- The document discusses swine flu, also known as H1N1, a new influenza virus that emerged in humans in 2009 and caused a pandemic.
- It describes the symptoms of swine flu as fever, cough, sore throat, and body aches. While usually mild, it can cause severe illness and death in people with underlying medical conditions.
- The document provides details on the influenza virus, including its structure, replication cycle in host cells, and interactions with the immune system through pathogen recognition receptors that trigger cytokine production and an antiviral response.
A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response.
DNA vaccines work by injecting genetically engineered plasmid containing the DNA sequence encoding the antigen(s) against which an immune response is sought, so the cells directly produce the antigen, thus causing a protective immunological response.
unit-2 interferon vaccine and hormones.pptxBkGupta21
This document discusses interferon, a group of signaling proteins released by host cells in response to viruses. Interferons help nearby cells heighten their anti-viral defenses. They have various functions including activating immune cells and increasing host defenses. More than 20 interferon genes have been identified in humans, divided into three classes: type I, II, and III. Type I interferons include IFN-α and IFN-β and are released by any cells. Type II IFN (IFN-γ) is released by NK and T cells. Interferons can be used to treat conditions like hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and multiple sclerosis. The document also discusses insulin production using recombinant DNA technology.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of vaccine drug delivery systems. It discusses early methods of vaccination including variolation and Edward Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccine in 1796. Major developments include Louis Pasteur's attenuated vaccines in the 1880s, the creation of inactivated toxins in the 1920s, and the polio vaccines of the 1950s. Recent research focuses on new delivery systems like DNA vaccines, viral vectors, and plant vaccines. The document also examines mechanisms of antigen uptake and presentation, types of vaccines, and delivery methods like liposomes, microparticles, and oral vaccination.
This document summarizes the history and development of vaccines. It discusses how Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine in 1796 and how vaccines for other diseases like cholera, anthrax, and plague were developed between 1890-1950. Modern vaccines use attenuated or inactivated forms of pathogens. New delivery systems are being researched like DNA vaccines, viral vectors, and plant-based vaccines. Liposomes and virosomes can be used to deliver subunit vaccines and improve immune responses. Oral vaccines are being developed but face challenges with degradation in the gastrointestinal tract.
A detailed description of HIV covering virology, morphology, pathogenesis, clinical stages and manifestations, laboratory diagnosis, and diagnostic strategy, and therapeutic options and prevention.
The rhinovirus is the most common viral infectious agent in humans and is the predominant cause of the common cold. HRVs can replicate in the lower airways and do appear to play a critical role in causing exacerbations of asthma and other chronic lung diseases.
A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response.
DNA vaccines work by injecting genetically engineered plasmid containing the DNA sequence encoding the antigen(s) against which an immune response is sought, so the cells directly produce the antigen, thus causing a protective immunological response.
unit-2 interferon vaccine and hormones.pptxBkGupta21
This document discusses interferon, a group of signaling proteins released by host cells in response to viruses. Interferons help nearby cells heighten their anti-viral defenses. They have various functions including activating immune cells and increasing host defenses. More than 20 interferon genes have been identified in humans, divided into three classes: type I, II, and III. Type I interferons include IFN-α and IFN-β and are released by any cells. Type II IFN (IFN-γ) is released by NK and T cells. Interferons can be used to treat conditions like hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and multiple sclerosis. The document also discusses insulin production using recombinant DNA technology.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of vaccine drug delivery systems. It discusses early methods of vaccination including variolation and Edward Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccine in 1796. Major developments include Louis Pasteur's attenuated vaccines in the 1880s, the creation of inactivated toxins in the 1920s, and the polio vaccines of the 1950s. Recent research focuses on new delivery systems like DNA vaccines, viral vectors, and plant vaccines. The document also examines mechanisms of antigen uptake and presentation, types of vaccines, and delivery methods like liposomes, microparticles, and oral vaccination.
This document summarizes the history and development of vaccines. It discusses how Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine in 1796 and how vaccines for other diseases like cholera, anthrax, and plague were developed between 1890-1950. Modern vaccines use attenuated or inactivated forms of pathogens. New delivery systems are being researched like DNA vaccines, viral vectors, and plant-based vaccines. Liposomes and virosomes can be used to deliver subunit vaccines and improve immune responses. Oral vaccines are being developed but face challenges with degradation in the gastrointestinal tract.
A detailed description of HIV covering virology, morphology, pathogenesis, clinical stages and manifestations, laboratory diagnosis, and diagnostic strategy, and therapeutic options and prevention.
The rhinovirus is the most common viral infectious agent in humans and is the predominant cause of the common cold. HRVs can replicate in the lower airways and do appear to play a critical role in causing exacerbations of asthma and other chronic lung diseases.
This presentation talks about vaccines, currently being used in medicinal processes and therapeutics and their types. It elaborates the importance of the different types of vaccines along with their examples and their mechanism of action. The mode of production of all the types of vaccines is also discussed in the presentation including recent developments made for the production of mRNA vaccine against SARS-CoV-2
This document discusses RNA viruses, specifically influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses. It provides classifications of RNA viruses including families such as Orthomyxoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Coronaviridae, and Retroviridae. Details are given on the structure, replication, and transmission of influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses. The clinical features, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of influenza and specific paramyxoviruses like mumps are summarized.
This document provides an overview of influenza viruses. It discusses that influenza viruses are a major cause of respiratory disease worldwide and have caused millions of deaths. It describes the three types of influenza viruses (A, B, C), their structures, proteins, replication cycles, mechanisms of antigenic drift and shift, and pathogenesis. The document also covers epidemiology, prevention strategies like vaccines and antiviral drugs, and treatment of influenza.
HCV has evolved multiple mechanisms to evade the immune system and establish chronic infection. It interferes with pattern recognition receptor signaling through cleavage of adaptor proteins by NS3/4A. NS3/4A and NS5A also block RIG-I signaling and JAK/STAT interferon pathways. HCV impairs dendritic cell function and induces T cell exhaustion. The high mutation rate allows escape from neutralizing antibodies and cytotoxic T cells. Combined, these immune evasion strategies enable HCV to overcome host defenses and persist long-term in most infected individuals.
DNA vaccines work by introducing genetic material from a pathogen into the body's cells, where it is then expressed to produce antigens that stimulate an immune response. This is different from traditional vaccines which use weakened or killed forms of pathogens. DNA vaccines aim to provide both humoral and cell-mediated immunity with a single dose through intramuscular or intradermal injection. They also do not require refrigeration and avoid potential safety risks of using live pathogens. Research is being conducted on DNA vaccines for diseases such as cancer, tuberculosis, anthrax, dengue, and typhoid to develop safer and more effective vaccines against these illnesses.
Immune responses to infectious diseases Hadia Azhar
The document summarizes resistance and immune responses to infectious diseases. It discusses the four main types of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa, helminths) and provides details on immune responses to specific pathogens like influenza virus, diphtheria bacteria, malaria protozoa (Plasmodium), and parasitic worms. It also notes that microbes have evolved ways to evade the immune system, such as antigenic variation, hiding in protected niches, and suppressing immune responses.
Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
The document summarizes key information about influenza viruses. It describes that influenza A and B viruses have segmented RNA genomes and cause seasonal epidemics in humans. Influenza A can undergo antigenic drift, resulting in minor changes to surface proteins, and antigenic shift, leading to new subtypes through genome reassortment. The life cycle and pathogenesis of influenza are outlined, as well as epidemiology, diseases caused, identification methods, prevention through vaccination, and treatment with antiviral drugs.
The document discusses the H1N1 influenza virus. It explains that H1N1 is a new type of flu virus containing genetic material from pig, bird, and human flu viruses. H1N1 spreads easily between people and caused a global pandemic in 2009. While most people recover without treatment, antiviral drugs like Tamiflu can shorten illness. Scientists are working to monitor the virus, develop vaccines, and better understand immune responses to prevent further spread of H1N1 infection.
THERAPEUTICS FOR HIV INFECTION (1).pptFaithLwabila
This document provides information on therapeutics for HIV infection, including:
1. It describes the types and characteristics of HIV, its life cycle, pathogenesis, and structure.
2. It discusses various classes of antiretroviral drugs, including their mechanisms of action, examples, and regimens. Common adverse effects are also summarized for some drug classes.
3. Guidelines for monitoring HIV infection and stages of the disease are outlined, including initial diagnosis, CD4 count, viral load, resistance testing, and clinical staging of HIV/AIDS.
Varicella-zoster virus is responsible for causing a primary varicella infection (chickenpox) and a secondary herpes zoster infection (shingles). Although varicella typically manifests as a mild disease in otherwise healthy children, it can also manifest as a moderate-to-severe disease, most notably in immunocompromised and adult hosts. Acyclovir is the antiviral agent of choice for the management of varicella infections. Routine vaccination with Varivax has been very effective in reducing chickenpox incidence
New Approches towards the Anti-HIV chemotherapyPharmaceutical
Viruses consist of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. Some viruses have an additional lipoprotein envelope. Viruses are intracellular parasites that must enter a host cell to replicate. They attach to receptors on the host cell and enter. Their genetic material is then expressed or transcribed using the host cell's machinery. New viral proteins and nucleic acid are assembled and released to infect new cells. HIV specifically targets CD4 T cells, integrating its genetic material. This leads to a decline in T cells and immune deficiency. There are several targets for antiviral drugs including viral attachment and entry inhibitors, reverse transcriptase inhibitors, integrase inhibitors, and protease inhibitors.
immunobiology of hiv virus human immunodeficeincy virusAkshay Raj
HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system and leading to AIDS. It is transmitted through sexual contact, blood transfusions, or from mother to child. While some can suppress the virus for many years, treatment aims to control progression, as there is no cure. HIV evades immunity through antigenic mutations and hiding from antibodies, exploiting the immune system it evolved to overcome. Immunotherapy and antiretroviral drugs target different stages of the viral lifecycle, but combination treatment is required to suppress HIV long-term.
This document discusses influenza (the flu) viruses. It describes the three main types - influenza A, B, and C. Influenza A is the most virulent in humans and can infect various animals. It is divided into subtypes. Influenza B only infects humans. Influenza C causes mild illness in children. The virus structure, antigens HA and NA, and modes of transmission are outlined. Clinical manifestations include fever, cough, and muscle aches. Prevention methods include vaccination, antiviral drugs, and infection control.
A COVID 19 vaccine is a vaccine intended to provide acquired immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV 2), the virus causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID 19). types of active and inactivated vaccine
Viral infection. immune response to infectious disease pptpetry2
This document discusses viral infections and the immune response against viruses. It begins with an overview of the four main types of pathogens that cause infectious disease: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. It then focuses specifically on viral infections, describing the innate immune response against viruses which involves type I interferons and NK cell activation. The adaptive immune response against viruses is also discussed, including humoral immunity through antibody production and cell-mediated immunity by CD8+ T cells and CD4+ Th1 cells. However, some viruses have developed strategies to evade these immune defenses. Specific viral diseases like influenza and Epstein-Barr virus are then examined in more detail.
This document discusses viral infections and the immune response against viruses. It begins with an overview of the four main types of pathogens that cause infectious disease: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. It then focuses specifically on viral infections, describing the innate immune response against viruses which involves type I interferons and NK cell activation. The adaptive immune response against viruses is also discussed, including humoral immunity through antibody production and cell-mediated immunity by CD8+ T cells and CD4+ Th1 cells. However, some viruses have developed strategies to evade these immune defenses. Specific viral diseases like influenza and Epstein-Barr virus are then examined in more detail.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Immune response to any pathogen, how an organism is initially tackled by the immune system, what makes the immune system to fail to combat various infections, what are the escaping mechanisms
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...Sérgio Sacani
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
�
(
�
−
�
)
∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
000
±
2
,
000
km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
�
Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
�
cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
�
) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
�
Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
�
truly diverge from their low-
�
counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
This presentation talks about vaccines, currently being used in medicinal processes and therapeutics and their types. It elaborates the importance of the different types of vaccines along with their examples and their mechanism of action. The mode of production of all the types of vaccines is also discussed in the presentation including recent developments made for the production of mRNA vaccine against SARS-CoV-2
This document discusses RNA viruses, specifically influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses. It provides classifications of RNA viruses including families such as Orthomyxoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Coronaviridae, and Retroviridae. Details are given on the structure, replication, and transmission of influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses. The clinical features, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of influenza and specific paramyxoviruses like mumps are summarized.
This document provides an overview of influenza viruses. It discusses that influenza viruses are a major cause of respiratory disease worldwide and have caused millions of deaths. It describes the three types of influenza viruses (A, B, C), their structures, proteins, replication cycles, mechanisms of antigenic drift and shift, and pathogenesis. The document also covers epidemiology, prevention strategies like vaccines and antiviral drugs, and treatment of influenza.
HCV has evolved multiple mechanisms to evade the immune system and establish chronic infection. It interferes with pattern recognition receptor signaling through cleavage of adaptor proteins by NS3/4A. NS3/4A and NS5A also block RIG-I signaling and JAK/STAT interferon pathways. HCV impairs dendritic cell function and induces T cell exhaustion. The high mutation rate allows escape from neutralizing antibodies and cytotoxic T cells. Combined, these immune evasion strategies enable HCV to overcome host defenses and persist long-term in most infected individuals.
DNA vaccines work by introducing genetic material from a pathogen into the body's cells, where it is then expressed to produce antigens that stimulate an immune response. This is different from traditional vaccines which use weakened or killed forms of pathogens. DNA vaccines aim to provide both humoral and cell-mediated immunity with a single dose through intramuscular or intradermal injection. They also do not require refrigeration and avoid potential safety risks of using live pathogens. Research is being conducted on DNA vaccines for diseases such as cancer, tuberculosis, anthrax, dengue, and typhoid to develop safer and more effective vaccines against these illnesses.
Immune responses to infectious diseases Hadia Azhar
The document summarizes resistance and immune responses to infectious diseases. It discusses the four main types of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa, helminths) and provides details on immune responses to specific pathogens like influenza virus, diphtheria bacteria, malaria protozoa (Plasmodium), and parasitic worms. It also notes that microbes have evolved ways to evade the immune system, such as antigenic variation, hiding in protected niches, and suppressing immune responses.
Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
The document summarizes key information about influenza viruses. It describes that influenza A and B viruses have segmented RNA genomes and cause seasonal epidemics in humans. Influenza A can undergo antigenic drift, resulting in minor changes to surface proteins, and antigenic shift, leading to new subtypes through genome reassortment. The life cycle and pathogenesis of influenza are outlined, as well as epidemiology, diseases caused, identification methods, prevention through vaccination, and treatment with antiviral drugs.
The document discusses the H1N1 influenza virus. It explains that H1N1 is a new type of flu virus containing genetic material from pig, bird, and human flu viruses. H1N1 spreads easily between people and caused a global pandemic in 2009. While most people recover without treatment, antiviral drugs like Tamiflu can shorten illness. Scientists are working to monitor the virus, develop vaccines, and better understand immune responses to prevent further spread of H1N1 infection.
THERAPEUTICS FOR HIV INFECTION (1).pptFaithLwabila
This document provides information on therapeutics for HIV infection, including:
1. It describes the types and characteristics of HIV, its life cycle, pathogenesis, and structure.
2. It discusses various classes of antiretroviral drugs, including their mechanisms of action, examples, and regimens. Common adverse effects are also summarized for some drug classes.
3. Guidelines for monitoring HIV infection and stages of the disease are outlined, including initial diagnosis, CD4 count, viral load, resistance testing, and clinical staging of HIV/AIDS.
Varicella-zoster virus is responsible for causing a primary varicella infection (chickenpox) and a secondary herpes zoster infection (shingles). Although varicella typically manifests as a mild disease in otherwise healthy children, it can also manifest as a moderate-to-severe disease, most notably in immunocompromised and adult hosts. Acyclovir is the antiviral agent of choice for the management of varicella infections. Routine vaccination with Varivax has been very effective in reducing chickenpox incidence
New Approches towards the Anti-HIV chemotherapyPharmaceutical
Viruses consist of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. Some viruses have an additional lipoprotein envelope. Viruses are intracellular parasites that must enter a host cell to replicate. They attach to receptors on the host cell and enter. Their genetic material is then expressed or transcribed using the host cell's machinery. New viral proteins and nucleic acid are assembled and released to infect new cells. HIV specifically targets CD4 T cells, integrating its genetic material. This leads to a decline in T cells and immune deficiency. There are several targets for antiviral drugs including viral attachment and entry inhibitors, reverse transcriptase inhibitors, integrase inhibitors, and protease inhibitors.
immunobiology of hiv virus human immunodeficeincy virusAkshay Raj
HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system and leading to AIDS. It is transmitted through sexual contact, blood transfusions, or from mother to child. While some can suppress the virus for many years, treatment aims to control progression, as there is no cure. HIV evades immunity through antigenic mutations and hiding from antibodies, exploiting the immune system it evolved to overcome. Immunotherapy and antiretroviral drugs target different stages of the viral lifecycle, but combination treatment is required to suppress HIV long-term.
This document discusses influenza (the flu) viruses. It describes the three main types - influenza A, B, and C. Influenza A is the most virulent in humans and can infect various animals. It is divided into subtypes. Influenza B only infects humans. Influenza C causes mild illness in children. The virus structure, antigens HA and NA, and modes of transmission are outlined. Clinical manifestations include fever, cough, and muscle aches. Prevention methods include vaccination, antiviral drugs, and infection control.
A COVID 19 vaccine is a vaccine intended to provide acquired immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV 2), the virus causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID 19). types of active and inactivated vaccine
Viral infection. immune response to infectious disease pptpetry2
This document discusses viral infections and the immune response against viruses. It begins with an overview of the four main types of pathogens that cause infectious disease: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. It then focuses specifically on viral infections, describing the innate immune response against viruses which involves type I interferons and NK cell activation. The adaptive immune response against viruses is also discussed, including humoral immunity through antibody production and cell-mediated immunity by CD8+ T cells and CD4+ Th1 cells. However, some viruses have developed strategies to evade these immune defenses. Specific viral diseases like influenza and Epstein-Barr virus are then examined in more detail.
This document discusses viral infections and the immune response against viruses. It begins with an overview of the four main types of pathogens that cause infectious disease: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. It then focuses specifically on viral infections, describing the innate immune response against viruses which involves type I interferons and NK cell activation. The adaptive immune response against viruses is also discussed, including humoral immunity through antibody production and cell-mediated immunity by CD8+ T cells and CD4+ Th1 cells. However, some viruses have developed strategies to evade these immune defenses. Specific viral diseases like influenza and Epstein-Barr virus are then examined in more detail.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Immune response to any pathogen, how an organism is initially tackled by the immune system, what makes the immune system to fail to combat various infections, what are the escaping mechanisms
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...Sérgio Sacani
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
�
(
�
−
�
)
∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
000
±
2
,
000
km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
�
Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
�
cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
�
) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
�
Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
�
truly diverge from their low-
�
counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
SDSS1335+0728: The awakening of a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole⋆Sérgio Sacani
Context. The early-type galaxy SDSS J133519.91+072807.4 (hereafter SDSS1335+0728), which had exhibited no prior optical variations during the preceding two decades, began showing significant nuclear variability in the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) alert stream from December 2019 (as ZTF19acnskyy). This variability behaviour, coupled with the host-galaxy properties, suggests that SDSS1335+0728 hosts a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole (BH) that is currently in the process of ‘turning on’. Aims. We present a multi-wavelength photometric analysis and spectroscopic follow-up performed with the aim of better understanding the origin of the nuclear variations detected in SDSS1335+0728. Methods. We used archival photometry (from WISE, 2MASS, SDSS, GALEX, eROSITA) and spectroscopic data (from SDSS and LAMOST) to study the state of SDSS1335+0728 prior to December 2019, and new observations from Swift, SOAR/Goodman, VLT/X-shooter, and Keck/LRIS taken after its turn-on to characterise its current state. We analysed the variability of SDSS1335+0728 in the X-ray/UV/optical/mid-infrared range, modelled its spectral energy distribution prior to and after December 2019, and studied the evolution of its UV/optical spectra. Results. From our multi-wavelength photometric analysis, we find that: (a) since 2021, the UV flux (from Swift/UVOT observations) is four times brighter than the flux reported by GALEX in 2004; (b) since June 2022, the mid-infrared flux has risen more than two times, and the W1−W2 WISE colour has become redder; and (c) since February 2024, the source has begun showing X-ray emission. From our spectroscopic follow-up, we see that (i) the narrow emission line ratios are now consistent with a more energetic ionising continuum; (ii) broad emission lines are not detected; and (iii) the [OIII] line increased its flux ∼ 3.6 years after the first ZTF alert, which implies a relatively compact narrow-line-emitting region. Conclusions. We conclude that the variations observed in SDSS1335+0728 could be either explained by a ∼ 106M⊙ AGN that is just turning on or by an exotic tidal disruption event (TDE). If the former is true, SDSS1335+0728 is one of the strongest cases of an AGNobserved in the process of activating. If the latter were found to be the case, it would correspond to the longest and faintest TDE ever observed (or another class of still unknown nuclear transient). Future observations of SDSS1335+0728 are crucial to further understand its behaviour. Key words. galaxies: active– accretion, accretion discs– galaxies: individual: SDSS J133519.91+072807.4
JAMES WEBB STUDY THE MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SEEDSSérgio Sacani
The pathway(s) to seeding the massive black holes (MBHs) that exist at the heart of galaxies in the present and distant Universe remains an unsolved problem. Here we categorise, describe and quantitatively discuss the formation pathways of both light and heavy seeds. We emphasise that the most recent computational models suggest that rather than a bimodal-like mass spectrum between light and heavy seeds with light at one end and heavy at the other that instead a continuum exists. Light seeds being more ubiquitous and the heavier seeds becoming less and less abundant due the rarer environmental conditions required for their formation. We therefore examine the different mechanisms that give rise to different seed mass spectrums. We show how and why the mechanisms that produce the heaviest seeds are also among the rarest events in the Universe and are hence extremely unlikely to be the seeds for the vast majority of the MBH population. We quantify, within the limits of the current large uncertainties in the seeding processes, the expected number densities of the seed mass spectrum. We argue that light seeds must be at least 103 to 105 times more numerous than heavy seeds to explain the MBH population as a whole. Based on our current understanding of the seed population this makes heavy seeds (Mseed > 103 M⊙) a significantly more likely pathway given that heavy seeds have an abundance pattern than is close to and likely in excess of 10−4 compared to light seeds. Finally, we examine the current state-of-the-art in numerical calculations and recent observations and plot a path forward for near-future advances in both domains.
Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
Evidence of Jet Activity from the Secondary Black Hole in the OJ 287 Binary S...Sérgio Sacani
Wereport the study of a huge optical intraday flare on 2021 November 12 at 2 a.m. UT in the blazar OJ287. In the binary black hole model, it is associated with an impact of the secondary black hole on the accretion disk of the primary. Our multifrequency observing campaign was set up to search for such a signature of the impact based on a prediction made 8 yr earlier. The first I-band results of the flare have already been reported by Kishore et al. (2024). Here we combine these data with our monitoring in the R-band. There is a big change in the R–I spectral index by 1.0 ±0.1 between the normal background and the flare, suggesting a new component of radiation. The polarization variation during the rise of the flare suggests the same. The limits on the source size place it most reasonably in the jet of the secondary BH. We then ask why we have not seen this phenomenon before. We show that OJ287 was never before observed with sufficient sensitivity on the night when the flare should have happened according to the binary model. We also study the probability that this flare is just an oversized example of intraday variability using the Krakow data set of intense monitoring between 2015 and 2023. We find that the occurrence of a flare of this size and rapidity is unlikely. In machine-readable Tables 1 and 2, we give the full orbit-linked historical light curve of OJ287 as well as the dense monitoring sample of Krakow.
Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...Sérgio Sacani
Context. The observation of several L-band emission sources in the S cluster has led to a rich discussion of their nature. However, a definitive answer to the classification of the dusty objects requires an explanation for the detection of compact Doppler-shifted Brγ emission. The ionized hydrogen in combination with the observation of mid-infrared L-band continuum emission suggests that most of these sources are embedded in a dusty envelope. These embedded sources are part of the S-cluster, and their relationship to the S-stars is still under debate. To date, the question of the origin of these two populations has been vague, although all explanations favor migration processes for the individual cluster members. Aims. This work revisits the S-cluster and its dusty members orbiting the supermassive black hole SgrA* on bound Keplerian orbits from a kinematic perspective. The aim is to explore the Keplerian parameters for patterns that might imply a nonrandom distribution of the sample. Additionally, various analytical aspects are considered to address the nature of the dusty sources. Methods. Based on the photometric analysis, we estimated the individual H−K and K−L colors for the source sample and compared the results to known cluster members. The classification revealed a noticeable contrast between the S-stars and the dusty sources. To fit the flux-density distribution, we utilized the radiative transfer code HYPERION and implemented a young stellar object Class I model. We obtained the position angle from the Keplerian fit results; additionally, we analyzed the distribution of the inclinations and the longitudes of the ascending node. Results. The colors of the dusty sources suggest a stellar nature consistent with the spectral energy distribution in the near and midinfrared domains. Furthermore, the evaporation timescales of dusty and gaseous clumps in the vicinity of SgrA* are much shorter ( 2yr) than the epochs covered by the observations (≈15yr). In addition to the strong evidence for the stellar classification of the D-sources, we also find a clear disk-like pattern following the arrangements of S-stars proposed in the literature. Furthermore, we find a global intrinsic inclination for all dusty sources of 60 ± 20◦, implying a common formation process. Conclusions. The pattern of the dusty sources manifested in the distribution of the position angles, inclinations, and longitudes of the ascending node strongly suggests two different scenarios: the main-sequence stars and the dusty stellar S-cluster sources share a common formation history or migrated with a similar formation channel in the vicinity of SgrA*. Alternatively, the gravitational influence of SgrA* in combination with a massive perturber, such as a putative intermediate mass black hole in the IRS 13 cluster, forces the dusty objects and S-stars to follow a particular orbital arrangement. Key words. stars: black holes– stars: formation– Galaxy: center– galaxies: star formation
Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...
Swine Flu.pdf
1. Swine Flu
Atar Singh Kushwah
(M.Sc. & Ph.D. in Molecular & Human Genetics)
PostDoc Research Scientist
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
New York, USA
Email: atarskushwah@gmail.com; Mob. No. +13342337860
Dr. Kushwah
2. • Novel H1N1 (aka “swine flu”) is a new influenza virus causing illness in people.
• First detected in people in the United States in April 2009.
• Spreading from person to person worldwide, probably in much the same way
that regular seasonal influenza viruses spread.
• On June 11, 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) signaled that a
pandemic of novel H1N1 flu was underway.
• An influenza pandemic happens when a new virus subtype emerges that has not
previously circulated in humans.
Swine Origin Influenza Virus
Dr. Kushwah
3. • Similar to an epidemic, a pandemic is a disease outbreak where several people
become severely ill with the same virus at the same time.
• However, unlike an epidemic, a pandemic spreads throughout the world and
results in an extremely high illness rate unless prevention strategies are rapidly
implemented.
Dr. Kushwah
4. • Fever (1000F), cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, body aches, headache, chills and
fatigue.
• A significant number of people who have been infected with this virus also have reported
diarrhea and vomiting.
• The usual course is rather benign like the common flu.
• Nevertheless, severe illnesses and death has occurred as a result of illness associated with
this virus.
• Usually among people with other serious medical conditions
No one can predict if the next wave will be more severe
Signs and Symptoms
Dr. Kushwah
7. • Influenza virus is a major pathogen that represents an ongoing health threat to
several species as diverse as poultry, swine, and mammals including humans,
generally via respiratory morbidity and mortality.
• Influenza virus is a member of the Orthomyxoviridae family with an enveloped,
negative sense-single-stranded RNA and based genome these are divided in to 03
types: A, B, and C.
• The influenza A virion genome consists of eight RNA segments that are varying in
sizes, with coding ability of 11 proteins, including Hemagglutinin(HA),
Neuraminidase (NA), Matrix proteins (M1 and M2), Polymerase basic protein (PB1,
PB2 and PA), Nucleocapsid protein (NP), PB1-F2 and non-structural proteins (NS1
and NS2).
Flu and Its Virulence Factors
Dr. Kushwah
8. • HA functions as a mediator for virus entry into the cell by membrane fusion activity
and receptor binding.
• Meanwhile, NA mediates the progeny virions released by viral receptor enzymatic
cleavage.
• Integral membrane protein, M2, is a multi-functional, proton-selective, ion channel
that has roles in both virus entry as well as in virus assembly and budding.
• The matrix protein (M1) plays an important role in the virion structure and also as a
mediator for the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) core and the viral lipid membrane.
• PA, PB1, PB2 and NP make up the RNP core which plays a critical role in mediating
the packaging and binding of the viral genome.
• NS1, NS2, nuclear export protein (NEP) and PB1-F2 are the three other proteins
which are expressed during replication of the virus and are not merged to the mature
virion. Dr. Kushwah
9. • NS1 protein acts as an immunosuppressor by inhibiting type I IFN release and
attenuates the capacity of dendritic cells (DCs) to induce T cell responses and
maturation resulting in innate and adaptive immunity inhibition, respectively.
• Four envelope proteins including HA, NA, NB and BM2 form the organization of
influenza B virion.
• BM2 protein is similar to M2 of influenza A virus while the hemagglutinin-
esterase-fusion (HEF) protein is a major surface glycoprotein of the influenza C
viruses.
• The functionality of this protein corresponds to the HA and NA of influenza A and
B viruses as well as the minor envelope protein, CM2.
Dr. Kushwah
11. Replication Cycle
• Influenza virus replication initiates with virus entry into the host cell via a process
of receptor-mediated endocytosis. The virus attaches to sialic acid-containing
receptors via the HA molecule.
• Two main types of interaction between galactose (Gal) and sialyloligosaccharides
(SAs) are SA-a2, 3-Gal and SA-a2, 6-Gal.
• Normally HA proteins of avian influenza virus (AIV) bind to the SA-a2 and 3-Gal
preferentially while a higher affinity for SA-a2 and 6-Gal linkage is observed for HA
proteins of human influenza virus.
• The viral entrance into the cell is through the endocytic pathway. The low pH of
endosome causes a change in the HA protein conformation leading to exposure of a
hydrophobic fusion peptide.
Dr. Kushwah
12. • After internalization and fusion of the vesicle with the endosome, the virus enters
into the cytoplasm and there leased viral RNP complexes are transported into the
nucleus.
• Viral mRNA and complementary RNA (cRNA) will be synthesized from the vRNPs
templates in the nucleus.
• The synthesized mRNAs will be exported into cytoplasm for translation of viral
proteins. These newly synthesized proteins are transported to the nucleus for final
assembly of vRNP.
• cRNAs are then used as templates for synthesis of more negative sense viral RNA
for packaging into progeny virions and amplification of mRNA synthesis.
• Finally, viral nucleocapsids are assembled in the nucleus before being transported
back into the cytoplasm and subsequently form buds at the plasma membrane
followed by the release of the new viral particles.
Dr. Kushwah
13. Immune Responses of Influenza Infection
Innate Immunity
Pathogen Recognition Receptor of Influenza Virus
• Innate immunity plays a critical role in efficient and rapid limitation of viral
infections as well as for adaptive immunity initiation. Different pathogen recognition
receptors (PRRs) in the innate immune system cells are utilized to recognize the
influenza A virus.
• There are three different PRRs to sense influenza A virus, which includes the
Retinoic acid inducible gene I (RIG-I), Toll-like receptors (TLR3, TLR7, TLR8) and
nucleotide binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs).
Dr. Kushwah
14. RIG-I is a cytosolic sensor that recognizes the influenza virus through the detection
of 5’ triphosphates on single-stranded RNAs.
In specialized cells like plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), single-stranded viral
RNA is exposed by viral capsid degradation in the acidified endosomes for detection
by TLR7.
The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and type I interferons are induced
through the RIGI and TLR7 pathways.
IRF7 (interferon regulatory factor 7) and NF-kB are activated by TLR7 signals which
are mediated by MyD88 protein as an adaptor protein.
Moreover, RIGI signals can activate the IRF3 and NF-kB through the IPSI protein
which is located in the mitochondria.
Dr. Kushwah
15. • Activated IRF3 and IRF7 are then translocated into the nucleus to induce type I
interferon production. Meanwhile, NF-kB activates the pro-inflammatory cytokines
such as IL-6, TNF-a and IL-1b.
• Once the IFN-a/b, IFN-g and IFN-l are activated they lead the induction of the
antiviral response and the activation of neutrophils, recruitment of macrophages
and maturation of DCs.
• Activation of IFN-a/b as type I IFNs results in antiviral signaling cascades that
involves phosphorylation of tyrosine kinase 2 (Tyk2) and Janus kinase 1 (Jak1),
followed by phosphorylation of signal transducer and activators of transcription
(STAT) 1 and STAT2.
• Finally IFN- stimulated gene factor-3 transcription Factor complex (ISGF3) is
formed through the combination of phosphorylated STAT1 and 2 with IRF9,
restablishing an antiviral state in the cell.
Dr. Kushwah
16. • The initial phase of the influenza virus infection activates alveolar macrophages
and monocytes, resulting in a pro-inflammatory cytokine response involving TNF-a
and IL-6.
• Alveolar macrophages have beneficial effects in limiting viral spread either by
phagocyte-mediated opsonophagocytosis of influenza virus particles and
phagocytosis of apoptotic infected cells or by regulating the adaptive immune
response.
• Natural killer (NK) cells as cytotoxic lymphocytes are critical for eliminating
influenza virus infection through two mechanisms.
• First, they bind to HA proteins through sialylated NKp44 and NKp46 receptors.
Macrophages, Natural Killer Cells and Dendritic Cells
Dr. Kushwah
17. • Second, NK cells are able to attach to the Fc portion of antibodies bound to the
influenza virus-infected cells through their CD16 receptor to mediate the lysis of
these cells.
• Dcs as professional antigen-presenting cells are characterized as a critical
mediator between the innate and the adaptive immune system. The adaptive
immune response is initiated when DCs present viral antigens to the naïve and
memory T lymphocytes.
• DCs constantly inspect the lungs for foreign materials or invading pathogens.
During an influenza virus infection, the antigens are acquired by the DCs through
two different mechanisms.
• The first mechanism is by direct infection of DCs, whereby the viral proteins are
degraded into small peptides by proteasomes in the cytosol, transported to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and subsequently loaded to major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) class I molecules. Dr. Kushwah
18. The MHC class I/peptide complexes are recognized by the virus-specific CD8
cytotoxic T cells (CTLs).
Phagocytosis of virus particles or apoptotic epithelial cells is the second mechanism
of antigen acquisition by DCs.
Degraded viral proteins are bound to the MHC class II molecules and these
complexes presented on the cell surface can be recognized by CD4 T helper cells,
which would then lead to B cells proliferation and maturation into antibody-
producing plasma cells.
DCs are also able to present epitopes to CD8 T cells via this route of antigen
acquisition which is known as cross-presentation. can also present epitopes to CD8
T cells via this route of antigen acquisition which is known as cross-presentation
Dr. Kushwah
21. Adaptive Immunity
The humoral immune system produces antibodies against different influenza
antigens. Understanding host antibody response is crucial for predicting disease
severity and developing vaccines.
The HA-specific antibody is the most important for virus neutralization to prevent
illness through binding to the trimeric globular head of HA, thus inhibiting virus
attachment to the host cells.
Additionally, HA-specific antibodies can bind to the infected Fc receptor-expressing
cells to facilitate the phagocytosis of virus particles.
There are also antibodies directed against the highly conserved stem region of the
HA, with the ability to neutralize different subtypes of influenza viruses although
the titers are low. Such antibodies would be useful in stimulating an immune
response against all HA types.
Dr. Kushwah
22. Antibodies against NA limit virus spread by inhibiting enzymatic activity and
additionally by facilitating antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC).
M2-specific antibodies are produced to a limited extent after natural infection as this
protein itself is present at low concentrations in the infected cells.
Besides, NP-specific antibodies may also contribute to influenza virus infection.
Although the mechanism of protection remains to be clarified, these antibodies are able
to trigger complement-mediated cell lysis of infected cells.
However, both antigenic drift and shift of the surface antigens could reduce the
effectiveness of antibody binding to the HA and NA, hence leading to renewed
susceptibility to infection.
Nevertheless, heterotypic antibodies can convey substantial immunity depending upon
the extent of cross-reactivity for infecting virus antigens.
Dr. Kushwah
23. While serum anti-HA antibody is the major need for optimal immunity to influenza, a
full complement of immune modalities is desirable to ensure maximum immunity.
The main entrance for many pathogens such as influenza is the mucosal tissues.
Thus, IgA and to some extent, IgM, may act as the main antibodies in the mucosal
tissues by neutralizing the mucosal pathogens and subsequently preventing
pathogen entry and virus replication.
Neutralizing antibodies, primarily of the IgA isotype, act especially against the HA
and NA of the influenza virus.
Induction of primary response occurs in organized lymphoid tissues while
secondary responses may occur in the periphery.
IgM antibody is initially dominant during primary responses whereas IgG antibody is
dominant during secondary responses.
Dr. Kushwah
24. It was shown that a higher IgM level could be associated with a quicker viral clearance
and an early good IgM response is usually necessary for a subsequent good IgG
antibody response.
This indicates that there may exist an innate linkage between early influenza HA-
specific IgM response and subsequent IgG antibody production.
Generally, the half-life of antibodies is short, but Ab titers can last a lifetime due to a
long-lived subset of the Ab-secreting cells (ASCs).
It is well studied that transmembrane activator, calcium modulator, cyclophilin ligand
interactor (TACI) cytokines, B lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) and a proliferation-
inducing ligand (APRIL) have critical roles in producing optimum humoral immunity
and most important in providing protection against secondary viral infection.
Dr. Kushwah
25. CD4 and CD8 T cells are induced upon infection with the influenza virus. Activation of
virus-specific CD4 helper T cells, both Th1 and Th2 type cells, recognize virus-derived
MHC class II-associated peptides on antigen-presenting cells, followed by expression of
co-stimulatory molecules.
T helper17 (Th17) and regulatory T cells (Tregs) that control the cellular immune
response against influenza virus infection have also been identified.
Th17 cells improve T helper reactions by production of IL-6 which prevents Tregs
function. Tregs control the CD8 T cell and the T helper cell responses after infection.
Besides, Tregs do not have any effect on the B cell response but they are able to
suppress the T helper response.
Furthermore, IL-35 secreted by Tregs, acts as a suppressor to inflammatory responses.
It has also been shown that IL-35 is upregulated during secondary pneumococcal
pneumonia following influenza infection.Dr. Kushwah
26. Some cytolytic activity of CD4 T cells is displayed in infected cells. However, T helper
(Th) cells are the most significant phenotype of these cells.
Th cells are divided into two subsets including Th1 and Th2 cells based on their
different cytokine expression profile.
Th1 cells produce IFN-g and IL-2 and are involved predominantly in cellular immune
response whereas Th2 cells induce IL-4 and IL-13 production and are shown to
stimulate B cell responses.
The ability of CD4 T cells to prompt antiviral B cell responses is the most significant
contribution of these cells, which lead to class-switching of antibodies, affinity
maturation, and generation of long-lived plasma cells.
Distinct CD4 T cell subset is considered for this effector activity named the T follicular
helper (Tfh) cell.
Dr. Kushwah
27. Since the Tfh cell responses can have effective implications for immunological
memory and vaccination, it is an area of extreme interest in experimental influenza
infection.
Upon influenza virus infection, viral epitopes associated with MHC class I molecules
activate the naïve CD8 T cells in the draining lymph nodes, which subsequently
differentiate into cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs).
Activation of these cells leads to migration to the infection site where they detect
influenza virus-infected cells and eliminate them via lytic activity, hence inhibiting the
virus progeny production.
The lytic activity is facilitated by the perforin and granzymes (e.g.,GrA and GrB)
secretion. The infected cell membrane is permeabilized by perforin to assist the
entrance of granzymes into the cells and finally apoptosis induction.
Dr. Kushwah
28. Furthermore, GrA shows non-cytotoxic activities focusing on preventing virus
replication via cleavage of viral proteins and host cell proteins involved in protein
synthesis.
CTLs also have the capability to prompt apoptosis of infected cells via Fas/FasL
interactions.
Moreover, they generate cytokines that increase antigen presentation by inducing
MHC expression.
Post-infection virus-specific CTL developed and preserved under the regulation of T
cell-produced IL-17 and DCs is located in the blood circulation, the lymphoid organs,
and the site of infection.
These memory CTL cells are able to act upon secondary influenza virus infection.
Their co-stimulation during their initial differentiation phase affects their reactivity
and affinity during secondary infection. Dr. Kushwah
29. Human CTL produced by influenza virus infection is primarily directed against NP, M1,
and PA proteins.
These proteins are highly conserved and therefore the CTL response is cross-reactive
to a high degree even between different subtypes of influenza A viruses.
Dr. Kushwah