed through language that depend on felicity conditions. Grice proposed conversational maxims of quality, quantity, relation, and manner to describe cooperative frameworks underlying conversations. Speakers can flout maxims to generate implicatures for purposes like sarcasm or diplomacy.
05 cooperation and implicature for studentsgadis pratiwi
This document discusses conversational implicature and related concepts. It defines implicature as implied meanings communicated through conversation beyond the literal meaning of the words. Conversational implicatures arise through adherence to the Cooperative Principle and its maxims of Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner. Generalized implicatures can be calculated without specific context, while particularized implicatures depend on contextual assumptions. Scalar implicatures occur through terms on scales like "some but not all." Conversational implicatures are cancelable and reinforceable, unlike conventional implicatures associated with words like "but."
The document introduces the concept of referring expressions and discusses how some expressions can be used to refer to objects or people depending on the context, while others can never be used to refer. It also defines opaque contexts as parts of sentences where substituting co-referential expressions can change the meaning, and equative sentences as those used to assert the identity of two referring expressions.
The document discusses various aspects of utterance meaning including entailment, presupposition, implicature, reference, modality, and illocutionary force. It defines key terms like assertion, presupposition, conversational implicature, reference, tense, aspect, and modality. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts such as how presuppositions differ from assertions and how implicatures can be derived based on conversational principles. The conclusion emphasizes that utterance meaning involves both what is literally said as well as what is implied, suggested, or meant.
The document summarizes Grice's theory of conversational implicature, which proposes that conversations are generally cooperative endeavors governed by a cooperative principle and four maxims: quality, quantity, relation, and manner. It provides definitions and examples of each maxim, and explains how apparent violations of the maxims, known as floutings, can imply additional meanings through implicature.
The passage describes a crowded dentist's waiting room with unpleasant characteristics. Figurative language is used to portray the room as resembling a football stadium in size, and magazines are described as resembling "museum antiques" and "a great pile of waste paper." A nervous man is seen flipping through magazines quickly and sighing loudly, while an old man snores loudly enough to wake an elephant. The passage utilizes exaggeration and metaphor to convey the unpleasant atmosphere and impatience of those waiting.
Here are two possible perlocutionary effects for each utterance:
(1) Neighbour to recently bereaved widow:
- The widow is overwhelmed with emotion and begins weeping
- The widow feels grateful for the expression of sympathy
(2) Lecturer to student: 'You'll find the book on Swahili infinitives quite fascinating'
- The student feels amused at the lecturer's enthusiasm
- The student feels annoyed, thinking the lecturer is being sarcastic
This document discusses semantics and pragmatics, implicature, and Grice's theory of implicature. It defines semantics as the study of literal meaning and pragmatics as the study of intended meaning. Pragmatics considers what is meant rather than solely what is said. Grice's theory proposes that speakers follow a cooperative principle with maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner to ensure conversations are cooperative and successful. Implicature is the additional meaning implied rather than stated. There are different types of implicature including scalar, conversational, conventional, generalized, and particularized.
The document discusses key concepts in pragmatics including context, inference, implicature, speech acts, and Grice's cooperative principle. Context guides pragmatic meaning and inference beyond literal semantics. Speech acts are social actions performed through language that depend on felicity conditions. Grice proposed conversational maxims of quality, quantity, relation, and manner to describe cooperative frameworks underlying conversations. Speakers can flout maxims to generate implicatures for purposes like sarcasm or diplomacy.
05 cooperation and implicature for studentsgadis pratiwi
This document discusses conversational implicature and related concepts. It defines implicature as implied meanings communicated through conversation beyond the literal meaning of the words. Conversational implicatures arise through adherence to the Cooperative Principle and its maxims of Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner. Generalized implicatures can be calculated without specific context, while particularized implicatures depend on contextual assumptions. Scalar implicatures occur through terms on scales like "some but not all." Conversational implicatures are cancelable and reinforceable, unlike conventional implicatures associated with words like "but."
The document introduces the concept of referring expressions and discusses how some expressions can be used to refer to objects or people depending on the context, while others can never be used to refer. It also defines opaque contexts as parts of sentences where substituting co-referential expressions can change the meaning, and equative sentences as those used to assert the identity of two referring expressions.
The document discusses various aspects of utterance meaning including entailment, presupposition, implicature, reference, modality, and illocutionary force. It defines key terms like assertion, presupposition, conversational implicature, reference, tense, aspect, and modality. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts such as how presuppositions differ from assertions and how implicatures can be derived based on conversational principles. The conclusion emphasizes that utterance meaning involves both what is literally said as well as what is implied, suggested, or meant.
Implicature refers to what a speaker implies rather than literally says. There are two main types: conversational implicature which is derived from cooperative conversation principles, and conventional implicature which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature includes generalized implicature which does not depend on context, and particularized implicature which does. Scalar implicature also falls under conversational implicature and is implied when a weaker term on a scale is used. Particularized implicature provides more contextual information than generalized implicature. Implicatures can intentionally or unintentionally impact understanding in conversations.
The role of context in interpretation chapter (2) mohammad fayez al-habbalFayez Habbal
The document discusses key concepts in pragmatics and discourse analysis, including reference, presupposition, implicature, and inference. It provides definitions and examples for each concept. Reference refers to how speakers use linguistic expressions to refer to entities. Presupposition refers to assumptions speakers make about a hearer's background knowledge. Implicature involves implied meanings beyond literal meaning, based on conversational maxims. Inference in discourse analysis relies on socio-cultural knowledge rather than formal logic.
The document summarizes Paul Grice's theory of conversational implicature. It explains that Grice proposed that speaker meaning arises from both sentence meaning and what is implicated based on assumptions of cooperation between conversation participants. Grice's cooperative principle consists of four maxims - quality, quantity, relation, and manner. The document provides examples of how conversational implicatures can arise from observing, violating, or flouting the maxims in context.
Grice's theory of conversational implicatureLahcen Graid
Grice's theory of implicature examines how speakers imply meanings beyond what is literally said through utterances. It distinguishes between what is said, based on literal meaning of words, and what is implicated or suggested. Grice provides an example where a speaker implies something different by saying "he hasn't been to prison yet." His theory also differentiates between conventional implicatures from literal meanings of words and conversational implicatures derived from cooperation between speakers. Grice proposes a cooperative principle and maxims like quality and quantity that speakers generally follow but can flout to generate implicatures. When maxims are flouted, hearers can infer additional intended meanings or implicatures.
This document discusses implicature, which refers to what a speaker suggests or implies beyond the literal meaning of an utterance. There are two types of implicature: conversational implicature, which is derived from conversational principles and assumptions, and conventional implicature, which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature can be generalized or particularized. Scalar implicature communicates additional information based on a scale of values used in an utterance. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts of implicature.
Grice proposed the Cooperative Principle and conversational maxims to explain how implicatures arise in conversation. The maxims include Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner. Violations or "floutings" of the maxims allow listeners to infer meanings beyond what is literally said, known as implicatures. Experimental evidence shows that comprehenders rapidly integrate contextual information to derive implicatures, supporting the view that language processing involves general assumptions of cooperation rather than being driven solely by linguistic form.
This document outlines the Cooperative Principle and how speakers can hedge maxims in conversations. It discusses Grice's four maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. Hedging occurs when speakers implicitly state something to demonstrate they may not be fully adhering to the maxims. For second language teachers, hedging is relevant to provide better language examples and understand implied meanings. For learners, it is important to recognize when hedging is necessary to avoid being misunderstood and improve receptive skills.
1. Definition of referents and referring expression.
2. example of referents and referring expression
3. Extension and Intension
4. Some different kinds of referents
4.1 unique and non unique referents
4.2 concrete and abstract
4.3 countable and uncountable
5. Different ways of referring
5.1 Generic and non-generic reference
5.2 Specific and non-specific reference
5.3 Definite and indefinite reference
6. Deixis
7. Example of deixis
8. Anaphora
9. Shifts in ways of referring
10. referential ambiguity
The document discusses cooperation and implicature in conversations. It states that generally, speakers and listeners cooperate with each other by telling the truth. Cooperation is a basic assumption where participants contribute appropriately to the conversation. Implicature refers to meanings implied rather than stated to maintain cooperation. The cooperative principle and its maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner are introduced as basic guidelines for conversation.
This document discusses implicature and entailment. It defines implicature as what is suggested in an utterance, even if not directly expressed or implied. There are two types of implicature: conversational and conventional. Conversational implicature relies on conversational principles while conventional implicature is part of a lexical item's meaning. Entailment is the relationship between sentences where the truth of one requires the truth of the other due to word meanings. There are also different types and classifications of entailment.
The document discusses Paul Grice's theory of conversational implicature and how speakers imply meanings beyond what they literally say through observations of the cooperative principle and its maxims of quality, quantity, relation and manner. It provides examples of how implicatures can be inferred from utterances that seem to violate these maxims. The cooperative principle aims to explain how listeners can understand a speaker's intended meaning, even when the utterance appears untrue, unrelated or absurd on the surface.
This document summarizes key aspects of communication theory, including system constraints and conversational analysis. It discusses eight system constraints that are universal in all human communication: channel open/close signals, backchannel signals, turnover signals, message adequacy and interpretability, bracket signals, nonparticipant constraints, preempt signals, and Gricean communication norms. It also examines how to analyze conversations by transcribing spoken language into written form using transcription conventions to capture elements like intonation, stress, overlaps, and pauses. The document provides examples to illustrate phone call openings and closings, as well as backchannel signals, turnover signals, and overlaps during conversations.
Kelompok 6 semprag (cooperation and implicature)donawidiya
The document discusses semantics and pragmatics, specifically cooperation and implicature. It defines cooperation as how components of a system work together, and implicature as something inferred from an utterance that is not necessary for its truth. Implicatures can be canceled or strengthened based on context. The cooperative principle and Grice's maxims are explained, along with conversational implicature, scalar implicature, particularized implicature, and properties of implicature like defeasibility. Hedges are also defined as devices that lessen impact.
Rachel and Ross infringe the maxims of quantity and manner due to drunkenness, leading to unclear and overly verbose speech. Joey seeks their help in a serious matter but they are unable to cooperate due to their impaired state.
Implicatures are inferred assumptions that cannot be directly derived from linguistic forms. There are two types: conventional implicatures which are conventionally attached to linguistic forms, and conversational implicatures which are assumptions not fully encoded in what is said. Conversational implicatures are context dependent, defeasible, non-detachable, and calculable based on meaning and context. Approaches to explaining implicatures include the coding hypothesis, restricted coding mechanism, maxim-based accounts, and relevance-based accounts.
The document discusses Grice's Cooperative Principle, which states that communication involves cooperation between participants to establish meaning. It consists of four maxims: quality, quantity, relation, and manner. Conversational implicatures refer to implied meanings derived through inference rather than what is literally stated. Speakers can implicate additional meanings by observing or flouting the maxims, such as providing less information than required to imply uncertainty. The document provides examples of how speakers can flout different maxims to convey extra meanings.
The document presents a unified theory of final rises in declaratives. It proposes that a final rise indicates a violation of a conversational maxim, with the steepness indicating emotional activation. It identifies potential maxims (Quality, Quantity, Relation, Manner) and derives readings from each. A Quality reading reflects speaker uncertainty, Quantity more information to share, Relation uncertainty about relevance, and Manner uncertainty about clarity. The theory aims to explain existing intuitions in a compositional and parsimonious way.
This document discusses coherence in discourse interpretation and outlines several key aspects:
1) Coherence refers to interpreting language in context based on general principles.
2) Communicative functions are determined using socio-cultural rules rather than just linguistic rules.
3) Inferences play an important role in filling in missing information and connecting different parts of a discourse. A variety of knowledge structures like frames, scripts, and schemas stored in memory help guide inference generation.
Discourse analysis is the study of language use in context. It focuses on how spoken and written language is structured and how meaning is derived based on context. Key aspects of discourse analysis include cohesion, coherence, speech events, background knowledge, conversational interaction, and the cooperation principle. Cohesion refers to linguistic ties like anaphora that link parts of discourse. Coherence relies on background knowledge to interpret meaning. Speech events and interactions provide social context. The cooperation principle proposes conversational maxims like being relevant and clear that aid understanding. Overall, discourse analysis examines language patterns and pragmatics to interpret intended meanings in context.
This document discusses discourse analysis and provides information on key concepts. It defines discourse analysis as the analysis of language beyond the sentence level, including analysis of text and conversation. It also discusses several basic ideas in discourse analysis such as text analysis, conversation analysis, cohesion, coherence, speech events, turn-taking, and the cooperative principle. The document provides examples and explanations of these concepts.
Implicature refers to what a speaker implies rather than literally says. There are two main types: conversational implicature which is derived from cooperative conversation principles, and conventional implicature which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature includes generalized implicature which does not depend on context, and particularized implicature which does. Scalar implicature also falls under conversational implicature and is implied when a weaker term on a scale is used. Particularized implicature provides more contextual information than generalized implicature. Implicatures can intentionally or unintentionally impact understanding in conversations.
The role of context in interpretation chapter (2) mohammad fayez al-habbalFayez Habbal
The document discusses key concepts in pragmatics and discourse analysis, including reference, presupposition, implicature, and inference. It provides definitions and examples for each concept. Reference refers to how speakers use linguistic expressions to refer to entities. Presupposition refers to assumptions speakers make about a hearer's background knowledge. Implicature involves implied meanings beyond literal meaning, based on conversational maxims. Inference in discourse analysis relies on socio-cultural knowledge rather than formal logic.
The document summarizes Paul Grice's theory of conversational implicature. It explains that Grice proposed that speaker meaning arises from both sentence meaning and what is implicated based on assumptions of cooperation between conversation participants. Grice's cooperative principle consists of four maxims - quality, quantity, relation, and manner. The document provides examples of how conversational implicatures can arise from observing, violating, or flouting the maxims in context.
Grice's theory of conversational implicatureLahcen Graid
Grice's theory of implicature examines how speakers imply meanings beyond what is literally said through utterances. It distinguishes between what is said, based on literal meaning of words, and what is implicated or suggested. Grice provides an example where a speaker implies something different by saying "he hasn't been to prison yet." His theory also differentiates between conventional implicatures from literal meanings of words and conversational implicatures derived from cooperation between speakers. Grice proposes a cooperative principle and maxims like quality and quantity that speakers generally follow but can flout to generate implicatures. When maxims are flouted, hearers can infer additional intended meanings or implicatures.
This document discusses implicature, which refers to what a speaker suggests or implies beyond the literal meaning of an utterance. There are two types of implicature: conversational implicature, which is derived from conversational principles and assumptions, and conventional implicature, which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature can be generalized or particularized. Scalar implicature communicates additional information based on a scale of values used in an utterance. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts of implicature.
Grice proposed the Cooperative Principle and conversational maxims to explain how implicatures arise in conversation. The maxims include Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner. Violations or "floutings" of the maxims allow listeners to infer meanings beyond what is literally said, known as implicatures. Experimental evidence shows that comprehenders rapidly integrate contextual information to derive implicatures, supporting the view that language processing involves general assumptions of cooperation rather than being driven solely by linguistic form.
This document outlines the Cooperative Principle and how speakers can hedge maxims in conversations. It discusses Grice's four maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. Hedging occurs when speakers implicitly state something to demonstrate they may not be fully adhering to the maxims. For second language teachers, hedging is relevant to provide better language examples and understand implied meanings. For learners, it is important to recognize when hedging is necessary to avoid being misunderstood and improve receptive skills.
1. Definition of referents and referring expression.
2. example of referents and referring expression
3. Extension and Intension
4. Some different kinds of referents
4.1 unique and non unique referents
4.2 concrete and abstract
4.3 countable and uncountable
5. Different ways of referring
5.1 Generic and non-generic reference
5.2 Specific and non-specific reference
5.3 Definite and indefinite reference
6. Deixis
7. Example of deixis
8. Anaphora
9. Shifts in ways of referring
10. referential ambiguity
The document discusses cooperation and implicature in conversations. It states that generally, speakers and listeners cooperate with each other by telling the truth. Cooperation is a basic assumption where participants contribute appropriately to the conversation. Implicature refers to meanings implied rather than stated to maintain cooperation. The cooperative principle and its maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner are introduced as basic guidelines for conversation.
This document discusses implicature and entailment. It defines implicature as what is suggested in an utterance, even if not directly expressed or implied. There are two types of implicature: conversational and conventional. Conversational implicature relies on conversational principles while conventional implicature is part of a lexical item's meaning. Entailment is the relationship between sentences where the truth of one requires the truth of the other due to word meanings. There are also different types and classifications of entailment.
The document discusses Paul Grice's theory of conversational implicature and how speakers imply meanings beyond what they literally say through observations of the cooperative principle and its maxims of quality, quantity, relation and manner. It provides examples of how implicatures can be inferred from utterances that seem to violate these maxims. The cooperative principle aims to explain how listeners can understand a speaker's intended meaning, even when the utterance appears untrue, unrelated or absurd on the surface.
This document summarizes key aspects of communication theory, including system constraints and conversational analysis. It discusses eight system constraints that are universal in all human communication: channel open/close signals, backchannel signals, turnover signals, message adequacy and interpretability, bracket signals, nonparticipant constraints, preempt signals, and Gricean communication norms. It also examines how to analyze conversations by transcribing spoken language into written form using transcription conventions to capture elements like intonation, stress, overlaps, and pauses. The document provides examples to illustrate phone call openings and closings, as well as backchannel signals, turnover signals, and overlaps during conversations.
Kelompok 6 semprag (cooperation and implicature)donawidiya
The document discusses semantics and pragmatics, specifically cooperation and implicature. It defines cooperation as how components of a system work together, and implicature as something inferred from an utterance that is not necessary for its truth. Implicatures can be canceled or strengthened based on context. The cooperative principle and Grice's maxims are explained, along with conversational implicature, scalar implicature, particularized implicature, and properties of implicature like defeasibility. Hedges are also defined as devices that lessen impact.
Rachel and Ross infringe the maxims of quantity and manner due to drunkenness, leading to unclear and overly verbose speech. Joey seeks their help in a serious matter but they are unable to cooperate due to their impaired state.
Implicatures are inferred assumptions that cannot be directly derived from linguistic forms. There are two types: conventional implicatures which are conventionally attached to linguistic forms, and conversational implicatures which are assumptions not fully encoded in what is said. Conversational implicatures are context dependent, defeasible, non-detachable, and calculable based on meaning and context. Approaches to explaining implicatures include the coding hypothesis, restricted coding mechanism, maxim-based accounts, and relevance-based accounts.
The document discusses Grice's Cooperative Principle, which states that communication involves cooperation between participants to establish meaning. It consists of four maxims: quality, quantity, relation, and manner. Conversational implicatures refer to implied meanings derived through inference rather than what is literally stated. Speakers can implicate additional meanings by observing or flouting the maxims, such as providing less information than required to imply uncertainty. The document provides examples of how speakers can flout different maxims to convey extra meanings.
The document presents a unified theory of final rises in declaratives. It proposes that a final rise indicates a violation of a conversational maxim, with the steepness indicating emotional activation. It identifies potential maxims (Quality, Quantity, Relation, Manner) and derives readings from each. A Quality reading reflects speaker uncertainty, Quantity more information to share, Relation uncertainty about relevance, and Manner uncertainty about clarity. The theory aims to explain existing intuitions in a compositional and parsimonious way.
This document discusses coherence in discourse interpretation and outlines several key aspects:
1) Coherence refers to interpreting language in context based on general principles.
2) Communicative functions are determined using socio-cultural rules rather than just linguistic rules.
3) Inferences play an important role in filling in missing information and connecting different parts of a discourse. A variety of knowledge structures like frames, scripts, and schemas stored in memory help guide inference generation.
Discourse analysis is the study of language use in context. It focuses on how spoken and written language is structured and how meaning is derived based on context. Key aspects of discourse analysis include cohesion, coherence, speech events, background knowledge, conversational interaction, and the cooperation principle. Cohesion refers to linguistic ties like anaphora that link parts of discourse. Coherence relies on background knowledge to interpret meaning. Speech events and interactions provide social context. The cooperation principle proposes conversational maxims like being relevant and clear that aid understanding. Overall, discourse analysis examines language patterns and pragmatics to interpret intended meanings in context.
This document discusses discourse analysis and provides information on key concepts. It defines discourse analysis as the analysis of language beyond the sentence level, including analysis of text and conversation. It also discusses several basic ideas in discourse analysis such as text analysis, conversation analysis, cohesion, coherence, speech events, turn-taking, and the cooperative principle. The document provides examples and explanations of these concepts.
Discourse analysis examines language use in context. It looks at both spoken and written language beyond the sentence level. Discourse is a social interaction between speakers, while a text is simply a written message. Discourse analysis uses tools like cohesion, coherence, background knowledge, and conversation analysis to interpret meaning. It considers aspects like anaphoric references, speech events, and Grice's cooperative principle to understand what a speaker intends to communicate. Discourse analysis is useful for interpreting meaning from both grammatical and ungrammatical language use.
Discourse is a set of utterances that constitute a recognizable speech event such as a conversation, joke, sermon, or interview. Discourse analysis attempts to discover linguistic regularities in discourse using grammatical, phonological, and semantic criteria to interpret what a speaker or writer intends to convey within a social context. There are various tools and devices used for discourse analysis, including cohesion, coherence, parallelism, speech events, background knowledge, and conversational interaction principles.
This document discusses various concepts related to communication, language, and meaning. It defines semantics as the study of meaning and distinguishes between three subfields: lexical semantics, grammatical semantics, and logical semantics. It also discusses different units of analysis including words, utterances, sentences, and propositions. Finally, it outlines different dimensions of meaning such as reference versus sense, denotation versus reference, descriptive versus non-descriptive meaning, and literal versus non-literal meaning. Contextual meaning is also discussed as important for disambiguation.
Discourse analysis focuses on analyzing both written and spoken communication beyond the sentence level. It examines how people interact and make meaning based on context clues, background knowledge, and social purpose. Some key aspects of discourse analysis include examining cohesion between statements, coherence, speech events, conversational interactions, and Grice's cooperation principle which outlines assumptions speakers make. The goal is to interpret the intended meaning, not just the surface level meaning of words.
Here are the key points from the video about linguistic relativity:
- Linguistic relativity hypothesis proposes that the language we speak shapes or influences our thoughts and behaviors.
- Boroditsky gave examples showing how language can influence basic cognitive processes like spatial frames of reference. In languages like English, space is described in relation to the body (left, right). But in other languages, space is described in relation to environmental landmarks.
- In one study, Boroditsky found that speakers of languages with different spatial frames of reference think differently about basic spatial relations. For example, when asked to remember the location of objects, English speakers were more accurate remembering left/right while speakers of other languages were more accurate remembering environmental landmarks
Writing Elements A Quick Guide to Grammar and Usag.docxericbrooks84875
Writing Elements
A Quick Guide to Grammar and Usage
Timothy P. Goss and Sabrina M. Goss
1
Using this Guide
Before we get started, you should note that this guide is, in no way, a comprehensive exploration
of grammar and usage. Many guides are available that will provide a much richer and fuller
understanding of the components of language usage. Instead, this guide has been designed to
help you, in a quick and efficient way, avoid some of the more common errors people make in
their writing.
It is a good idea to review this entire guide several times until the information becomes second-
nature. Having a good grasp on the basic rules of grammar and usage will make a big difference
in how your writing will be received in your academic and professional careers. It may even help
your love life, but probably not really help you teach your dog how to say, “Fiddlesticks” (every
piece of writing has its limitations).
Enjoy this journey.
2
Table of Contents
Clarity and Style:
1. Parts of Speech 3
2. Verbs and Verbals 4
3. Commonly Misused Words 5
4. Point of View: First, Second, and Third Person 6
5. Past and Present Tenses 6
6. Clichés 7
7. Sexist Language 7
8. Slang/Jargon 8
Grammar:
1. Subject/Verb Agreement 8
2. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 9
3. Sentence Fragments 9
4. Run-On Sentences 10
Punctuation:
1. Commas 11
2. Semicolons 12
Mechanics:
1. Abbreviations 12
2. Numbers 12
General Advice 13
3
Parts of Speech
All words in the English language have a particular duty to perform in a sentence or clause.
These parts work in concert with one another to create meaning. We can look at the way words
work in a sentence by either their function or by their form or definition.
By Function:
1. Verbs: These words determine the action that is being related (all sentences/clauses must
do something).
2. Nouns and Pronouns: These words serve as the thing doing the action (subject), or the
thing having the action done to it (object).
3. Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs): These words describe another word to help
distinguish or clarify the meaning being related.
4. Prepositions: These words shows how one word or phrase relates to another
5. Articles: These words are connected to nouns and determine the vagueness of specificity
of the noun.
6. Conjunctions: These words join clauses together.
7. Interjections: These words serve to express strong emotion.
By Form or Definition:
1. Verb: An action word. For example: Speak, run, fight, asked, claimed, and rocked.
2. Noun: A part of speech that stands for a person, place, thing, or idea. For example:
Truck, house, loss, ring, air, and sandwich.
3. Pronoun: Takes the place of a noun. For example: I, he, she, we, i.
The document discusses the SOAPSTone framework for analyzing speeches and texts. It defines each element of SOAPSTone: Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject, and Tone. It then focuses on Tone, explaining that tone is established through an author's use of figurative language, imagery, diction, details, and syntax.
The document discusses discourse analysis and how language users interpret meaning beyond just recognizing grammatical structures. It examines how coherence and cohesion allow readers to understand fragmented or ungrammatical texts by filling in gaps. Conversational interactions are analyzed in terms of turn-taking, completion points, and the cooperative principle of relevance, brevity, and honesty. Discourse analysis investigates how language is used in context.
This document discusses context clues, which are hints an author provides to help define difficult or unusual words. There are four main types of context clues: definition/explanation, restatement/synonym, contrast/antonym, and inference/general context. Examples are provided to illustrate each type of context clue. The document concludes by providing an example for readers to practice identifying context clues through inference. Overall, the document serves to explain the different types of context clues authors use and how readers can use context to determine the meaning of unknown words.
The document discusses several linguistic concepts including symbol, referent, euphemism, denotation, connotation, implication, ambiguity, metaphor, simile, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and homonym. It provides definitions and examples for each concept. For example, it states that a symbol is something used to represent another thing, while a referent is everything related to the symbol. It also gives examples of euphemisms used to soften truths, such as "passed away" instead of "died".
The document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its origin, importance, differences between text and discourse, linguistic functions, cohesive devices, interpersonal functions, conventions of conversations, cooperative principle, and background knowledge. It discusses how discourse analysis was first employed by Zelling Harris and defines discourse analysis as the study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users.
The document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its origin, importance, differences between text and discourse, linguistic functions, cohesive devices, interpersonal functions, conventions of conversations, cooperative principle, and background knowledge. It discusses how discourse analysis was first introduced by Zelling Harris and defines it as the study of how stretches of language assume meaning and purpose. The document also distinguishes between the textual and interpersonal functions of language.
Assignments1.Read the following worksa.The Br.docxAMMY30
Assignments
1.
Read the following works:
a.
The Bridge of San Luis Rey
by Thornton Wilder
b.
Our Town
by Thornton Wilder
c.
“A Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner
d.
“Hills Like White Elephants” by Ernest Hemmingway
e.
Short Story of your choice by F. Scott Fitzgerald
f.
Five poems of your choice written by Langston Hughes
2.
The last lines of
The Bridge of San Luis Rey
are:
a.
“But soon we shall die and all memory of those five will have left the earth, and we ourselves shall be loved for a while and forgotten. But the love will have been enough; all those impulses of love return to the love that made them. Even memory is not necessary for love. There is a land of the living and a land of the dead and the bridge is love, the only survival, the only meaning.”
b.
In a 1-2 page essay, explain how this theme is developed in the novel.
3.
Pick one of the following essay prompts to write a 1-2-page essay for each prompt about
The Bridge of San Luis Rey.
a.
Thornton Wilder said that he wrote the novel to ask the follow question, "Is there a direction and meaning in lives beyond the individual's own will?" According to the novel, what conclusion if any does Wilder reach? If he does not reach a conclusion, then why not?
b.
Choose a character from the novel and discuss the nuances that contribute to the character’s development.
c.
Was Brother Juniper an objective researcher? Explain your answer.
d.
Consider the following quote:
i.
Now he discovered that secret from which one never quite recovers, that even in the most perfect love one person loves less profoundly than the other. There may be two equally good, equally gifted, equally beautiful, but there may never be two that love one another equally well.
ii.
Use examples from the book to defend, qualify or challenge this assertion.
4.
Write one 4-5-page essay on the following topic: These works deal with the issues of disillusionment with old ideas and ideals. How do we see this disillusionment in these works?
5.
Watch the movie
The Crucible
(I have a copy that you can borrow – please note this movie is PG-13, and it does have some very brief nudity in it). Then write a 2-3 page essay comparing and contrasting the movies with the play. This essay should address some of the following questions:
a.
How are the themes of the book represented in the movies? How does this enhance, change, or diminish the meaning of the book?
b.
How does the director interpret the book? How do these interpretations enhance, change, or diminish the meaning of the book?
c.
What stylistic choices (lighting, cinematography, music and sound effects, and/or other special effects) did the director make? How do these choices enhance, change, or diminish the meaning of the book?
d.
How were the characters similar to/different from how you interpreted them in the book? How does this enhance, change, or diminish the meaning of the book?
e.
What was added to the movie that was not in the book? What w ...
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Talk features notes
1. ELLB 3-Talk in Life and Literature
A Comprehensive Guide to the vocabulary needed and how it can be used to gain a
top grade
ELLB3 is a module that requires a detailed understanding of how conversations work within life,
and through this understanding that comments can then be made on how playwrights
manipulate language, structure and form to create drama within a play. The following
terminology can be used to answer both Question 1- the text based question and Question 2-
the unseen question comparing a transcript with an extract from a play, prose or poetry.
It is essential that you have a good understanding of all of these terms and that you have
practised applying and analysing them to the set text in addition to extracts from poems and
novels. Whenever a talk feature is applied, the context of the conversation must be considered.
What is an everyday conversation?
The term conversation refers to talk that involves more than one participant. The
connotations of „everyday conversation‟ may suggest an interaction that is spontaneous, private,
equal, perhaps trivial and usually polite. When applying this to the set text the public or private
nature of the text should be considered carefully as this will have an impact on the language used.
It is important to note that when writing about your set text the person who is speaking in the
conversation is referred to as the character or you specifically use the character‟s name.
Whereas, when responding to transcripts in Question 2 the person speaking is referred to as the
speaker. Never refer to a character when responding to transcripts as this will lose you marks. To
gain a top grade you must be clearly and consistently showing the examiner that you understand
the differences between talk in life and literature.
How do conversations work?
Turn-taking
Turn-taking is intrinsically linked with power and status and these key terms should feature in any
essay that you write. Look carefully at who takes the most turns or speaks for the longest amount
of time (holding the floor). You can see just by glancing at the text in front of you who is taking
the most turns so this is a concept that should be applied early on in an essay. Don‟t make the
mistake of overlooking this merely because it is a more obvious concept.
Context should be considered here, as taking the most turns does not necessarily mean that the
speaker is in control. Consider an interview situation. The interviewee says the most, yet it is the
interviewer that has the status and control. Short monosyllabic responses to lengthy questions
may mean that the speaker is withholding information and therefore maintains control of the
conversation.
Exchanges
A sequence of turns is called an EXCHANGE and each turn within this is termed a MOVE
Some exchanges take place in two moves or ADJACENCY PAIR e.g.
(1) “Hello there!” (utterance)
1
2. “Hi” (expected response)
(2) “Thank you”
“You‟re Welcome”
Another common exchange or adjacency pair is the question and answer. It is important to
examine adjacency pairs as this tells us something about how cooperative a conversation is. If
adjacency pairs are broken it can suggest an uncooperative conversation (normally for a particular
reason which can be seen through the context).
(1) “Did you feel embarrassed when you fell over last night?” (utterance)
“Yes it was awful!” (expected response)
(2) “Did you feel embarrassed when you fell over last night?” (utterance)
“Er…so the weather is nice today isn‟t it?”(non-expected response)
In example 1 the adjacency pair shows a cooperative conversation, in which both participants
seem comfortable with each other- possibly friends who have a strong relationship. In example 2
the adjacency pair is broken by the use of an interrogative responding to an interrogative. This is
not an expected response and shows the underlying embarrassment speaker 2. The interrogative
is an attempt to „topic shift‟ (see later notes) and therefore change the subject.
Initiating turns
In a sequence it is valid to look at who initiates a turn. This may be done as follows:
INTERROGATIVE: What did you do last night?
DECLARATIVE: It is so cold today.
IMPERATIVE: Well, say something.
EXCLAMATION: What a fantastic rainbow!
It is important when examining these four sentence functions that you look for patterns in the text
as well as commenting on how turns are initiated. A speaker in a transcript may use a succession
of interrogatives which may reveal how eager they are to find out information from the other
participant. Or a series of exclamations may be used to show a particular emotion heightened.
The following example is taken from scene 1 of „A Streetcar Named Desire‟ by Tenessee Williams
Blanche: You didn‟t dream, but I saw! Saw! Saw!
The short exclamations, in a series, shows Blanche‟s mounting anger towards her sister, as she
relives her experiences at Belle Reve. Here you would also comment on the vocabulary used.
Never write about sentence function without specifically commenting on what they are saying and
the significance of this.
The repetition of the word „saw‟ suggests to the audience that blanche has been acutely affected
by her experiences, creates a divide between the two sisters and reveals Blanche‟s resentment
due to her sister‟s abandonment.
Allocating turns
2
3. It is also an interesting and valid exercise to look at the way turns are passed from one to
another. This links with power and status and should be examined. This can mean that a
conversation is more or less cooperative and differences in gender can be seen here.
Back-Channel behaviour
A listener can indicate that they want the speaker to continue by uttering sounds or words e.g.
yeah, mm or oh…right.
The term for this is back-channel behaviour.
Continuers: mh, uh, huh – hand speech back to last speaker
Acknowledgements; express agreement or understanding of the previous turn (mmm,
yeah).
Assessments: take account of what has just been said (how awful that‟s wonderful)
etc
Newsmarkers: mark the utterances as being new information or news (really?)
Questions: either (a) create interest by asking for further details or (b)
seek to correct some misunderstanding
Collaborative completions: finished another‟s utterance
Non verbal vocalisations (laughter, sighs, frowns)
After examining back-channel behaviour, which will be present in every extract, examine what it is
telling you about the speaker or the relationship between the participants in the conversation.
Back-channel behaviour is something that should be commented on in every essay.
Topic Changes
Another factor to consider when looking at turn taking is the fact that conversations often change
from one topic to another. Note why this is occurring, as in the earlier example linked to
adjacency pairs. It is also interesting to note who establishes the topic of conversation, which is
referred to as AGENDA SETTING. This may vary according to situation / context, e.g. interview.
When applying this to the literary set text, it tells you a lot about who is in control of the
conversation.
Representation of phonological features
The term idiolect refers to the distinctive features of an individual‟s language use. It is generally
much easier to identify a person from their speech than from their writing. Once all traces of
pronunciation have gone we are left only with such clues as choice of vocabulary and perhaps
some typical sentence
structures.
Convergence
Where a speaker takes on some of the idiolectal aspects of another speaker. This could be
replicating accent or repeating particular words. This is a common occurrence and playwright‟s
use this for specific dramatic effects.
Accent
Every speaker has an accent, although this will not be made apparent within the transcripts.
However, this may be of interest in your set text (Question 1) or the unseen literary text for
3
4. Question 2. The following example is taken from scene 1 of „A Streetcar Named Desire‟ by
Tenessee Williams.
Stella: Look‟n see honey.
Williams uses elision to recreate the informal Southern accent of Stella. This is of particular
interest as it is only at times within the play that she shows traces of her accent, unlike her
husband Stanley.
Theoretical links
One of the most obvious and relatively straightforward to apply is Grice‟s Maxims. This should be
commented on in every essay in order to gain the higher marks.
Grice‟s Maxims
Grice claims that his maxims can account for the way that meanings are created and conveyed in
conversations between two people. This does not mean that speakers always abide by the
maxims and it is when these maxims are not adhered to that interesting comments can be made.
When Maxims are not adhered to it is known as „flouting the maxims‟
The “maxims of conversation” devised by philosopher Paul Grice are based on what he calls the
principles of co-operation.
Quantity
Give the right amount of information
Make your contribution as informative as is appropriate
Do not make you contribution more informative that is appropriate
Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true
Do not say what you believe to be false
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
Relevance
Be relevant
Manner
Be clear
Avoid obscurity of expression
Avoid ambiguity
Be brief
Be orderly
4
5. Please note- manner is often written about inaccurately by pupils linking it to the participant
having „bad manners‟. This must be avoided as using terminology incorrectly will lose you marks.
For example, a speaker or a character could say far too much and would therefore be flouting the
maxim of quantity, or a character could say something that is known by the audience to be a lie,
and then they would be flouting the maxim of quality.
Dramatic Dialogue
If Grice‟s framework helps to explain how meanings are constructed in everyday conversation
then it can also help us to interpret dramatic dialogue. For dialogue to be dramatic we expect it to
reveal conflict and tension, rather than co-operation. Constructed dialogue often implies rather
than states, explicitly relying on the audience‟s knowledge of characters, plot etc.
Politeness principles
The need to be polite accounts for various strategies in conversation Leech proposed the tact
maxim or approbation maxim which states
“minimum dispraise of other,
maximum praise of other”
This means that if we need to say something bad about the other person we should choose an
indirect way of saying it. If somebody has had a new haircut and it does not suit them the
conversation could go like this:
(1) “Do you like my hair?”
“I think that it would look even better if it were a lighter colour.”
(2) “Do you like my hair?”
“The colour looks dreadful on you!”
Conversation one adheres to Leech‟s tact maxim and therefore would hurt the feelings less of the
speaker. Whereas, Conversation 2 flouts the tact maxim and is too direct. This would therefore tell
us something about the speaker and his/ her attitude towards the other participant.
The Concept of “Face”
Brown and Levinson developed a framework around the concept of FACE which refers to our
public self image. There are two aspects to this concept positive face which refers to our need to
be liked and accepted and negative face which refers to our right not to be imposed on. Politeness
involves showing awareness of the other‟s “FACE” needs.
This suggests that speakers use positive politeness strategies with friends to emphasize solidarity
such as:
Shared dialect
Informal lexis
Informal grammar
More direct requests.
5
6. When writing about the concept of face in an essay, you can refer to a speaker or character as
„displaying face threatening behaviour‟. This is a useful phrase that can be applied and one that is
relatively simple to remember.
Negative Politeness
Strategies that emphasize when there is a social distance between speakers so more indirect
requests and a more formal lexis and grammar are used.
Robin Lakoff suggested an alternative for a politeness principle with three maxims
Don‟t impose (Principle of Distance)
Give options (Principle of Deference)
Be friendly (Principle of Camaraderie)
Lexical features of conversation
The choice of these lexical features can determine the relationship between participants in a
conversation through
Modes of address
Technical words (jargon)
Taboo words
Slang
Any other relevant features
Modes of Address
Modes of address indicate something about the relationship between the speakers and also social
context.
e.g. “Mrs O‟Connor”
“Our Bert”
“Honey”
“Hot stuff”
Modes of address should be referred to in every essay. In your set text modes of address are very
important. How one character refers to another will change and these changes are the most
important thing to look out for. Showing the examiner that you have an awareness of character
development or the differing emotions of characters at different parts of the play are essential for
a top grade. You know that you would never analyse an extract line by line, so modes of
addresses should be grouped and then comments made. Do not write about modes of address
every time you come across another one. This should be focused on in one section of your essay
to give you time to look at other talk features.
Taboo Language
Swearing has different effects from offence to amusing and friendly. Age, gender and social class
are important factors here. Consider carefully how the expletive has been used within the
conversation.
Tag Questions
6
7. Questions that are tagged on to the end of a declarative. A feature of everyday conversation that
is replicated in literature.
(1) The weather is great, isn‟t it?
Hedge
A stalling technique to make an utterance more tentative. Sometimes used to give the speaker
more time to think, when they are unsure of a reaction to an utterance, to make a statement less
direct or to soften in some way. A technique used by salesmen!
(1) Well, it could be done.
(2) Could you possibly buy this magazine for me?
(3) Maybe you could try this out.
Look out for these in your set text and the spoken transcripts of Question 2.
Anacoluthon
A feature of conversation used on a daily basis where the speaker topic shifts mid-sentence. Often
shows a lost train of thought or an important point or idea coming to the forefront.
(1) So she said that.. Wow look at that rain!
(2) I think you could.. did I tell you about Brian?
This is also an interesting technique that will show examiners that you have done additional
reading.
Fillers
Words such as „erm‟ that fill in time or show hesitation or lack of clarity.
Interjections
Words of no grammatical value, such as „oh‟ and „hmmm‟. „Oh‟ is the most common in the set
texts as it can be replicating a sigh or surprise. Consider here how the line would be delivered to
make a phonological point.
Repetition
Repetition of words shows the importance of a particular aspect of the conversation of a character
of speaker.
Hesitations
Pauses and hesitations are simple to spot but more difficult to explain in terms of effects. In the
play script you could be given the stage directions (pause) or be given ellipses (…) to indicate a
pause. In transcripts you could be given a number of seconds (1). Consider the context carefully
and never merely write „this is to give the speaker thinking time‟. Your comment for Question 1 or
7
8. 2 must be specifically linked to context and the content of the conversation. Is the character or
the speaker nervous or stalling or is there another reason for the hesitation.
Overlaps and Interruptions
An overlap or interruption is certainly telling you something about the relationship and status of
the two characters (Q1) or speakers (Q2). Is the speaker excited or rude or trying to re-gain
control of the conversation?
Repairs
Self repairs. This is where a speaker makes an error and repairs their utterance by changing their
language to utter the correct words.
(1) Pass me the sp…tea spoon.
(2) Today it is the third- fourth.
Other repair. This is when another speaker repairs your error for you.
(1) Adam has got a new car.
Alec has got a new car.
Other initiated self repair. Where another participant in the conversation prompts the self-repair.
(1) Pass me the spoon
The tea spoon?
Yes, the tea spoon.
Gender
Is there a distinctly male versus female way of talking?
Various studies have commented on the supposed passivity of women and the supposed
dominance of men. This is not essential for your set text and many candidates who gain top
grades do not link essays to gender studies. However, with ELLB3 having a definite steer you
could be asked q question specifically on female language, therefore it is a good idea to have
practised applying gender theory to your set text and a number of transcripts of spoken language.
O‟Barr and Atkins from their study of courtroom language described women‟s language as
“powerless”
Studies show that these are some differences in the genres of talk that we employ. These include
Telling stories or anecdotes
Gossiping expressing opinions
Telling jokes
Chatting
It is often said that women engage in gossip more than men. Gossip may be defined as idle chat
or conversations based on rumours about others. Eggins and Slade suggest that gossip is a way of
“asserting social unity”.
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9. Storytelling
These theories are taken from Analysing Casual Conversation by Eggins and Slade
They suggest that:
Women don‟t tell naughty stories
Stories in which speakers show themselves in fearful, embarrassing or humiliating situations
are far more likely to be told by women than men.
Male speakers seem to prefer to feature as heroes in stories which are about danger,
violence, heroic deeds etc. In our culture men do not usually tell stories about their own
fears and failures.
Women present a mundane world where problems can be shared and usually where
something is being „done‟ to the protagonist rather than by the protagonist.
Women relate incidents in which they violate social norms and are scared or embarrassed as
a result.
Pragmatics
The emphasis is not on what the sentences mean but what the speaker‟s mean when they utter
them.
Purposes of conversations
When considering the purposes of conversations it is important to look at the literary texts in a
different way to transcripts. Every conversation within a literary text has been written by
the text producer for a particular reason or reasons. For literary texts consider dramatic
purposes like the following:
Moving plot on
Creating an atmosphere or mood
To reveal more about a character
To reveal more about the relationship between characters Every
To create tension or drama conversation has
To create irony a purpose and
To reveal more about the attitude of a particular character For Question 2
To introduce character consider one or
To help to convey time or setting more of the
To develop a particular theme following
purposes at the
beginning of the essay in the context section, as you would for Question 1.
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10. Transactional – exchanges where the speaker is getting something done e.g asking for
directions
Referential- providing information e.g telling someone the times and dates of a meeting
Phatic – small talk e.g talking about the weather or asking how someone is in a telephone
conversation
Interactional – main purpose is social. This has links with phatic conversations e.g talking
about a shared night out
Expository- think of expose-to explain something clearly
Performative – carrying out the purpose of the talk- e.g an introduction
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