The document discusses the classification of invertebrate animals. It describes 10 major phyla: Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, and Protozoa. For each phylum, it provides the key characteristics, examples of common types of animals in the phylum, and their classification into classes and orders. The document also includes images of example species from several of the phyla.

1. Practical
Evolution and Principles of Systematics
Lahore
HAFIZ M WASEEM

2. PRACTICAL:
Study of preserved invertebratespecies and their
classificationupto class level
INVERTEBRATE
 Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a
vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or
spine), derived from the notochord.
 Familiar examples of invertebrates include arthropods
(insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and myriapods), mollusks
(chitons, snail, bivalves, squids, and octopuses), annelid
(earthworms and leeches), and cnidarians (hydras,
jellyfishes, sea anemones, and corals).
 The majority of animal species are invertebrates; one
estimate puts the figure at 97%.
 Many invertebrate taxa have a greater number and variety of
species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata.

3.  Invertebrates vary widely in size, from 50 μm (0.002 in)
rotifers to the 9–10 m (30–33 ft) colossal squid.
PRESERVATION METHOD
WET SPECIMENS
 "Wet" specimen collections are stored in different solutions.
 A very old method is to store the specimen in 70% ethanol with
various additives after fixing with formalin or in these
days sometimes with a salt solution.
 Modern specimens are stored in borosilicate glass due to
its chemical and thermal resistance and good optical clarity.
CLASSIFICATION OF INVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates are classified in to nine major phyla. ´
 Sponges (Porifera)
 Amoeba (Protozoa)
 Hydras, jellyfishes, sea anemones, and corals (Cnidaria)

4.  Starfishes, sea urchins, sea cucumbers (Echinodermata)
 Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
 Round or threadworms (Nematoda)
 Earthworms and leeches (Annelida) ´
 Insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and myriapods (Arthropoda)
 Chitons, snails, bivalves, squids, and octopuses (Mollusca)
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
CHARACTERISTICS
 They may be solitary, colonial or free living aquatic parasites.
 Most of them live in water, but some live in damp soil or
inside other animal (parasitic).
 They reproduce primarily by asexual means, although in some
groups sexual modes also occur.
 They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition, whereby the free-
living forms ingest particulates, such as bacteria, yeast and algae,
while the parasitic forms derive nutrients from the

5. body fluids of their hosts.
 Locomotion takes place by pseudopodia, flagella or cilia.
 They constantly change the body shape.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM PROTOZOA
 Phylum Protozoa is a large and varied group. This phylum
has a number of problems in its classification. As per one of the
classification given out by Hyman, Hickman and Storer, this
phylum is divided into two subphyla on the basis of
organs of locomotion. These two subphyla are further
divided into 5 classes.
 Most accepted classification of protozoa is given by BM
Honigberg and others based on the scheme given by the
committee on Taxonomy and Taxonomic problems of the
society of Protozoologists divides this phyla into 4
subphyla.

6. CLASSES
Phylum protozoa is classified into four classes on the basis of loco
motary organs
Class 1 Rhizopoda
 Locomotary organ: Pseudopodia
 Mostly free living, some are parasitic
 Reproduction: asexually by binary fission and sexually by
syngamy.
 No conjugation.
 Examples: Amoeba, Entamoeba
Class 2 Mastigophora/ Flagellats
 Locomotory organ: Flagella
 Free living or parasite.
 Body covered with cellulose, chitin or silica.
 Reproduction: A sexual reproduction by longitudinal

7. fission.
 No conjugation.
 Examples: Giardia, Euglena, Trypanosoma
Class 3 Sporozoa
 Locomotory organ: Absent
 Exclusively endoparasites
 Contractile vacuoles is absent
 Body covered with pellicle.
 Reproduction: Asexual reproduction by fission and Sexual
reproduction by spores
 Examples: Plasmodium, Monocystis
Class 4 Ciliata
 locomotary organ: Cillia
 Body covered by pellicle.
 Reproduction: Asexual reproduction by binary fission.
Sexual reproduction by conjugation.

8.  Nuclei two types i.e. macronucleus and micronucleus.
 Examples: Paramecium, Voricella, BlantidiumY
AMOEBA (PROTOZOA)

9. TRYPANOSOMA (PROTOZOA)

10. PARAMECIUM (PROTOZOA)

11. Blantidium (PROTOZOA)

12. PHYLUM PORIFE
A

13. 2. PHYLUM PORIFERA

14.  They live mainly in salty water. About 5000 species are
known today
commonly known as sponges.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Found in salty water.
 Multicellular animals.
 They have cylindrical shape body.
 Germinal layers are ill developed.
 Inner surface has flagellate collar cells or choanocytes.
 Reproduction is both sexual and asexual.
 E.g., Sycon, Bath Sponge, Euplectella, Glass-rope
sponge etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM PORIFE
RA

15. SYCON (PORIFERA)

16. BARREL SPONGE(PORIFERA)

17. GLASS SPONGE(PORIFERA)
Class Hexactinellida
Subclass Amphidiscophora
•Order Amphidiscosida
•Subclass Hexasterophora
•Order Lychniscosida
•Order Lyssacinosida
•Order Sceptrulophora

19. EAR SPONGE(PORIFERA)

20. PHYLUM
COELENTERATA

21. 3. PHYLUMCOELENTERATA
About 10,000species are known.
CHARACTERISTICS
 These are marine animals which may be solitary or colonial.
 These have a hollow body like a bag.
 The body is two layered.
 The mouth is surrounded by tentacles which are usually
thread like outgrowths.
 Stinging cells or nematocytes are present.
 Reproduction: Asexual: by budding; Sexual: by gamatic

22. fusion.
 E.g., Hydra, Jelly Fish, Sea Anemone, Coral etc.
Sea Anemone (COELENTERATA)
JELLY FISH (COELENTERATA)

23. HYDRA (COELENTERATA)

24. CORAL (COELENTERATA)
PHYLUM
PLATYHELMINTHES

25. 4. PHYLUMPLATYHELMINTHES

26. 6500 species are known. Common forms are Flukes and Tapew
orms.
CHARACTERITICS
 They are commonly flateworms.
 They are bisexual.
 The body is bilaterally symmetrical.
 Nervous system is simple.
 Digestive system: incomplete or absent.
 Reproduction: Sexual: by gametic fusion in hermaphrodite
species.
 Asexual : by regeneration and fission.
 E.g., Liver Fluke, Planaria, Tapeworm, Blood Fluke etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM
PALTYHELMINTHES

27. CLASSES
Phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into three classes on the basis of bod
y
shape, mouth position and habitat.
Class 1 Turbellaria
 Mostly Free-living fresh water organism
 Body: dorsoventrally flattened
 Hooks and sucker usually absent
 Examples: Planaria, Bipalium, Otoplana, Notoplana

28. Class2 Trematoda
 Mostly parasitic
 Body: dorso-ventrally flattened leaf like
 Hooks and sucker are present
 Examples; Fasciola hepatica (Liverfluke), Diplozoon,
Class3 Cestoda
 Exclusive parasitic
 Body: dorso-ventrally flattened tape like
 Hooks and sucker are present
 Digestive system-absent
 Excretion: Protonephridia with flame cell
 Examples: Taenia spp ( tapeworm), Convoluta, Echinobothrium
LIVER FLUKE(PLATYHELMINTHES)

29. PLANARIA (PLATYHELMINTHES)

30. TAPEWORM(PLATYHELMINTHES
PHYLUM
ASCHELMINTHES

31. About 10,000 species are known.
Examples are Ascaris(Roundworm),Oxyuris(Pinworm),
Ancylostoma(hookworm) etc.
CHARACTERISTICS
Commonly known as roundworms.
Body is bilaterally symmetrical.
Sexes are separate. Reproductive system is simple.
Nervous system is in the form of ring.
Respiratory organs and blood vascular system are absent.
Usually parasites. E.g., Ascaris, Oxyuris etc.

32. CLASSIFICATION OF
PHYLUM
ASCHELMINTHES
Aschelminthes is classified into two classes: Aphasmidia and Phasmidia.
Class 1. Aphasmidia
Phasmids are absent, Amphids are of various types. Examples:
Trichinella, (Trichina worm), Trichuris (Whip worm), etc
Class 2. Phasmidia
Phasmids are present near hind end of body. Amphids are present near
anterior end.
ASCARIS:

33. PIN WORM:

34. FALIRALIALWORM:

35. PHYLUM ANNELIDA:
Almost 13,500 species are known.

36. CHARACTERISTICS
Body is metamerically segmented.
Shows bilateral symmetry.
Excretory organs are nephirida.
Sexes are either separate or the organisms are hermaphrodite.
The body has longitudinal or circular muscles.
E.g., Earthworm, Leech, Polygordius etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUMANNELIDA
Phylum Annelida is divided into four main classes, primarly on the
basis of setae, parapodia, metameres and other morphological features.
Class 1 Polychaeta
Habitat: They are marine, terrestrial, and freshwater. Archetypical
protosome development (schizocoely).
True coelomates (schizocoelomates).
Bilaterally symmetry, segmented worms.
Complete digestive system.
Closed circulatory system.

37. Well-developed nervous system.
Excretory system: Both metanephridia and protonephridia.
Lateral epidermal setae with each segment.
Dioecious or hermaphroditic.
Fertilization: external
Examples: Nereis (sandworm), Syllis.
Class 2 Oligochaeta
Habitat: mostly terrestrial and few are freshwater
Body metamerically segmented
Clitellum present
Hermaphrodite but cross fertilization occur
Fertilization: external
Cocoon formation occur
Examples: Pheretima posthuma (Earthworm), Lumbricus, Stlaria,
Tubifex
Class 3 Hiradinea
Habitat: primarily freshwater annelids but some are marine, terrestrial

38. and parasitic
The body has definite number or segments.
The tentacles, parapodia and setae are totally absent.
They are hermaphrodite.
Fertilization: internal and a larval stage is absent.
Examples: .Hirudinaria (Leech)
Class 4 Archiannelida
Habitat: They are strictly marine.
The body is long and worm like.
The setae and parapodia normally absent.
They may be unisexual or hermaphrodite.
The development: indirect forming trochophore larva.
Examples: .Protodrillus. Dinophilus.

39. EARTH WORM:
SAND WORM:
KINGDOM : ANIMALIA
PHYLUM: ANNELIDA

40. CLASS: POLYCHAETA
SCIENTIFIC NAME: ALITTA VIRENS
LEECH:

41. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA:

42. The word arthropoda means jointed foot. It is the largest group of
animals comprising about 700000 species. Animals of this phyla are
found all over the world in all climates and conditions.
CHARACTERITICS
Body is metamerically segmented.
Body is jointed outwardly and bilaterally symmetrical.
A hard, non living exoskeleton is present.
Sexes are usually separated.
E.g., Spider, Crab, Grasshopper, Butterfly etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM
ARTHROPODA
Four classes of Arthropoda.
Crustaceans
Myriapoda
Arachnida

43. Insecta
SPIDER:
CRAB:

44. GRASS HOPPER:

45. BUTTERFLY:
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA:

46. About 90000 species are known.
CHARACTERISTICS
The animal are aquatic, some terrestrial forms are also known.
Body is soft, unsegmented.
Coelomate animals. True coelom is present.
Body consist of a head, foot and dorsal visceral mass.
Respiration is done by part of gills.
E,g., Snail, Octopus, Cuttlefish, Squid etc.

47. CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM
MOLLUSCA
Phylum Mollusca are divided into six classes.
Class 1. Monoplacophora (Gk. monas- one, plax- plate,
pherein- bearing):
The shell is spoon or cup shaped.
They have die characters of both the phylum
Annelida and phylum Mollusca.
Example: Neopilina
Class 2. Amphineura (Gk. amphi- both + two neuron =
nerve):
There is a present non-ganglionated nerve ring around mouth with two
pairs of interconnected nerve cord.
Examples: Chaetopleura (Chiton).
Class 3. Scaphopoda (Gk. scapha- boat, podos-foot):

48. Shell is tubular and open at both ends.
Example: Dentalium
Class 4. Gastropoda (Gk. gaster- belly, podos- foot):
Shell is made up of one piece.
The early embryo is symmetrical but during development the body
twists showing torsion so that the body becomes asymmetrical.
It includes the largest number of molluscs e.g., Pila, Umax, Cypraea
(Cowrie), Helix (garden snail), Aplysia (sea hare), Doris (sea lemon),
Limnaea, (pond snail), Planorbis, Patella (true limpet), Turbinella
(Shankh), Creseis (Sea butterfly)
Class 5. Pelecypoda or Lamellibranchiate or
Bivalvia(Gk. pelekus- hatchet Podos foot):
Shells is made up of two halves.
Examples: Unio, Mytilus (Sea mussel), Teredo SpwoS EnZ (razor shell
or razor clam), Solen (razor fish or razor shell), Ostrea (edible oyster),
Pecten (scallop), Pinctada (Pearl oyster).

49. Class 6. Cephalopoda (Gk. kephale- head, podos- foot):
Head and foot region combined and modified into a structure which has
eyes and eight tentacles, hence the name cephalopod or ‘head foot’.
Cephalopods are regarded at the top of invertebrates evolution in terms
of learned behavior they exihibit.
Shell is external (Nautilus), internal (sepia) or absent (octopus).
Examples: Sepia, Loligo, octopus, nautilus, (pearly nautilus). Some
cephalopods are the largest invertebrates.
SNAIL:

50. OCTOPUS:

52. CUTTLE
FISH:

53. SQUID:

54. PHLYUM
ECHINODERMATA:

55. These are marine animals. Almost 5000 species are known.
CHARACTERISTICS
The skin forms a hard spiny protective skeletal covering.
The alimentary canal is simple and usually complete.
They have a coelom and water vascular system.
Sexes are separate.
Nervous system is well developed consisting of circular rings and
radical nerves.
E.g., Starfish, Sea urchin, Sea cucumber,sea lilly etc

56. CLASSIFICATION OF ECHINODERMATA
It is divided into five classes.
Asteroidea
Ophiuroidea
Echinoidea
Holothuroidea
Crinoidea
Class 1 Asteroidea
Body is flattened star shaped with five arms
They possesses tube feet with a suckle
Presence of calcareous plates and movable spines.
Respiratory organ: papulae
Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Astropecten, Zoraster, Oreaster
Class 2 Ophiuroidea
Body is flat with pentamerous disc
They possess a long arm which is sharply demarcated from the central

57. disc.
They possesses tube feet without sucker Anus and intestine are absent
Respiratory organ: Bursae
Examples: Ophiderma, ophiothrix, Astrophyton, Amphuria, etc
Class 3 Echinoidea
Body is disc-like hemi-spherical
They are devoid of arms or free-rays.
They possesses tube feet with a sucker.
They possess compact skeleton and movable spines.
Examples: Echinus (Sea urchin), Cidaris, Arbacia, Echinocardium.
Diadema
Class 4 Holothuroidea
Body is elongated in the oral-aboral axis and it is like cucumber.
They have no arms, spines and pedicellariae.
The tube feet are sucking type which is modified into tentacles and

58. form acircle around mouth.
Respiratory organ: cloacal respiratory tree
Examples: Cucumaria (Sea cucumber), Holothuria, Mesothuria, etc
Class 5 Crinoidea
Body is star shaped
Some of the forms were extinct and living forms.
Arms bifurcated, with two pinnules.
They have tube feet without suckers
Examples: Neometra, Antedon, Rhizocrinus, etc

59. STAR FISH:

60. SEA
URCHIN:

62. SEA CUCUMBER:

63. SEA LILY:

64. PRACTICAL2:
COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND
IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON SPECIES WITH THE
HELP OF
KEY.
COLLECTION
COLLECTION
Biological collections are highly valuable for following reasons:
• Museums are only place where extinct species are preserved.
• Specimens of special historical value.
• Source of scientific information.

65. • Museum specimens form the basis of research.
WHERE AND HOW TO COLLECT?
 A collecting trip must be carefully planned.
 All possible geographical information must be obtained before
hand
 including:
 distribution of vegetable types
 altitude
 seasons
 means of transportation etc.
• A plotting of collecting stations, and in particular a mapping of specie
distribution will reveal the location of crucial gaps.
• If the study of geographic variation is a major objective, the periphery

66. of
the range of each species should be given particular attention. This is
where
geographic isolates occur more frequently.
• If the specie show seasonal variation, then collection should be done
seasonally.
EQUIPMENTS NEED FOR COLLECTION
 Collecting and preserving invertebrates requires a little equipment
which ranges
 from the very simple to the most intricate and expensive. However
there are a few
 standard items that any collector should have:
 Forceps, vials containing alcohol or other preservatives
 Killing jars
 a notebook and pencil
 strong paper to write labels

67.  A strong knife
 A small fine brush for picking up minute specimens
HOW TO COLLECT?
There are many different methods for collection of specimens.
INVERTEBRATE COLLECTION METHODS
COMMON COLLECTION MTHODS FOR
INVERTEBRATES
Passive techniques
pitfall trapping
Active techniques

68. 1. PITFALL TRAPPING
is commonly used for capturing invertebrates that are
active on the
ground.
glycol) and dug it into
the ground.
killed
and preserved by
the fluid. Place a ‘lid’ over pitfall, to protect the trap from debris.

69. 2. YELLOW PAN TRAPS
are mainly used to catch flying insects.
fluid attracts insects in search of water but more
specifically many wasps
and certain flies are attracted to the color yellow, which is essential for
the method.
This is an example of a pan trap.
with a

70. skewer and partially filled with saline.
liquid.
3.FLIGHT INTERCEPT TRAPS
hung anywhere.
probable insect flight paths.
Likely flight paths include locations such as forest edges, riverbanks,
trails in forests, and little open gullies.
re made of a rectangular screen of fine

71. mesh or clear plastic, suspended in likely "flight paths" of insects.
ground are collected in a trough containing preservative.
4. HAND COLLECTING
their habitats and moving objects such as logs or rocks with your hands.
where
they are known or suspected to be found. It also includes searching at
night with lights.

72. but forceps (tweezers) and a pooter (aspirator) may be useful for
collecting small specimens.
lude collection of lice or mites from birds.
Collecting these groups of invertebrates requires specialist training to
extract the specimens.
5. LIGHT TRAPPING
• This is a novel way to capture nocturnal invertebrates. Nearly half of
all invertebrates are active at night. A flashlight or head lamp is used to
attract the insects which are collected by hand.
• Blacklight traps include a variety of trap types, but what they all have

73. in common is “Blacklight or Ultraviolet UV light” and is used for
collecting many insects that are active and flying at night and are
attracted to UV light.
• Most likely invertebrates to be encountered include noctuid moth, wolf
spiders, fishing spiders, jumping spiders, dipterans and hemipterans.

74. 6. BEAT SAMPLING
• Beat sampling involves using a stick to repeatedly hit branches and
dislodge invertebrates that fall into collection trays.
• This method is typically used to collect invertebrates resting on the
foliage of shrubs or trees (e.g., Spiders, caterpillars, aphids, flies,
beetles).

75. 7. SWEEP SAMPLING
• A sweep net is a funnel-shaped net attached to a long-handled
frame that is swept back and forth through the tops of grasses, grains
and ground foliage with a clear top.
8.CHEMICAL KNOCKDOWN

76. hemical to the plant.
or around
the area that is to be treated.
dislodge any
remaining invertebrates. There are many variations on this basic method
with
varying levels of sophistication, labor and expense.
while the more
complex methods used for sampling whole trees require ‘misters’ or
‘foggers’.

77. SOME OTHER COMMON METHODS
9. AQUATIC DIP NET
• It is used to collect aquatic insects.
• It is similar to aerial net except the length of the bag.
• It has heavy duty net bags and handles and square to triangular thick
wire hoops.

78. 10. ASPIRATOR
poss).

79. 11. BURLESE FUNNEL
• Soil or debris is placed on a wire-mesh of funnel, over which an
electric bulb is
kept.
• As the debris, dries under the heat of the bulb , the negatively
phototrophic
insects or the humid environment preferring insects start dropping down
the funnel
into collecting vessel with alcohol kept below.
• This method is used to collect soil inhabiting insects like mites,
collembolans etc.,

80. from debris, organic matter, litter and soil.
12. BAITING
pheromones, etc. As
attractants can
be general or targeted collection devices.
commercially.

81. 13. CYLINDER SAMPLERS
crustaceans and planktons.
14. TRAPS
Different types of traps are used to collect various groups of insects.
-specific)

82. enol trap (fruit fly)
PRESERVATION
organism from decay, in parts or in whole, presumably to be studied later.
specimens.
generally
preferred is alcohol.
-75% ethyl alcohol or ethanol, 40-50% isopropyl
alcohol is used
on some animal taxa. It tends to make them brittle over time. For this
reason, one needs

83. to buffer it with a few drops of glycerin and a pinch of calcium
carbonate.
ene phenoxetol, 5.0 parts
propylene glycol, 10.0
parts full strength formaldehyde and 83.5 parts distilled water has been
used
successfully for the long term storage of some taxa.
INVERTEBRATEPRESERVATION METHODS
1. KILLING METHOD
living insects put in jars.
kill insects.

84. potassium, chloroform and ethyl acetate.
2. FREEZING
ecimens have been collected, they ca be transported home
or to the
lab in a plastic zip-lock bag or paper envelop.
where they
will not be damaged.
er for prolonged periods of time
however may

85. damage the specimen.
3. DRY METHOD
3A. Sponges:
• Wear hand gloves
• Put under clear, running water rinse and squeeze to drain out excess
water.
• For removing the smell, the sponge is then placed in a container of
alcohol with
a lid for 48 hours.
• Before drying large specimens, labels are attached by means of string,

86. threaded through the body of the sponge.
• Dry it in the sun.
• When thoroughly dried, sponges are kept in small cardboard boxes
supported
with tissue paper.
• Naphthalene flakes may be added to dry containers.
3B. HORNY CORAL:
dried
in a warm but shaded place.
to drying branches are so arranged that they will take up least
amount of space in museum tray.

87. proof
boxes with a few crystals of paradichlorobenzene.
3C. DRY SHELLS OF MOLLUSCA:
e first step is to clear the shell of any dead tissue, which is a cause
of bad odor.
or filling it
completely with a dry mixture of three parts of salt and one part of
baking soda and
freezing them in zipper bags.
shells.

88. and fragile shells.
STURDY SHELLS are soaked in a container having four cups of water
mixed with
four cups of bleach and one tablespoon of dishwashing liquid. They are
periodically scrubbed with a toothbrush to remove any seaweed, algae or
any
other kind of debris.
FRAGILE SHELLS are washed in mild dish detergent. After the shell is
clean, it is
removed from the solution, rinsed well and dried gently with paper
towel. They are
then air dried or sun dried.
Some collectors like to use baby oil on a well dried shell to bring out its
luster.

89. 3D. ECHINODERMS:
detergent solution that is mostly in a water and a very
little detergent and dry in the sun.
and then dry in the sun.
water
and then allow it to dry in the sun.
PRESERVATION OF INSECTS
MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR PRESERVATION:
1. PAPER ENVELOPS OR TRIANGLES OR FOLDS
• Large winged insects such as dragonflies, butterflies or moths can be

90. temporarily
preserved after collection (to preserve wing coloration).
• Cut the paper into rectangles with their sides in the proportion of 3:5.
• Bring the diagonally opposite corners together to leave two projecting
flaps.
• Write the data regarding collection on outer side of projecting
flap
Keep the immobilized insect in between overlapping triangles.
2. RELAXING CONTAINER
• If it has been more than a few days since your specimens were
collected, they will

91. be hard, brittle, and almost impossible to pin without breaking or
damaging them.
• To relax your insect specimens, you will need a plastic container with
an airtight lid
that is large enough to hold all of the insects you want to soften plus
several layers
of wet paper towels.
• Close the lid of the container tightly and move the container to a place
where it will
not be disturbed. The moisture from the wet towels will soften the
bodies of the
insects without harming or discoloring them.
• Most butterflies and smaller insects should be softened in 2-3 days.
Larger beetles
and other insects may take 5-6 days or longer to soften enough to be
pinned
without breaking.

92. 3. ENTOMOLOGICAL PINS:
non
corrosive metal (pure nickel).
are three types of entomological pins viz., English, Continental
and Minuten.
respectively and
minute for very small insects.
METHOD FOR PRESERVATION
MOUNTING:
• Any insect large enough to be pinned without the risk of breaking or
distorting, it is pinned from the top (dorsal side), straight down through
its
body.

93. DOUBLE MOUNTING
• When insects are too small, double mounting is done.
• A very small minute pin should be inserted into the specimen, which is
then inserted
in a small block of cork
• A standard insect pin should then be inserted in the opposite end of the
cork
block.
SETTING BOARD
eading board, also known as a setting board, is a board with a
groove down the center, usually made from some softer wood material

94. which allows a pin to be easily inserted and extracted.
DISPLAY AND STORAGE
1. STORAGE BOX

95. 2. RIKER MOUNT:
• A riker mount is a flat container used for mounting a specimen
(typically plant or insect) on cotton wool or other backing material,
often with transparent glass or plastic cover as protection.
• It is named after albert Joyce Riker (1894-1982),noted American
plant pathologist.
• It is used to display complete life cycle of specimen.
LIQUID PRESERVATION

96. caterpillar, grubs etc., Can be directly preserved in liquids like 70%
ethyl alcohol, methylated spirit and formalin 4%.
should be fixed by keeping them in boiling water.
er for 30 second.
cap
vials and seal the stopper with paraffin wax, which reduces
evaporation of preservatives.
USE OF PRESERVATIVES
inside to repel museum
insects.
This is done by heating the head of the pin in flame and pressing it
against the
naphthalene ball. The ball melts at the point of contact. The pin head
enters the
ball and the melted naphthalene solidifies around the pin head.

97. keep off
museum insects but also check infestation.
ratio is a
disinfectant and liquid preservative and effective to protect insect
specimens in box.
LABELING
A specimen that is not accurately labeled is worthless for most type
of
taxonomic research.
Recording data
r

98. IDENTIFICATION
TAXONOMIC (IDENTIFICATION) KEYS
enables a user to identify an organism.”
- used for identification of plant or animal.
characters in
such a way as to provide a series of alternative choices.
the
specimen. It provides a choice between two contradictory
statements resulting in
the acceptance of one and the rejection of the other.
statement

99. of a couplet is termed a lead. By making the correct choice at
each level of the
key, one can eventually arrive at the name of the unknown plant..
CONSTRUCTION OF KEYS
t
measurements.
characters.
- can be used but not-
fur is not present
me
word e.g., fur present and fur absent.
1: DICHOTOMOUS KEYS
are always in
form of couplets.

100. or many
character (polythetic key). Polythetic key is more advantageous.
Monothetic keys has three disadvantages.
then the key cannot be used.
EXAMPLE OF DICHOTOMOUSKEY FOR
INVERTEBRATES
2: INDENTED KEYS
• Indent means begin a line or lines at a greater or less distance from the
margin.
• The indented key then is one having an uneven, irregular border.
• The couplets in this key are indented from the left hand margin of the

101. page, in such a
way as to show the importance.
• Thus the two or more members of the primary couplets are near the left
hand margin.
• The secondary couplet is indented after leaving four or five spaces.
• The tertiary with equal number of spaces beyond the secondary and so
on to the end of the key.
EXAMPLE OF INDENTED KEY

102. A. ORGANISM WITH ONLY ONE CELL
B. NO NUCLEUS.........................MONERA
BB. HAS A NUCLEUS............PROTISTA
AA. ORGANISM WITH MORE THAN ONE CELL
B. AUTOTROPHIC .......................PLANTAE
BB. HETEROTROPHIC..............
C. MOBILE......................... ANIMALIA
CC. IMMOBILE.................. FUNGI
PRACTICAL NUMBER 2
PART 2
VERTEBRATES
VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates animals are animals with a backbone or
vertebral column.

103. METHODS OF COLLECTION
There are two basic methods for sampling or collecting vertebrates:
ch is also known as general or visual
searching for a set period of time, which consists of searching for
animals in their native habitats and microhabitats.
various
techniques used in each of these sampling methods depending on
the vertebrate group being collected.
FISH COLLECTION

104. to be sampled, whether continental or marine.
elective and nonselective.
SELECTIVE INSTRUMENTS
and specific shapes designed to capture fish of certain sizes and with
similar lifestyles including fishing lines, fishing poles, sieves and dip net,
longline fishing (both the open ocean and bottom type), fishing nets such
as cast net, trawl net, gillnets and hoop net (also used in capturing other
vertebrates).
NONSELECTIVE EQUIPMENTS
used when no importance is given to the size or lifestyle of

105. the fishes to be collected, and includes electrical fishing equipment as
well as chemical substances such as rotenone.
recommended. The use of chemical substances, for example, is
considered an environmental crime in Brazil.
but also can occasionally cause serious accidents.
AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES COLLECTION
ways:
General: consisting of wandering randomly in a predetermined area
while examining the greatest number of possible microhabitats i.e., in
the vegetation; underneath the leaf litter, fallen trunks or rocks; in
crevices or on rock outcrops; in burrows along the margins of streams
and lakes, or within them.
Systemized: searches in which the researcher surveys and established
transect to encounter these animals. The most commonly used sampling

106. methods is systemized collecting.
straight-line drift fences and pitfall traps.
are buried to their rims and separated by
plastic drift fences at least 5 m long and 1 m high.
morning and before nightfall). This method is very useful in capturing
species that are difficult to detect by active searching.
Glue Trap,” and “Sticky-trap” are largely
used to capture arboreal specimens.
snakes and turtles and can be associated with pitfall traps to maximize
collection efforts.

107. useful in collecting large lizards, turtles, and crocodilians. The baits used
in these traps must be renewed daily (meat, fruits and/or a mixture of
sardines, flour, and peanut butter) and non-target animals attracted to
these baits can often be used as bait for larger animals.
to the laboratory where they are anesthetized and killed.
BIRDS COLLECTION
two principal objectives:
morphology
s.

108. eggs, behavior, and songs. In general, birds can be collected by either
active (direct searches) or passive collecting.
in the first
hours of the morning, or at night fall, by way of random searches or
along pre-established transects.
or large shot (n. 5). The caliber of the shotgun, the sizes of the shells and
the shot must all be adequate to the size of the bird, its distance, and to
the collecting locality. The use of this equipment requires a hunting
permit and a registration permit.
nets.
(generally between 04:00 and 04:30 hours in the morning, depending on
the geographical localization of the sampling area).
d remain nearby
in order to inspect them (although the interval between inspections may

109. vary according to the methodology used).
active searches and mist nets by recording bird calls and then playing
them back to attract other birds. This technique is extremely
advantageous because it will attract individuals of a particular species.
MAMMALS COLLECTION
to study their skins, bony parts, and soft organs. The information
contained in the collected specimens and deposited in scientific
collections can serve as the basis for studies of systematics, evolution,
biogeography, genetics, and ecology.
ollected by two distinct techniques: active
collecting, also known as direct searching and by using traps.

110. -
sized animals such as small felines, foxes, small deer, wild pigs, and
monkeys. This type of collecting/hunting commonly involves the use of
a 36 caliber or larger shotgun, 22 caliber rifles, and shells with small (ns.
8 and 10) or large shot (ns. 3 and 5). To use this equipment the
researcher must have a license.
is also used to collect mammals, and most items
have been listed above under the topic of amphibians and reptiles.
(especially for preparing the skins) scissors, tweezers, cotton, sewing
thread, arsenic, borax (sodium borate) or taxidermy paste, wire, pliers,
brushes, sawdust or cornmeal (used to absorb fat, blood, or other body
fluids during the preparation of the skins), pins, and wooden or cork
boards that can be used to hold the skins while they are drying.
considerable variation among the different models. The most commonly
used types are Tomahawk and Sherman traps, although other less-
common models are available such as Havahart and Longworth traps.

111. openings at one or both ends and are used to capture larger animals such
as foxes, bush-dogs, and striped hog-nosed skunks.
traps are made from aluminum or galvanized metal sheets
and can be collapsible, or not; they are generally easy to set up and come
in many different sizes.
entrance with an automatic trap door mechanism and a holding cage
coupled to the posterior part of the tunnel when the trap is fully armed.
mixture of fruits and sardines or flour and peanut butter; they should be
checked early in the morning.

112. as rodents and marsupials.
-line drift fences are also
used and can maximize mammal collections.
-mesh mist nets made from very thin black nylon thread come in
many sizes, although the most common models are 6 m long by 3 m tall.
These nets are extended and held vertically by aluminum or bamboo
poles.

113. PRESERVATION
1. FISH PRESERVATION
KILLING FISH:
Anaesthetized fish
can be relax and preserve in a more natural state.
FIXATION:
a
fixative solution.
remove from the jars in the labs.
specimen should float freely in the jar to avoid curling and
bending.
directly into the body cavity to facilitate penetration and preservation of

114. the internal organs.
WASHING:
isopropyl alcohol.
water.
Alternately, the jar is filled with water.
This is repeated for several days until no formalin odor is
detected.
PRESERVATION:
10% formalin solution can be used to preserve fish specimens.
-propanol are commonly used
to fix and preserve fish specimens.
method to preserve color and tissues of the specimen.

115. 2. AMPHIBIANS PRESERVATION
. Specimens should be euthanized in a way that will
leave them undamaged and relaxed.
Injection and slitting. Liquid preservatives must be introduced into
the body cavity, limbs and tail, either by hypodermic injection or
through slits.
Fixing. While the specimens are still relaxed, they should be
arranged in trays so that they will harden in the proper position.
Labeling. Each specimen should be accompanied by certain

116. data, eithercattached directly or entered in a notebook with a
number corresponding to a numbered tag tied to the specimen.
Storage. After specimens have been fixed in the proper position, they
should be stored in liquid preservative for at least several
days, after which they may be allowed to remain in the liquid, or
transferred to plastic bags for temporary storage.
3.REPTILES PRESERVATION
KILLING:
s is a slow process.
FIXATION:
48 hours to one week.
Small lizards: formalin injected directly into body cavity or
through a cut made on the left ventral side of the body.
Larger lizards: should also be injected in each leg segment and
just underneath the skin at the base of the tail.

117. Snakes: injected with 10% formalin every inch along the length
of body cavity or else they are cut on the left ventral side of the body.
These cuts should measure 1 to 2 inches in length, should
penetrate into the body cavity and should be about one inch apart.
PRESERVATION:
eserved in 6% formalin
and large sized reptiles are preserved in 10% formalin.
4. BIRDS PRESERVATION

118. impedes their respiration and heartbeat.
etamine into the thorax or
alcohol or formaldehyde into the base of the cranium, or
inhalation of ether or chloroform.
10 % formaldehyde and
subsequently conserved in 75% alcohol, or prepared in a dry state
through taxidermy.
STUDY SKINS:
almost all of the body inside the skin is removed and replaced
with cotton so that the final result resembles a bird lying on its
back with its wings folded.

119. ROM and Shmoo:
ONTARIO MUSEUM removes all bones for a complete skeleton
while also producing a round skin without bill or legs called a
ROM, though if one set of wing and leg bones remain with the
skin that is called a shmoo in north america).

120. 5. MAMMALS PRESERVATION
commonly
employed by veterinarians or with ether or chloroform. Injections with
alcohol or 10 % formaldehyde at the base of the cranium are
commonly used for small individuals with large doses of cyanide being
used for large animals.
o the
specimens and their subsequent conservation in 75% alcohol.
accomplished using jars or large vessels or in boxes (in the case of skins
preserved by taxidermy).
IDENTIFICATION

124. PRACTICAL NUMBER 3
KEY
by progressively opting between two alternative observable
characteristics.
the specimen. It provides a choice between two contradictory statements
resulting in the acceptance of one and the rejection of the other.

125. COUPLET AND LEAD
the key, one can
eventually arrive at the name of the unknown specimen.
WHY KEYS ARE CONSTRUCTED ??
information in a structured form.
not possess certain
characters and is supposed to lead the user to a correct identification
with a minimum number steps.
TYPES OF TAXONOMIC KEYS
There are two types of keys.

126. 1. DICHOTOMOUS KEY
• Keys in which the choices allow only two (mutually exclusive)
alternative couplets are known as dichotomous keys.
• In constructing a key, contrasting characters are chosen that divide the
full set of possible species into smaller and smaller groups i.e., The
statements typically begin with broad characteristics and become
narrower as more choices are required.
• Each time a choice is made, a number of species is eliminated from
consideration and the range of possible species to which the unknown
specimen may belong is narrowed
reduces to a single species and the identity of the unknown organism is
revealed. Dichotomous comes from the greek root dich meaning “two”
and temnein meaning “to cut“.
presented using numbers (numeric) or using letters (alphabetical). The

127. couplets can be presented together or grouped by relationships. There is
no apparent uniformity in presentation of dichotomous keys.
Numerical Couplets Alphabetical Couplets
1. Two antenna a. Two antenna
1. More than two antenna a. More than two antenna
CONSTRUCTION OF DICHOTOMOUS KEY
1. NECESSITY OF USING A DICHOTOMOUS KEY:
organism on the basis of a characteristic which is not to be found in
other specimens.
use immutable features (i.e., Features that do not change)
individuals and across lifetimes.
res (e.g number of limbs) and biological processes
(e.g. Reproduction methods) make for better characteristics.

128. 2. RULES FOLLOWED IN CONSTRUCTING A DICHOTOMOUS
KEY
into two groups at
each stage
3. STEPS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF KEY
Step 1: Analyze your specimen
1. List the characteristics of your specimen
2. Look for principle of exclusion
3. Determine the most general characteristics
Step 2: Create the key
STEP 1:ANALYZE YOUR SPECIMEN
1. List the characteristics of your specimen:
imens you are trying to identify and

129. insert into a dichotomous key. Note characteristics that define the things
you are looking at, and start listing them out. If you are trying to create a
dichotomous key for a series of animals, you might see that some have
feathers, some swim, some walk on legs, etc.
might note that some are brown, some are black, some have stripes,
some have spots, some have long tails, some have short tails, and so on.
STEP 1:ANALYZE YOUR SPECIMEN
2. Look for principle of exclusion:
to note characteristics that can be used to differentiate the things you are
examining.
the specimens you are looking at have
feathers but others have fur, then “feathers” is a good distinguishing
characteristics. However, a trait all of the animals share is not a good
distinguishing factor. For example, since all big cats are warm-blooded,
you wouldn't want to use that trait on your dichotomous key.

130. STEP 1:ANALYZE YOUR SPECIMEN
3. Determine the most general characteristics:
differentiations, so you’ll have to order the characteristics of your
specimens from general to specific. This will help divide your specimens
ever-smaller groups. For instance:
some of the cats you are analyzing have dark fur, and some have light
fur. You may also see that all of them have short hair. Finally, you see
that some of them have long tails, but some of them have no tails at all.
You wouldn’t need to ask a question about fur length, since all of the
examples have short fur. You would follow up with a question about tail
length, since tails are not common to all of the cats, and therefore are a
less general characteristic.
STEP 2
CONSTRUCT THE KEY
DICHOTOMOUS KEY (GRAPHIC PATTERN)

131. DICHOTOMOUS KEY (WRITTEN PATTERN)

132. TYPES OF DICHOTOMOUS KEYS
by which the couplets are organized and how the user is directed to
successive choices
A. Indented keys (also called yoked)
B. Bracketed keys
A. INDENTED KEY
left margin. The two choices of the couplet are usually labelled 1 and 1′
or la and lb.

133. B. BRACKETED KEY
-by-side.
this key might be more difficult to construct, it gives more information
to the user.

134. 2. POLYCLAVE KEY
are tools used to help identify unknown objects
or species.
rams.
the species they wish to identify.
organism they wish to study.

135. they can possibly match. If a species does not have that character state it
is eliminated from the list. The more character states listed the more
species that are eliminated.
This allows the rapid elimination of large numbers of species that the
specimen cannot be.
remains.
the species or at least a short list of possible species.
name of the species you have located! Even the best keys have their
limitations, so make sure you verify your identification using multiple
tools (image verification, expert
identification, etc.).
OTHER TYPES OF TAXONOMIC KEYS

136. 1. CIRCULAR KEY
for small groups.
identification.
work your way outwards. As you go, you will choose one of the given
options at each layer.
2. SERIAL KEY
1 (4). ABDOMEN SHORTER THAN THORAX

137. 2(3). HEAD WITH TWO
HORNS ........................................................................................... A1
3(2). HEAD WITHOUT
HORNS .............................................................................................. A3
4(1). ABDOMEN LONGER THAN THORAX
5(8).THORAX WITH SPINE
6(7). THORAX WITH SINGLE
SPINE ..................................................................................... A2
7(6). THORAX WITH TWO
SPINES ....................................................................................... A5
8(5). THORAX WITHOUT SPINE
9(10). HEAD WITH YELLOW
BAND ......................................................................................A4
10(9). HEAD WITHOUT YELLOW
BAND ...............................................................................A6
3. BRANCHING KEY

138. access key where the structure of the decision tree is displayed
graphically as a branching structure, involving lines between items.
key may be dichotomous or polytomous.
4. BOX KEY
groups.
identification.

139. 5. PICTORIAL KEY
-taxonomists that can
identify the commonly occurring species with the help of characters
together with their figures in a comparative manner.
they can be used by non-technical persons, engineers as well as
entomologists.
vertebrates and flowering plants.
specimen but to say what a specimen is not. In other words, they are best
used as a process of elimination.

140. 6. COMPUTER KEYS
has been used for constructing
dichotomous or
other type of taxonomic keys and running such computer keys is far
easier than running the non-computer keys.
and photographs can be fed in the computer and by using appropriate
programs which can be designed.
unknown taxa with the characters of the known taxa using the computer.
uage for taxonomy) is a
useful system of programs for recording taxonomic descriptions for
processing by computer. The delta program key generates conventional

141. identification keys.