Survival of the Fittest

Designing Human Performance
Investigating the impact of Design in the Sports Industry;
- Exploring Design’s Impact on Athletic Performance.
- Assessing sports innovation and its affect on sports equality.
- Appraising the influence of sports design in modern culture.
Figure 2 Version 1

Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Designing Performance Enhancement:
Exploring Design’s Impact on Athletic Performance.
- Origin
- Demand
- Extrinsic technologies
- Innovative sports Clothing
- Innovative performance Footwear
- Impact
Sports culture and the principles of sports innovation:
Assessing sports innovation and its effect on sports equality.
- Principle
- Disadvantages
- An Unequal Playing Field
- Brands and Consumerism
- Nations and Associations
- Economic Investment
- Safety in Numbers
Impact of the Sports Design Industry:
Appraising the influence of sports design in modern culture.
- Negative
- Consumerist Proclivities
- Positive
- Athletic Lifestyles
- Smart-wear
The Potential benefits of Sports Innovation Design
- Conclusion
- Further Investigation
- Human Performance
Reference List
Bibliography
Images
Illustrations
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1
Abstract:
Design is essential to everything we do as a global community. It has the power to create change
as it has done so many times before, especially within sport. Sport has a significant influence within
our modern society, providing entertainment, activity and competition. Combined, design and
sport have the potential to create innovative solutions to enhance sport and improve public health.

3Figure 2 Version 2
Introduction

4
“Obstacles don’t have to stop you. If you run into a
wall, don’t turn around and give up. Figure out how
to climb it, go through it, or work around it 1
.”
- Michael Jordan
1. Pat Williams, The Magic Of Team Work, 1st edn (Petaling Jaya: Advantage Quest, 1998).
Image 1

72. Tim Brown and Barry Katz, “Change By Design”, Journal Of Product Innovation Management, 28.3 (2011), 381-383 <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5885.2011.00806.x>.
Designers innovate to solve problems presented by everyday life. Throughout my studies
as a Product Design student I have been interested in understanding more about the role
that both design and sport play in modern society. This thesis will demonstrate Design’s
ability to make a significant impact to modern society and in particular the role of design in
sports performance, participation and public health.
Design has the potential to have a significant impact upon many aspects of modern society.
In the past, great designers have created innovations to successfully solve problems made
apparent by society. Tim Brown articulates, that as designers we have the opportunity to
use previous great designers as examples:
‘…to unleash the power of design thinking as a means of exploring new possibilities,
creating new choices, and bringing new solutions to the world. In the process, we may find
that we have made our societies healthier, our businesses more profitable, and our own
lives richer, more impactful, and more meaningful 2
.’
- Tim Brown
As society changes, culture changes simultaneously. Different aspects of culture oscillate in
their popularity over time. One aspect of modern life that has increased in popularity over
the last century, is Sport.

9
Sport is a human invention to discover the body’s athletic limits. We have a natural curiosity
to find out what the body is capable of; how high we can jump, how fast we can run and
how much weight we can lift. Sport has pushed us to our perceived athletic limitations
countless times, only to be restricted by our understanding of physical capability at the
time. As a human collective, when we reach our perceived limits we are forced to design
and innovate. Design in sport plays a pivotal role in breaking performance boundaries,
challenging the status quo. However, beyond the stadium and the realm of elite athletes
Design has a real impact on everyday lives. This thesis will also recognise that Design in
sport can prove significantly beneficial to the general public’s health and lifestyles
Design’s involvement in the sports sector has the ability to influence both the success of
athletes and people’s participation in sport. Design is not only utilised for the aesthetic
appearance of the industry,which has flourished in recent years; it is also a major component
in sports’ ability to change lives for the better. Designers are involved in many different ways
within the industry; whether it is creating the next innovation for sneakers or a bespoke
piece of equipment for a Paralympian.

11
3. “The Definition Of Athlete”, Dictionary.Com, 2017 <http://www.dictionary.com/browse/athlete> [accessed 19 March 2017]
4. Bob Davis and others, Physical Education And The Study Of Sport, 4th edn (Edinburgh: Mosby, 2000), pp. 121-123.
The Greeks created the word ‘Athlete’ to identify a person who ‘competes for a prize’ and
is defined in the dictionary as ‘a person who has a natural aptitude for physical activities’3
.
In sport, we create solutions that can improve our performance to achieve an edge over
our opponents in order to win. Design has the potential to have a significant impact upon
sporting results. Much like animals, humans are naturally competitive to prove mental and
or physical dominance over one another, whether as a team or as an individual. This has
resulted in the invention of many sports and activities to exhibit all the fitness components
and superior mental strength. There are considered to be four basic fitness components,
strength, speed, stamina and flexibility4
combined throughout all sport.

135. Johnson, Michael, Gold Rush, 1st edn (London: HarperSport, 2012), p. 81
‘Athlete’ is a term which can be used colloquially in modern society. Former Olympic and
World Champion Michael Johnson values the concept of an athlete as;
‘Sport is about competition and anyone can compete, whether they are athletes or not.
But not all sportspeople are athletes. All Olympians aren’t athletes… I just don’t believe
that individuals taking part in sports like Archery or Shooting are athletes. I believe the
Olympic motto ‘Stronger, Higher, faster’ sums up the requirements for sports participants
to be considered athletes.’ 5
- Michael Johnson

15
It is understandable that people who compete in the Olympics are to be considered
athletes. This is where design has the opportunity to reduce the difference between
an athlete and competitor. The US National Library of Medicine (2014) defines athletic
performance as the: ‘Carrying out of specific physical routines or procedures by one who
is trained or skilled in physical activity6
.’
An athlete’s lifestyle has changed in the last 25 years. From a time when amateurs used
to compete as a part time activity, to sportspeople being some of the highest paid
individuals. Athletes have become celebrities as sporting culture has become more
involved in people’s lives on a global scale. A significant factor for athlete’s becoming
global celebrities, is the increased media exposure. Thousands of people are able to
watch matches live in bespoke designed stadiums. Concurrently, millions of people can
watch live broadcasts on TV or the internet, increasing the exposure athletes and inspiring
people to participate in sport.
6. “Athletic Performance - Mesh - NCBI”, Ncbi.Nlm.Nih.Gov, 2017 <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68054874> [accessed 19 March 2017]

17
Usain Bolt is the highest paid Athlete of all time, he earned ‘$32.5 Million in 2016’. 7
7. “Forbes Welcome”, Forbes.Com, 2017 <https://www.forbes.com/profile/usain-bolt/> [accessed 19 March 2017]

19
Wembley has the highest capacity in the UK with a potential ‘90,000 spectators’. 8
8. “Stats And Facts | Wembley Stadium”, Wembleystadium.Com, 2017 <http://www.wembleystadium.com/Press/Presspack/Stats-and-Facts> [accessed 19 March 2017]

21
‘494,000 people’ Attended Wimbledon across the 14 days in 2016.9
9. “Wimbledon Was The Most Attended UK Sport Event In 2016”, BBC, 2017 <http://Wimbledon was the most attended UK sport event in 2016> [accessed 19 March 2017]

23Figure 2 Version 3
Designing Performance Enhancement

25
With such a high amount of public exposure and potential financial gain in modern
sport, there is a lot at stake for athletes. Athletes now consider every finite aspect of their
preparation,performance and recovery.The modern ‘must win attitude’ is far more complex
than in previous sporting era’s, as it is no longer just about having natural talent and training
harder than your competition. Marginal gains are significantly important to an athlete’s
success, as the margin between winning and losing can be so small. ‘Marginal gains’ is a
concept developed by Sir Dave Brailsford, Director of British cycling10
. Brailsford describes
this approach as,
“The whole principle came from the idea that if you broke down everything you could
think of that goes into riding a bike, and then improved it by 1%, you will get a significant
increase when you put them all together.”11
- Sir David Brailsford
This concept has inspired many other sports to adopt this approach. Using product design
to solve each problem identified, to increase an athlete’s performance in order to win.
Johnson’s gold spikes catapulted athletics into a new age because of the design process
and material experimentation.Athletics is one of the most demanding sports for innovation
as the margins for victory have become so small. Much alike Formula 1 and Velodrome
cycling, all these sports are pushing the boundaries of their sports for marginal gains,
creating many new innovations that have the potential to be re-purposed to benefit health.
10. Matthew Syed, “Viewpoint: Should We All Be Looking For Marginal Gains? - BBC News”, BBC News, 2015 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-34247629> [accessed 11 April 2017].
11. Ibid
Origin

27
Innovative sports designs can be considered to be a type of performance enhancement.
Sport and component specific technologies are comparable in their potential to influence
an athlete’s ability, as much as performance enhancing drugs that have been banned
by athletic associations. Modern sport has become more reliant on supplementary aids
during performance, particularly in footwear. Clothing and material innovations bare less
significance on sporting performance than additive technology. With the exception of
sport specific items such as swimming costumes, wetsuits or weight lifting suits which are
now regulated. Modern sport innovations made in footwear have a more significant impact
on performance than those in clothing. As the foot is the origin of movement and the point
of contact of the athlete and the ground.

29
Throughout the 20th Century, sports technology and equipment were improving at a
incrementally slow rate. Equipment was not considered to make a significant impact on
performance. Adi Dassler, the founder of Adidas, was the first to recognise the potential
difference innovation could have on performance. However, technology and materials
available to him in 1936 were limited. His vision initiated a realisation of the opportunity
to design and make products for performance purposes, as well as advertise Adidas, the
brand with three stripes.
Jesse Owens, winner of 4 Gold medals in the 1936 Berlin Olympics12
, was his first successful
brand ambassador, historically underpinning the technological benefit of Adidas’s brand.
Dassler had a challenge to get Owens to wear his spikes. In 1936 the Nazi regime was
creating tension between competing nations in preparation for the Olympics. Dassler was
a friend Jo Waitzer, head coach of the German athletics team. The two men shared an
interest in developing running shoes. With the risk of Nazi retribution, Waitzer distributed
these spikes among the athletes to try-out during the qualification rounds. Waitzer gave 3
pairs to Owens, after trying them Owens wanted those spikes or none at all13
.
12. “Jesse OWENS - Olympic Athletics | United States Of America”, International Olympic Committee, 2017 <https://www.olympic.org/jesse-owens> [accessed 19 March 2017]
13. Ina Heumann, “Psst...I Bet You Didn’t Know That About Jesse Owens - Adidas Group Blog”, Adidas Group Blog, 2011 <http://blog.adidas-group.com/2011/08/sport-history-jesse-owens/> [accessed 11 April 2017].

30 Figure 8
2009
1996
1935
200M

31
14. Michael Johnson, “Athletes - Famous Olympic Athletes, Medalists, Sports Heroes”, International Olympic Committee, 2017 <https://www.olympic.org/athletes> [accessed 19 March 2017]
15. BOLT, Usain, “Athletes - Famous Olympic Athletes, Medalists, Sports Heroes”, International Olympic Committee, 2017 <https://www.olympic.org/athletes> [accessed 19 March 2017]
16 “IAAF: 15Th IAAF World Championships Medal Table | Iaaf.Org”, Iaaf.Org, 2017 <https://www.iaaf.org/competitions/iaaf-world-championships/15th-iaaf-world-championships-4875/medaltable> [accessed 11 April 2017]
It wasn’t until much later in the millennium that material and technological improvements
began to further influence an athlete’s performance.Michael Johnson’s gold running spikes
are an example of marginal gains. Johnson was so motivated to win that he did whatever
means necessary within the laws of athletics. Pushing the boundaries of the technologies
and materials available to him. After years of training, there is only so much natural potential
that the body permits. Johnson and Bolt are the two most naturally talented discovered
sprinters so far since the start of this technological era of sport.This is proven by the number
of Olympic and World Championship Gold medals they have collated between them so
far, 32 in total141516
. Jesse Owens is an example of natural talent without the addition of any
hi-performance sports technology. Johnson realised that his natural ability could only get
him so far. So, he started to work closer with scientists and designers to create revolutionary
technologies and systems to increase his speed.
Demand

32 17. Johnson, Michael, Gold Rush, 1st edn (London: HarperSport, 2012), p. 93
18. Johnson, Michael, Gold Rush, 1st edn (London: HarperSport, 2012), pp. 93-94
Worn technologies are not the only solutions that have been developed to improve the
performance of athletes. Michael Johnson was among the first sprinters to analyse their
running style utilising modern technology to improve his technique during preparation,
‘Coach and I worked with the US Olympic Committee (USOC), who had footage of me
and the technology to analyse my running technique and mechanics. The USOC created
a model for ideal sprint technique, and when my technique was plugged in against the
model, I outran the model.’17
- Michael Johnson
In turn his technique was highly influential in developing what is now known as Sprint
Mechanics.
‘What we found from this analysis disproved a couple of different assumptions about my
technique that had been talked about repeatedly by the commentators and sports writers
as well as other coaches. The first was that my stride was short, and the other was that my
knee lift was low. Neither was true.’18
- Michael Johnson
Extrinsic Technologies

33
19. “CONTEMPLAS: Motion Analysis Software, Gait Analysis, Treadmill, Golf Swing Analysis”, Contemplas.Com, 2017 <http://www.contemplas.com/> [accessed 19 March 2017]
20. “One Platform To Help The Whole Team Improve. | Hudl”, Hudl, 2017 <https://www.hudl.com/products/hudl> [accessed 19 March 2017]
21. “About”, Noraxon USA, 2017 <http://www.noraxon.com/about-noraxon/> [accessed 19 March 2017]
Companies, such as Contemplas, have since been developing biomechanical software,
enablingsprinterstoanalysetheirrunningstyletoensurethebodyisperformingatitsoptimal
potential19
. Even mobile devices now have the software capabilities to do biomechanical
analysis. Hudl is a new subscription service available to the public that allows amateurs to
record their performance, using video and an app designed to easily record performance
data. The system provided enables coaches, teams and players to analyse a their own
performance, increasing their ability to edit and improve their game post-match20
.
Noraxon have developed hardware technologies like speed gates and 3D motion capture
systems21
for the software to interpret. This provides athletes, coaches and designers with
qualitative data to evaluate performance. Together biomechanical software and hardware
can be used effectively to identify flaws in a sprinter’s technique. The flaws identified can
vary in importance from the angle of the back, to issues as minute as the angle of a foot
during take off from the blocks.

35
Innovationshavebeenintegratedintoclothingtoimproveperformanceduringcompetition
and preparation. Muscular compression, aerodynamic technologies and posture support
systems have been integrated into sports attire. Compression is an older technology when
compared to the latest innovations of sports design. The most innovative company in the
sports compression market is Skins. Their compression technology is proven to increase
the speed at which oxygen is delivered to working muscles. By creating a compression
gradient along limbs22
. Compression also prolongs performance. The addition of Skins
compression technology removes lactic from the working muscles faster, thus delaying
the process of oxygen debt and adding to athletes’ duration23
.
Materials play a major role in the aerodynamic potential of an athlete. Improved aero
dynamics have been integrated into clothing. For example, Lycra was first included in
sprinting attire to reduce the amount of drag created from a runners clothing. However,
some of the world’s fastest athletes don’t always use Lycra suits i.e. Usain Bolt and Yohan
Blake, they prefer a standard polypropylene vest due to its comfortable feel.
22-23. Skins Compression Clothing - How It Works (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=853wVUxvPHg: Skins, 2012).
Innovative Sports Clothing

37
24-25. Amy Frearson, “Movie: Nike Pro Turbospeed Suit”, Dezeen, 2017 <https://www.dezeen.com/2012/08/03/movie-nike-pro-turbospeed-suit/>
[accessed 10 April 2017].
26. Science Of Golf: Why Golf Balls Have Dimples (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fcjaxC-e8oY: USGA, 2015).
Nike recently added the Nike Pro TurboSpeed suit which integrates the AeroSwift
technology24
.This Innovation puts a Golf ball like texture on the surface of sprinting tights
in strategic locations, creating a layer of turbulent air for the laminar air flow to pass over25
.
Nike have further developed this technology, creating Nike AeroBlade. AeroBlade are
a series of adhesive strips to adhere to the athletes skin to increase the aerodynamic
potential of the skin. The strips have been muscle mapped to the shape of the body to
reduce drag in turbulent areas of the body26
. This pushes the rules on what is permitted in
races. However, these innovations are intriguing from a human performance perspective.
How fast can a human really run?

4127-28. “Muscle Support Guide: Run Further With Compression | ASICS GB”, ASICS, 2017 <http://www.asics.com/gb/en-gb/running-advice/muscle-
support-explained> [accessed 10 April 2017].
The latest innovation to be developed to improve performance is the integration of
postural and muscular support within clothing. Companies with different sport specialisms
have released various types of both. Asics have designed the Motion Muscle Support
system to maintain a natural running posture while moving27
. This system works by knitting
the fabric of the shirt in strategic locations, enabling performance to be prolonged by
opening the chest to ensure the ease of oxygen intake and reducing the likelihood of
injury to shoulders by eliminating internal rotation28
.

42
29. Bleacher Report, Michael Johnson And The Night The Shoes Went Golden, 2016 <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRBKQjHQczM&t=1s> [accessed 19 March 2017]
30. “Brands And Modern Sport: Chronicling The “Golden Spikes””, Sportskeeda.Com, 2017 <https://www.sportskeeda.com/athletics/athletics-brands-golden-spikes-johnson-bolt-nike-puma> [accessed 19 March 2017]
31. “Sole Structure - Berggren, Svante”, Freepatentsonline.Com, 2017 <http://www.freepatentsonline.com/EP0964625B1.html> [accessed 19 March 2017].
32. “A Brief Photo History Of Track Spikes”, Running Warehouse Blog, 2017 <http://blog.runningwarehouse.com/gear/rs/photo-history-of-track-spikes/> [accessed 19 March 2017]
MichaelJohnson’smustwinattitudeledhimtoworkwithdesignerTobieHatfieldtocreatethe
lightest and most stable spikes ever made29
. Weight and stability are the two most impactful
components of running spikes, utilising the properties of Zytel30
, a material developed in
the 90’s, combining Nylon and Fibreglass. This resulted in a dramatic reduction of weight.
Each shoe weighed just 94g’s31
. The spikes were not durable as he went through 6 pairs in
one Olympic games32
.
Reducing weight can improve performance as it allows athletes to increase their step
frequency. Improving stability and optimising foot position increases the potential power
output of each step, this is known as foot contact. This has recently been explored by sports
scientists from the UK’s leading sports research University, the University of Bath. The study
investigates the maximum potential of a human body over 100m’s, with the over arching
research question: can a human run 100m under 9 seconds? Using athletes training at Bath
International Training Centre, sports scientists discovered what is required to go under 9.
Stating:
Innovative Sports Footwear

4333-34. Grant Trewartha and Aki Salo, “Relationships Between Lower-Limb Kinematics And Block Phase Performance In A Cross Section Of Sprinters”, European Journal Of Sports Science, 15.2 (2014) [accessed March
2017].
‘Overall, the sprinting velocity is a product of step length and step frequency. In his world
record run in Berlin 2009, Usain Bolt ran at 12.4m/s in his fastest phase. He did this with a
step length of 2.77m and step frequency of 4.49Hz.’33
- Polly McGuigan, and Aki Salo
‘For a human to run 100m in under nine seconds, this would require maximum velocity to
reach about 13.2m/s. Such velocity would require, for example, step length to be 2.85m
and step frequency 4.63Hz – just “modest” increases from Usain Bolt’s values.’34
- Polly McGuigan, and Aki Salo

47
35. FOX Sports, World’s Lightest Spikes, 2012 <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JfzpwAk-Fxw> [accessed 19 March 2017]
36. “Adidas Adizero Prime Sprint Spikes - White | Adidas US”, Adidas United States, 2017 <http://www.adidas.com/us/adizero-prime-sprint-spikes/BB4117.
html> [accessed 19 March 2017]
If sprinters are to go below 9 seconds, the equipment and clothing that they use are going
to have a significant impact. Since Johnson’s Gold spikes, Nike and other market rivals have
been experimenting with the lightest new materials to further reduce weight and increase
stability. The industry leaders have two different approaches. Adidas’s primary objective
when designing athletic footwear is to reduce weight35
whereas, Nike design innovative
technologies to both increase stability and reduce weight. Each company offers a range
of spikes for all types of athlete, the shorter the distance the higher potential difference a
piece of equipment can have.
The AdiZero Prime SP, a super low weight sprinting spike and the knitted ‘sock like’ AdiZero
Prime Avanti are their range designed for the elite.The 2016 Prime SP model weighs 99g’s36
.
Despite being heavier than Michael Johnson’s gold spikes, these spikes have superior
stability and are commercially viable. It is evident in Adidas’s design that their method of
reducing weight is through designing meshes in which to wrap. This has allowed them to
reduce the number of components within the shoe. Resulting in a pair of spikes that, from
their appearance alone, look fast. The sheer absence of material provides an increase in
feel with the track. Athletes such as, Yohan Blake like to feel as if they are not wearing spikes
at all37
.

49
38. “Nike Innovation 2016 Products”, Nike News, 2017 <http://news.nike.com/news/innovation-2016> [accessed 24 March 2017].
39. “WHAT IS NIKE FLYWIRE?”, Help-En-Us.Nike.Com, 2017 <https://help-en-us.nike.com/app/answer/article/product-technology-flywire/a_id/56792/
country/us> [accessed 24 March 2017].
40-42. Riley Jones, “KNOW YOUR TECH: Nike Flywire”, Complex, 2017 <http://uk.complex.com/sneakers/2013/07/know-your-tech-nike-flywire> [accessed
24 March 2017].
Nike have a more additive design process. Designing innovations to combat individual
components that an athlete has identified throughout iterative prototype testing. Creating
technologies such as FlyWire, FlyKnit and Lunarlon38
. In 2016, Nike released their two most
advanced pairs of spikes yet, the Nike Zoom Superfly Elite and the Nike Zoom Superfly
FlyKnit, a very similar design to the Adidas Avanti. However, Nike’s ‘knitted’ technology
within the spikes is superior, as it integrates FlyWire to increase stability. When comparing
the design, the spikes are very different due to the athlete’s preferences.
The ‘sock-like’ Nike Zoom Superfly FlyKnit combines another group of advanced
technologies. They have been developed collaboratively by designers, biomechanical
specialists and athletes. For example, instead of designing smart meshes to wrap around
the foot, Nike created FlyWire, a series of threads that join the midsole to the upper. These
wires are made from a blend of Vectran and Nylon39
. Vectran is a liquid crystal alternative
to creating a strong adaptive structure for a user’s foot. This innovation was inspired by the
cables used in suspension bridges40
. This is not the first-time Nike have used an abstract
concept to inspire an innovation. In 2008 Nike released Lunarlon, a cushioning system
inspired by an astronauts’ bounce on the moon41
. Reducing the impact on the foot by
displacing the weight around the sole, therefore reducing the likelihood of repetitive
strain injuries42
.

53
43. Dan Howarth, “Nike Unveils Shoes For 100-Metre Sprinter At Rio 2016 Olympics”, Dezeen, 2017 <https://www.dezeen.com/2016/06/29/nike-zoom-
superfly-elite-shoes-100-metre-sprinter-shelly-ann-fraser-pryce-rio-2016-olympics/> [accessed 28 March 2017].
44. “IAAF: Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce | Profile”, Iaaf.Org, 2017 <https://www.iaaf.org/athletes/jamaica/shelly-ann-fraser-pryce-198930> [accessed 28 March
2017].
45. Dan Howarth, “Nike Unveils Shoes For 100-Metre Sprinter At Rio 2016 Olympics”, Dezeen, 2017 <https://www.dezeen.com/2016/06/29/nike-zoom-
superfly-elite-shoes-100-metre-sprinter-shelly-ann-fraser-pryce-rio-2016-olympics/> [accessed 28 March 2017].
Nike and other market competitors are known to experiment with the latest technological
manufacturing methods. Prototypes of the Superfly Elite’s sole were 3D printed43
. 7 times
World Champion Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce44
, was the lead athlete during prototype testing.
Her foot was recorded by 3D image scanning and converted into 3D CAD data to analyse
by both the designers and biomechanics. Biomimicry inspired the functional structure of
the sole45
. This provides a compact, strong but, dynamic alternative to simple structures,
used in previous generations of running shoes.

55
46. “Adidas Launches Ambitious Sub2 Programme With The Introduction Of Its Adizero Sub2 Marathon Shoe”, Adidas NEWS STREAM, 2017 <http://news.adidas.com/GLOBAL/Latest-News/adidas-launches-ambitious-sub2-
programme-with-the-introduction-of-its-adizero-sub2-marathon-shoe/s/cbcfed7b-b3bb-4a77-bcff-73a3927bddb9> [accessed 28 March 2017].
47. “Nike Introduces Breaking2”, Nike News, 2017 <http://news.nike.com/news/2-hour-marathon> [accessed 28 March 2017].
48. “IAAF: Marathon”, Iaaf.Org, 2017 <https://www.iaaf.org/disciplines/road-running/marathon> [accessed 28 March 2017].
Within Athletics sprinting is not the only area that now demands innovative solutions.Market
leaders have created initiatives to aid an athlete to run a marathon in under 2 hours. Sub2
by Adidas46
and Breaking 2 by Nike47
. One design stands out among the field. Nike have
designed a trainer that claims to make running 4% easier, the Nike Zoom VaporFly Elite.
The current world record for a marathon is 2:02.57, set by Dennis Kipruto Kimetto in 201448
.
Marginal gains could provide the 4% difference required to run a sub 2 hour marathon.
If an athlete achieves a marathon time in under 2 hours this will be an achievement that
transcends our human perception of capability. Running a marathon in under 2 hours has
always been thought to be the impossible.
Impact

59
49-50. “Introducing The Nike Zoom Vaporfly Elite Featuring Nike Zoomx Midsole”, Nike News, 2017 <http://news.nike.com/news/nike-zoom-vaporfly-elite>
[accessed 28 March 2017].
51. “Breaking 2 The Innovation”, Nike, 2017 <http://www.nike.com/gb/en_gb/c/justdoit/breaking2-product-innovation> [accessed 5 April 2017].
The Nike Zoom VaporFly Elite is designed to maximise the potential energy return of
a runner’s stride49
. This defies the conventional method of designing marathon trainers
which is to reduce weight and decrease the amount of material between the runner and
the floor. Nike have designed an entirely new breed of trainer. Integrating the new Zoom
X midsole50
. Notably, prototypes were tested in a wind tunnel to truly determine their
potential. The Zoom X was seen to reduce resistance thus increasing the speed capable
when running51
.
This process is reflected in motorsport innovations. Formula One (F1) is the lead innovator
in motorsport aerodynamics and design. Discoveries made by F1 engineers are then
fed down through the car industry and integrated into commercial vehicles. An extreme
example would be the Hydraulic air brake used in super cars like the Bugatti Veyron and
McLaren P1. Hydraulic air brakes are technologies developed for Drag Reduction Systems
in F1. A more widely used innovation would be the use of more advanced materials such
as Carbon fibre, first used in the aerospace industry that has now become popular in
sports equipment, used in tennis racquets, golf clubs and now marathon trainers.

6152-54. “Introducing The Nike Zoom Vaporfly Elite Featuring Nike Zoomx Midsole”, Nike News, 2017 <http://news.nike.com/news/nike-zoom-vaporfly-elite>
[accessed 28 March 2017]
The Zoom X midsole incorporates a carbon fibre plate that propels the runner forward
in a straight line and a new foam that is lighter than those previously used in marathon
trainers52
. The developed foam prolongs performance over the course of a marathon by
reducing the amount of muscular strain on the calf muscles53
. The Zoom X mid sole raises
the runner off the floor by a minimum of 21mm’s54
. Increasing the energy return from
every pace and reducing the energy wasted during toe off. These trainers are a game
changer for marathon running, however, is using technology to make running 4% easier
taking performance enhancement too far?

Sports culture and the principles of Sports Innovation

6555. Chris Matyszczyk, “Cycling World Stunned By Alleged ‘Technological Doping’”, CNET, 2016 <https://www.cnet.com/uk/news/cycling-world-stunned-by-alleged-technological-doping/> [accessed 19 April 2017].
Throughout all sports, performance enhancement is now carefully monitored by governing
associations.Whetherathletesareinjectingsupplementsorusingadvantageousequipment,
creates arguments both for and against the morals of sporting culture. Governing bodies
have had to regulate new innovations to ensure the competitive nature of sport continues.
‘Technology Doping’55
is the term used when an athlete is found to be using a product that
provides too much of an advantage.
The Nike Zoom VaporFly Elite, Speedo LZR Racer and Athletic Propulsion Lab’s Concept
One are a few examples of designs that highly influence performance. These products
are perceived by some to be taking designed performance enhancement too far. This
has created two arguments within the sports design industry. The first being that sport is a
competition, athletes are doing whatever it takes to win but, does this mean they should
be allowed to use these technologies that create an unfair advantage over the competition
that don’t use them? On the other hand, sport is also about pushing the body to its limits
and seeing what we are capable of achieving therefore, should athletes be allowed to use
these technologies to raise the bar of what is perceived as humanly possible?
Principles

66
Jere Longman, of the New York Times, criticised the use of sports technologies, stating;
“In sport, the credit often has to go to the equipment as much as the athlete”.56
- Jere Longman
56. Jeré Longman, “Do Nike’S New Shoes Give Runners An Unfair Advantage?”, Nytimes.Com, 2017 <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/sports/nikes-vivid-shoes-and-the-gray-area-of-performance-enhancement.html>

67
57. Lamine Diack, IAAF TRACK AND FIELD FACILITIES MANUAL 2008, 1st edn (IAAF, 2017), pp. 95-96,104 <https://www.iaaf.org/.../download?...IAAF%20Track%20and%20Field%20Facilities%...> [accessed 9 April 2017].
58. Jeré Longman, “Do Nike’S New Shoes Give Runners An Unfair Advantage?”, Nytimes.Com, 2017 <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/sports/nikes-vivid-shoes-and-the-gray-area-of-performance-enhancement.html>
59. “Nike Redefines Look And Feel Of Fast Running”, Nike News, 2017 <http://news.nike.com/news/nike-zoom-vaporfly-4-percent> [accessed 9 April 2017].
This has led people to accuse Nike of cheating. Sean Ingle, a senior sport’s writer of the
Guardian questions the fairness of the Zoom X midsole. He argues that the sneakers do
not adhere to the International Association of Athletics Federation ruling on marathon
trainers, as the ‘plate’ is perceived as a spring. Springs have been banned from athletics57
due to providing too much of an advantage. This theory is vindicated by the results of the
Rio Olympics where all the male marathon medal winners wore the trainer. Equally, as did
the winners of the Chicago, New York and Berlin marathons58
.
Technologies from the Nike Zoom VaporFly Elite become available to the public in three
consumer versions sometime in 201759
, in the shape of, the Zoom VaporFly 4%, Zoom
Fly and Air Zoom Pegasus 34. Developing yet another alternative argument. Will this level
the playing field, as everyone will have access to the Zoom X sole? Furthermore, with the
technology being made available to the public what is to stop other companies developing
their own similar technologies? The principles of this story can be related to the National
Basketball Association (NBA).

69
60. “Athletic Propulsion Labs Online Store | APL Basketball Shoes, Apparel & Equipment”, Athleticpropulsionlabs.Com, 2017 <https://www.
athleticpropulsionlabs.com/index.php/news/detail/index/id/14/> [accessed 9 April 2017].
61. DAVID DuPREE, “Wilt Chamberlain”, NBA.Com, 2017 <http://www.nba.com/warriors/history/Dupree_Chamberlain.html> [accessed 9 April 2017].
In 2010, the NBA banned Athletic Propulsion Lab’s Concept One basketball sneaker.
These sneakers increased a players jump by up to 3.5 inches60
. This was deemed to
provide too much assistance to the player. Again, this emphasises the two arguments of
fair competition vs human performance. Basketball rims in the NBA are 10 Feet high and
increasing a jump by 3.5 inches makes jumping to the rim 4.2% easier. To contextualise
the potential impact of this, the highest recorded vertical jump in NBA history is set by Wilt
Chamberlain. According to the NBA writer David Dupree his jump was recorded at 50
inches61
. If Chamberlain were to wear the Concept One his jump would be an incredible
53.5 inches, 5.5 inches higher than anyone else ever to play in the NBA.
Disadvantages

71
62. FINA Approved Swimwear, 1st edn (Lausanne, Switzerland: FINA, 2017), pp. 7-10 <https://www.fina.org/sites/default/files/frsa.pdf> [accessed 9 April
2017].
63. Michael PHELPS, “Michael PHELPS - Olympic Swimmer & Medalist | USA”, International Olympic Committee, 2017 <https://www.olympic.org/michael-
phelps> [accessed 7r April 2017]
64. “BBC Sport - Swimming - Swimming World Records In Rome”, News.Bbc.Co.Uk, 2017 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/
swimming/8176121.stm> [accessed 9 April 2017].
65. “FINA World Records.Pdf”, FINA.Org, 2017 <https://www.fina.org/sites/default/files/wr_50m_mar_20_2017.pdf> [accessed 9 April 2017].
Another example of sports innovations providing too much of an advantage, are the
controversial Speedo LZR Racer and the Adidas HydroFoil swimsuits. In 2010 ‘Federation
Internationale De Natation’ (FINA) banned Performance-enhancing non-textile swimsuits
from competition62
. These swimsuits created a divide in the swimming community for 3
years, so much so that 23 times Olympic Gold medallist Michael Phelps threatened to
withdraw from competition63
. The suits provided swimmers with improved buoyancy and
hydrodynamics, increasing their potential top speed.
These swimsuits were used during the 2009 FINA Rome World Championships, where 29
new world records were set64
. Of the records set in Rome many still stand, including the
Men’s 100 - 800m freestyle and the Women’s 50m and 200m freestyle. A few of the Rome
records have been broken recently, the Men’s 100m backstroke was finally broken in the
Rio Olympics by Ryan Murphy65
. It took 7 years of elite athletes pushing each other in
competition and putting themselves through some of the most gruelling training regimes
to break this record without the assistance of the Polyurethane suits. This was celebrated
by the swimming community as a feat of human performance.

72
With all sports realising the potential of sports innovation and marginal gains, the benefit
from the technology created is no longer limited to the elite athletes, but to the public as a
whole.An argument can be made for increasing the accessibility of high performance sport
technology. Critics have asserted that sports technologies are widening the performance
gap, as they are designed for the elite not the everyday user. However, the perceived
boundaries of human performance are being constantly questioned and reset.If governing
sports bodies are to solve the issue of athletes having unfair advantages, they need to ask
the question; ‘who is responsible for creating this divide in athletic performance?’.
The most obvious group to be held accountable for creating the divide in athlete
performance, are the sports brands who only sponsor the elite to promote their business
as the number one sporting brand. Competing against each other to persuade the elite
athletes to use their equipment. This competition is highly influential upon the public’s
purchasing intentions.
An Unequal Playing Field

7366. Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers, 1st edn (Toronto: ExecuGo media, 2008).
67. Matthew Syed, Bounce, 1st edn (London: HarperCollins, 2011).
Equipment sponsors create sports innovation solutions for two reasons. Firstly, they design
to provide the athletes with the means necessary to make the impossible, possible. These
innovations are then fed down to the mass market to purchase. To ensure their athletes win,
sponsors develop innovations that push the boundaries of the rules to give the athletes
that extra edge over their opponents. The success of the athlete adds to the reputation of
the individual, thus increasing the popularity of the athlete amongst consumers, making
them more likely to purchase associated products.
Buying the top of the range sports equipment isn’t always the answer to improving
performance. After all, professionals are professionals for a reason, they have the raw talent
and have done the gruelling hours of practice.This has been theorised by Malcom Gladwell
in his book ‘Outliers’ that an elite performer in any trade must practice for 10,000 hours to
reach ‘World-Class’ status66
. Mathew Syed develops Gladwell’s theory throughout his book
‘Bounce’. Using his experience as a successful athlete, the two-time Commonwealth Table
tennis champion articulates that it is down to practice and talent not the equipment67
.
Brands and Consumerism

75
68. Nike Football Presents: The Switch Ft. Cristiano Ronaldo, Harry Kane, Anthony Martial & More (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=scWpXEYZEGk:
Nike, 2017).
69. “The Best FIFA Football Awards 2016 - The Best FIFA Men’s Player - FIFA.Com”, FIFA.Com, 2017 <http://www.fifa.com/the-best-fifa-football-awards/
best-fifa-mens-player/index.html> [accessed 9 April 2017].
70. “Nike Vapor Track & Field Kits With Aeroswift Technology”, Nike News, 2017 <http://news.nike.com/news/2016-track-field-vapor-kits-aeroswift>
71. “Babolat - Tennis - Aeropro Drive (+)”, Babolat.Us, 2017 <https://www.babolat.us/product/tennis/racket/aeropro-drive-+-102174> [accessed 18 April
2017].
Brands use the power of media and elite athletes in marketing campaigns to convince
amateurs that they can be just as good as them if they buy that product. For example,
Adidas use big sporting names like Lionel Messi, Jessica Ennis-Hill and Derrick Rose in
their marketing messages.A campaign that stands out is Nike’s, ‘The Switch’68
.A marketing
campaign to advertise 4 time ‘Ballon D’or’ winner69
Cristiano Ronaldo’s latest signature
football boot is the Nike CR7 Mercurial VaporFly. The video tells a short story where
a young British boy, ‘Charlie Lee’ clashes heads with Ronaldo, and they’re footballing
abilities interchange during the collision. The story encourages the audience to believe
that anyone can be Cristiano Ronaldo, with hard work and the purchase of his boots.
Amateurs purchasing top of the range equipment can also have effects on performance
both technically and psychologically. Both can be can be explained by the impact of
the technology or research done by psychologists (eg. Feltz, Bandura and Festinger) on
sports confidence.A competitor’s performance has the potential to be improved because
the technology genuinely has a positive effect upon their game. For example, amateur
sprinters may purchase a Nike TurboSpeed suit to increase their top speed by reducing
their aerodynamic drag70
. Alternatively, a specific component of their performance can
be improved with the technology within a Babolat Aero Pro Drive tennis racquet which is
designed to increase the amount of spin a player produces71
.
Alternatively, when consumerist mindsets take over, it creates a common misconception
that people who purchase the latest and greatest sports equipment translates to a
professional performance.Aboost in confidence results in a potential increase or decrease
in performance. Deborah Feltz explains this in her Self Efficacy in sports theory.

76 72. Deborah Feltz, Sandra Short and Philip Joseph Sullivan, Self-Efficacy In Sport, 1st edn (Leeds: Human Kinetics, 2008), pp. 4,34-38.
73. Deborah Feltz, Sandra Short and Philip Joseph Sullivan, Self-Efficacy In Sport, 1st edn (Leeds: Human Kinetics, 2008), pp. 27-31.
Feltz’s sports self-efficacy theory integrates Bandura’s foundation components of self-
efficacy and develops them into the minds of a competitor72
. The theory takes different
componentsof stimulithatcouldaffectself-confidenceof aparticipantduringperformance.
Sports equipment comes into the equation as part of the environment but supplementary
to the body. A competitors’ performance within the sporting environment has the potential
to be improved, due to an increase in self-confidence73
.
This theory can be used for and against the potential improvement made by sports
equipment, depending on whether the improvement is psychological or technical. Does
spending an extra £70 on a new Head tennis racquet make that much of a difference to
an amateur or would they be better off spending the £160 on coaching? Where is the line
drawn between asking an athlete to nearly cheat to help persuade amateurs to purchase
their equipment? The performance end of the spectrum should have more regulations on
how much of an advantage it gives an athlete.

7774. Sarah Boseley, “London 2012 Olympics: How Athletes Use Technology To Win Medals”, The Guardian, 2012 <https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/04/london-2012-olympic-games-sport-technology> [accessed 18
April 2017].
Nations and Associations
National sports associations that fund athletes and teams are equally responsible, as they
contribute to funding research programs that develop advantageous innovations. There is
a level of economic investment into both athletes and sponsors that constitutes success in
competition. Dr Emily Ryall, vice-chair of the British Philosophy of Sport Association, argues,
“The Olympics is never going to be a fair competition. So much high-performance sport is
driven by technology now, from sports nutrition to psychology to clothing and footwear…
It is not surprising that poorer countries do not compete in sports involving a lot of
technology, such as cycling, sailing and rowing. The amount of investment that goes into
elite athletes is phenomenal.”74
- Dr Emily Ryall

78 Figure 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
- 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000
COUNTRY GDP VS RIO MEDAL TALLY
UNITED
STATES
UNITED
KINGDOM
CHINA

79
75. Olympic Medals Per Capita”, Medalspercapita.Com, 2017 <http://www.medalspercapita.com/#golds-per-capita:2016> [accessed 10 April 2017].
76. “About Rio 2016 Summer Olympics”, Rio 2016 Olympics Wiki, 2017 <http://rio2016olympicswiki.com/about-rio-2016-summer-olympics/> [accessed 9 April 2017].
77. “Rio 2016 Paralympics - Ceremonies, Medals, Torch Relay”, Paralympic.Org, 2017 <https://www.paralympic.org/rio-2016> [accessed 9 April 2017].
78. “Medal Table - Rio 2016 - Olympic Games - BBC Sport”, BBC Sport, 2017 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/rio-2016/medals/countries/great-britain-and-northern-ireland#great-britain-and-northern-ireland>
People have started to look at the relationship between the number of medals a nation won
and its most recent Gross Domestic Product (GDP) figures. There is a clear correlation that
higher income nations have a greater total of medals (see graph). For the past 3 Olympics,
countries that have a higher GDP and population have won more medals75
, coincidentally
the UK, US and China are all among the countries that create the most sports innovations.
Rio 2016 were not the most successful games for a few reasons, the controversial impact
on the local community and venues being incomplete for the start of the games. Rio had
a hard act to follow as the entertainment provided by games only got better from Sydney
through to London in 2012. However, they successfully completed all 306 Olympic events76
and 528 Paralympic events77
. The US took home the Gold with 46 Golds and a total of 121
medals followed by Great Britain and China78
.

80
79. “Fiji And North Korea Are Beating The U.S. At The Olympics (When You Adjust For GDP)”, Slate Magazine, 2017 <http://www.slate.com/blogs/five_ring_circus/2016/08/19/re_ranking_the_2016_rio_
olympics_medal_table_by_population_and_gdp.html> [accessed 10 April 2017].
80 & 81. Ashley Kirk, “Rio 2016 Alternative Medal Table: How Countries Rank When We Adjust For Population And GDP”, The Telegraph, 2017 <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/olympics/2016/08/21/rio-2016-
alternate-medal-table-how-countries-rank-when-we-adjust/> [accessed 10 April 2017].
82. “Olympic Medals Per Capita”, Medalspercapita.Com, 2017 <http://www.medalspercapita.com/#golds-per-capita:2016> [accessed 10 April 2017].
83. Economic Value Of Sport In England, 1st edn (Liverpool: Clarity Creation, 2013), p. 4 <https://www.sportengland.org/media/3174/economic-value-of-sport-summary.pdf> [accessed 10 April 2017].
85. “Team USA Funding”, Team USA, 2017 <http://www.teamusa.org/us-olympic-and-paralympic-foundation/team-usa-fund> [accessed 10 April 2017].
84 & 86. “How UK Sport Funding Works | UK Sport”, Uksport.Gov.Uk, 2017 <http://www.uksport.gov.uk/our-work/investing-in-sport/how-uk-sport-funding-works> [accessed 10 April 2017].
An economic perspective of the Rio games portrays a totally different story,when comparing
a countries medals won to every £100bn in GDP. Jamaica have 11 medals for their $14bn
in GDP79
, including 6 Golds from Rio thanks to their sprinters. In comparison, Chinese
Taipei have 1 Gold per $1,099bn GDP, again the China and US are ranked at the top at four
and five808182
. However, GDP doesn’t have a direct link to funding in sport.
The sports sector contributed £20.3bn into the UK GDP in 201083
.The more money people
spend on sport, the more money comes back to benefit it. This generates funding from
the National Lottery and The Department for Culture Media and Sport A total of £543m
for UK Sport84
. £387m of this goes to world class performance. As a comparison, Team
USA (US Olympic team) have no federal funding, instead they are crowdfunded85
. Nations
investing fortunes into athletes have been criticised. For example, the UK Sport funding for
an individual athlete can reach a salary of £60,00086
. Forcing the sporting community to ask
questions like, should all Olympians have the same wage/reward?
Economic Investment

8187. Ian Ritchie, “Pierre De Coubertin, Doped ‘Amateurs’ And The ‘Spirit Of Sport’: The Role Of Mythology In Olympic Anti-Doping Policies”, The International Journal Of The History Of Sport, 31.8 (2014), 821-825 <https://doi.
org/10.1080/09523367.2014.883500>.
This is hard to argue as events such as, Football, Tennis and Golf are all paid professional
sports, whereas events like Athletics and Swimming are still unpaid amateur sports. Athletes
are having to depend on endorsements and national funding. Should the professional
athletes earn any money from the national associations? After all the games were envisioned
by Pierre de Coubertin on the premise that the Olympics were a competition for amateurs87
.
Are the athletic associations the cause of the innovation divide in sport? Athletes competing
on behalf of countries with higher a GDP are receiving an advantageous amount of funding
and endorsements. Making it harder for other nations to keep up. However, sport is a huge
social cornerstone in US, Chinese and British culture, encouraging more people to play
and compete. The innovation divide could be created by the size of a nations population
and its cultural values.

82
88. “Fiji And North Korea Are Beating The U.S. At The Olympics (When You Adjust For GDP)”, Slate Magazine, 2017 <http://www.slate.com/blogs/five_ring_circus/2016/08/19/re_ranking_the_2016_rio_
olympics_medal_table_by_population_and_gdp.html> [accessed 9 April 2017].
89.Ibid
Of the nation’s competing in the Olympics, China had the largest population of
1,409,934,876 people88
. When comparing population to medals won in Rio, China won
a medal every 20,141,927 people89
. Does having a higher number of people who could
compete result in more medals? Not necessarily, training and competition environments,
cultural influences and a continents natural somatotype all have significant influences
on performance and participation. For example, marathon medal tables suggest that a
sub-Saharan runner has a natural advantage over a white European. Kenyan, Ethiopian or
Somalian somatotypes may have a higher density of muscle fibre and a higher VO2 max.
However, these are only two attributes that make a naturally gifted runner, Europeans may
have a higher lactate threshold which enables them to run for longer without fatiguing. It
comes down to the cultural backing behind a certain sport that a country has.
Safety in Numbers

83
90. Matt Fitzgerald and Steven Roth, “What Makes Kenyans Superior Runners? It’S Not The Genes | Competitor.Com”, Competitor.Com, 2017 <http://running.competitor.com/2011/01/features/it%E2%80%99s-not-the-
genes_20733> [accessed 10 April 2017].
91. “Fiji And North Korea Are Beating The U.S. At The Olympics (When You Adjust For GDP)”, Slate Magazine, 2017 <http://www.slate.com/blogs/five_ring_circus/2016/08/19/re_ranking_the_2016_rio_olympics_medal_table_
by_population_and_gdp.html> [accessed 9 April 2017].
DrStephanRoth,directorof thefunctionalgenomicslaboratoryattheUniversityof Maryland
contextualises this;
“Out of 100 people in the United States, how many of them are going to take up distance
running? It’s just not valued in our culture. Maybe you get one. Well, is that one going to
carry the best combination of running genes out of all the 100 people? Probably not. But
in Kenya, maybe 40 out of 100 people take up the sport, because it is such a culturally
dominant force.”90
- Dr Stephan Roth
Meaning that population isn’t necessarily the key to winning the most medals. The country
that has the most medals per million people is Grenada with one Silver medal between
107,116 people91
. The results of the findings above denote that success isn’t just down
to economic investment, population of a nation or natural somatotypes as individual
components; it is a combination of the three. Governing bodies need to work with
designers and bio-mechanical specialists to break down innovative sports products. This
will help develop ruling on what is considered too much of an advantage. However, sports
innovation design should not be immediately halted. Instead it should be repurposed into
alternative markets such as, health or smart-wear design.

Impact of the Sports Design Industry

87
The sports design industry has both positive and negative impacts on modern culture.
The two areas where sports design has the most significant impact are in the development
of smart-wear and lifestyle fashion market. Sports innovation design has helped initiate
the rapid development of smart-wear, with innovations crossing over into the health and
medical industries. Creating innovations for people to monitor and improve their health.
However, the increasing demand for sportswear and smart-wear are leading factors in
modern society’s consumerist proclivities.

88 92. Steven Miles, Consumerism, 1st edn (London: Sage Publications, 2006), pp. 126-127.
Sport has become such a significant part of modern life that it has contributed to our
consumerist tendencies causing us to spend more money on sport, especially on clothing
and equipment. Steven Miles argues that:
“Sport is perhaps the single area of contemporary social life to have been most profoundly
altered in recent years by the everyday impact of consumerism as a way of life.” 92
- Stevens Miles
Consumerist Proclivities

8993. Steven Miles, Consumerism, 1st edn (London: Sage Publications, 2006), p. 127.
Sporting brands have become synonymous with everyday life. From your everyday
consumables, to your high end luxuries, western culture echoes sporting brands at every
turn in everyday life. Again Steven Miles argues:
“Not only are companies with large marketing budgets able to ride on the back of
sporting success, but sport itself can be seen to have emerged quite simply as a
commodity to be bought and sold in the marketplace.” 93
- Steven Miles
Sporting brands have become synonymous with everyday life. From your everyday
consumables, to your high end luxuries, western culture echoes sporting brands at every
turn in everyday life. Again Steven Miles argues:
“Not only are companies with large marketing budgets able to ride on the back of
sporting success, but sport itself can be seen to have emerged quite simply as a
commodity to be bought and sold in the marketplace.” 93
- Steven Miles

9194. Apostolos N. Giovanis and Pinelopi Athanasopoulou, “Consumer-Brand Relationships And Brand Loyalty In Technology-
Mediated Services”, Journal Of Retailing And Consumer Services, 2017 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.03.003>.
Consumerism has infected sports culture over the past three decades,
evolving our materialistic addiction. Both spectating and participating
are now hugely dependent upon the continued support of a brand.
Consumers now pride themselves on their brand loyalty94
, for instance
those that buy an iPhone would be easily persuaded to purchase other
Apple paraphernalia. Whether people are participating in sport or
simply purchasing sneakers, brand loyalty has a significant impact upon
our excessive consumption. Purchasing sports merchandise is now a
subconscious subscription service.
Sports advertising has tainted the iconic spectacle of a sporting event,
especially televised fixtures. This argument can be contrasted with the
financial gain generated from advertising in sport, which makes sport
more accessible. However, the marketing campaigns put out by sports
companies, has led to people becoming walking advertisements due
to their excessive purchasing. Consumerist habits are best shown in
the trainers and sneakers market. The design of sports footwear can be
divided into two categories of consumer; performance motivated and
aesthetically motivated.

9395. Prasad Boradkar and Gavin Ivester, Designing Things, 1st edn (Oxford, UK: Berg, 2010), p. 142.
Gavin Ivester Senior Vice-President of Puma International Footwear,
describes performance customers as people who:
“…will spill blood and guts as sacrifice for high sports achievement. That
is what Nike’s personality is all about. It is made up of people who are
completely dedicated to the sport”. 95
- Gavin Ivester

9596. Prasad Boradkar, Designing Things, 1st edn (Oxford, UK: Berg, 2010), p. 145.
The second group of consumer are inspired by fashion. They are not
motivated to purchase by the functional aspect of a sneaker, instead the
unique style and aesthetic of the shoe96
. Ivester continues to explain that
the aesthetically motivated consumer:
“…follows all trends and is constantly on the lookout for the next cool
thing.” 97
- Gavin Ivester

97
Summarising the market into these two consumer mindsets provides
insight into the motives behind purchases. With two purposeful motives
behind the design of sports footwear it is easy to see how people purchase
multiple pairs of trainers and sneakers.
The drive to succeed motivates sportspeople to purchase trainers that may
improve they’re performance. Alternatively, appearance is are significant
component to excessive purchase of stylistic sports merchandise.
Modern consumers are obsessed to keep up with the latest styles,
creating a competitive relationship between consumers. This relationship
is comparable the rivalry between competitors, the competitive nature of
sport is not left behind here…

99
98. Donald A Norman, The Design Of Everyday Things, 2nd edn (Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2013), p. 292.
A sustainable perspective of the sportswear industry would consider
the combination of performance and style, to design, as dangerously
unsustainable. The combination provides every type of consumer with an
excuse to continue purchasing items at a rapid rate. Brands are producing
hundreds of performance and fashion inspired items each year, including
re-releases of pre-existing styles. This is allowing consumers to fill
wardrobes with items that have the same primary function, with the only
difference being a different colour combination. Should future societies
be allowed to have multiple items that serve the same function?
DonaldNormanquestionstheimplicationsof theunnecessaryproduction
of merchandise:
‘What is the cost to the environment for all the materials and energy used
to manufacture the new products, to say nothing of the problems of
disposing safely of the old?’ 98
- Donald Norman

101
Future production of sportswear should be carefully monitored, as the
current rate of production is unsustainable. The consumption of materials
and energy used in creating sports innovations and fashion trends is
contributing to the global impact on the environment. Furthermore, the
consumerist obsession with sports merchandise is having a negative
impact upon the sports community as it often leads people to overlook
the true values of sport; competition, teamwork and the benefit to health.
A compromise is needed between diminishing the size of peoples’
athletic equipment and creating technologies for sport. As this could
have negative impacts on sports culture and more importantly societies
potential to create products to benefit health.

103
99. Oscar PISTORIUS, “Oscar PISTORIUS - Olympic Athletics | South Africa”, International Olympic Committee, 2012 <https://
www.olympic.org/oscar-pistorius> [accessed 18 April 2017].
The design of sports wear and innovative sports technologies both
contribute to encouraging healthy active lifestyles among society. Three
apparent ways that sports innovation design benefits the activity of society
are; enabling or increasing the ease of exercise and physical activity,
increasing peoples confidence and reducing the impact of exercise and
physical activity on the body.
Sports innovation design contributes in enabling people to participate in
exerciseandphysicalactivity.Mostimportantlybydevelopingtechnologies
that empower the disabled. Paralympian’s are some of the most talented
individuals, it could be argued that they are more mentally resolute than
Olympians as they have a pre-existing performance barrier which they
have overcome. Designing innovations that enable and encourage
people with disabilities to participate is not only good for their health
but, also the health of sport. Paralympic athletes are also pushing the
barriers of what it perceived as humanly possible, forcing athletes to push
themselves harder. For example, arguments were made for Paralympic
athletes to be able to compete in the Olympics. Oscar Pistorius ‘The
Blade Runner’ ran in the Men’s 400m in the London 2012 Olympics. He
came second in his heat and qualified for the semi-finals99
. The design
and creation of his prosthetic legs has inspired many disabled people to
take part in the sport, therefore benefiting their health.
Athletic Lifestyles

104 100. “Benefits Of Exercise - Live Well - NHS Choices”, Nhs.Uk, 2017 <http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/fitness/Pages/whybeactive.aspx> [accessed 18 April 2017].
The aesthetic design of sports-wear and equipment can have a positive impact upon the
activity of the public, increasing the confidence of someone in order to participate. Many
people do not take part in sport because they ‘feel silly’ or are too self-conscious. Designing
sportswear to increase the confidence of a user has a positive impact upon their health,
furthermore studies conducted by the NHS shows that physical activity can also boost self-
esteem100
further enhancing their wellbeing. This increases the overall number of people
participating in sport raising the standard of performance creating a societal marginal gain.
Designing innovative sports products that reduce the impact of physical activity also has a
positive impact. For example, enabling the elderly to go on a walk with a reduced likelihood
of injury improves their quality of life drastically. Sedentary lifestyles have a negative impact
upon peoples health,contributing to many serious diseases such as,heart disease,diabetes,
cancer and obesity. An example of innovative design that diminishes the impact of physical
activity would be Nike’s Lunarlon trainer sole, as it absorbs the impact of a stride by evenly
displacing the weight around the shoe.

105102. Richard MacManus, Health Trackers, 1st edn (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), p. Chapter 2.
103. Andrea Diedrich, Donna J. Munroe and Melissa Romano, “Promoting Physical Activity For Persons With Diabetes”, The Diabetes Educator, 36.1 (2010), 132-140 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0145721709352382>.
As technology has improved in the last century, inventors and designers have tried
to integrate technology into peoples everyday lives to benefit health, leading to the
establishment of an entire new industry, smart-wear. An early example of smart-wear would
be the Pedometer, created for the singular purpose of counting steps. Envisioned by Da-
Vinci and first brought to life by Abraham-Louis Perrelet in 1780102
, the pedometer has
been adapted by many technology companies. In 1965 the idea of 10,000 steps a day idea
was created in Japan with a pedometer called a “Manpo-kei” (a 10,000 steps meter103
). The
10,000 steps rule is a proven balance of calorie intake and calorie expenditure.This rule has
been used as an example when developing worn technologies to ensure they are effective
in benefiting health.
Smart Wear

107
104. “Apple - Press Info - Nike And Apple Team Up To Launch Nike+Ipod”, Apple.Com, 2006 <https://www.apple.com/pr/
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106. “Babolat Play”, En.Babolatplay.Com, 2017 <http://en.babolatplay.com/play> [accessed 17 April 2017].
The pedometer inspired sports and technology companies to collaborate
to create new types sport specific devices. Combining Nike footwear
with mobile devices from Apple, the Nike + Apple running chip was
introduced in 2006104
. Allowing runners to analyse their performance and
track their progress throughout the year.Other sports brands have created
their own. For example Adidas’s MiCoach Chip was integrated into their
performance football boots105
and tennis equipment company Babolat,
have created Babolat Play. Integrating 4 types of sensor and bluetooth
chip into a tennis racquet to analyse a performers technique106
.
Smart-wear has emerged from a combination of sports enthusiasm and
the development of technology. For example FitBit and an Apple watches
have far more advanced technological capabilities than devices produced
in previous years. A pedometer is still included in the available functions.
Both are capable of tracking the users health by taking readings of the
heart. This is measured during everyday life and exercise. Notably, this is
particularly insightful for those looking for motivation to get active.

111
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Another worn technology that has potential health benefits, are the Nike
HyperAdapt’s. These are a pair of shoes that integrate a self-fastening
adaptive lacing system107
. Inspired by, Marty Mcfly’s self-lacing sneakers108
in ‘Back to the future. The adaptive lacing system provides a beneficial
aspect to those who are incapable of tying laces due arthritis or simply do
not have the flexibility. Taking inspiration from this alternative solution and
other smart-wear products, provides a promising future for the industry
and for the benefits to health.

The Potential Benefits of Sports Innovation Design

116
Design is essential to everything we do as a global community. It has the power to create
change as it has done so many times before, especially within sport. Sport has a significant
influence within our modern society, providing entertainment, activity and competition.
Combined, design and sport have the potential to create innovative solutions to enhance
sport and improve public health.
The sports design industry emerged from a need within sport to provide people with the
necessary means to understand what we are physically capable of, as it essential to who
we are. Sport provides the platform for us to challenge ourselves and design facilitates
our needs to discover our limits. It is evident that design has a significant impact upon
sport, as many aspects rely upon the development of innovations for both performance
and participation. This impact is shown in examples throughout the history of sport where
athletes have reached a performance barrier, leading to the collaboration of athletes and
designers. For example, in order to run a marathon in under 2 hours, this collaboration
has been successful in the creation of a supplementary technology that enhances human
performance. This innovation proves the significance of design upon sport.
Conclusion

117
However, sport is about individuals and teams competing against each other upon a level
playing field. Design has proven to have the potential to disturb this level playing field,
providing competitors with too much of an advantage over their opposition. This is where
design needs to be regulated by governing bodies, to ensure fair-play among athletes.
Regulating innovations will enhance the excitement of sport, as the competition will be
returned to the athletes,with the fair distribution of performance enhancement.This process
was successful with the removal of non-textile swimsuits, reducing the amount of fabric
coverage and standardising the material. Sports manufacturers and athletic associations
need to be maintained in their production of performance enhancing technologies.
However, there must be regular investigations by governing bodies collaborating with
designers and bio-mechanical specialists into what is perceived as an unfair advantage.
The compromise between sport being totally human and adding innovations to push the
boundaries of our perceived limit needs to emphasise the purpose of what we are trying
to achieve. We are finding out what the human body is capable of, not what technology
can achieve. However, it is in our human nature to innovate to help achieve our goals.

118
Combining design and sport has the potential to solve many identified health problems.
Using marginal gains as a methodology of improving performance and public health we
can create innovations for the problems identified.
By allowing athletes to test the boundaries of a concept and the materials, we can develop
componentspecifictechnologiesthancanberepurposedtobenefitthepublic.Forexample,
the compression technology within performance sports clothing could be repurposed into
clothes for the elderly who are not as mobile. Furthermore, can footwear technologies
like Lunarlon and the Zoom X sole be repurposed into footwear for those less capable of
walking? Increasing their ability to walk by a marginal percentage. These are the marginal
gains that society must make in order to improve our human and athletic performance.
However, the production of sports-wear needs to be slowed due to its contribution to the
global environmental crisis. We are entering into a time where people will not need several
versions of the same item. This will force us to innovate over this hurdle. Perhaps creating
modular footwear or smart-wear that changes colour.

119109. “Physical Activity Guidelines For Adults - Live Well - NHS Choices”, Nhs.Uk, 2017 <http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/fitness/Pages/physical-activity-guidelines-for-adults.aspx> [accessed 20 April 2017].
An alternative view of the potential collaboration of sport and design would be that the
value people place upon their lives has reduced in comparison to previous generations.Has
the value of life decreased so much that people don’t care as much about their health and
wellbeing. If solutions are created to benefit health, what is to say that people will integrate
these changes into their lives. People have become more reliant on organisations like the
NHS, knowing that when they urgently need medical assistance it is there for them to use.
Rather than keeping themselves healthy by doing a minimum 150 minutes of exercise a
week109
. The combination of design and sport can provide a solution that both educates,
and motivates, people to maintain and improve their health.

121
To develop this concept, further research into the impact of design upon specific physical
components and athletic performance. This could be done by working with elite athletes,
comparing sports innovations and identifying the most successful components of each
design. Collaborating with bio-mechanic specialists and athletes would provide greater
insight into the genuine impact of sports innovation.
Further Investigation

123
Having read this I hope you can now look at your own human performance as if you were
an athlete identifying imperfections. By compartmentalising your own performance, you
can now create marginal gains throughout your day. I hope you can now take interest into
the objects people use and question the potential that the design has to enhance the
relationship between user and product. Utilising the combination of design and sport you
can now improve your own, human performance…
Human Performance

126
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