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Study Guide in GE 6: Science, Technology, and Society Module No. 3
STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 3
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY
MODULE OVERVIEW
This Module presents the intellectual revolutions which had a significant effect on how people view the
influence of science on society. It includes three of the most significant intellectual revolutions in the past: the
Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian revolutions. The discussion will focus on the major contribution of these
great thinkers in the context of science, technology, and society and the significant contributions to the
development of modern science. This module also encourages students to apply the great works of intellectual
thinkers in transforming society into a more conducive place to live.
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module, you should be able to:
1. identify the paradigm shifts in history; and
2. articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology.
WHAT IS AN INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION?
Intellectual revolution refers to a series of events that led to the emergence of modern science and
more current scientific thinking across critical periods in history. It reveals how society was transformed by
science and technology for it has a lot of improvements in astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, and physics.
It is also the period where paradigm shifts occurred. It is where the scientific beliefs that have been
widely embraced and accepted by the people were challenged and opposed. It is the time period when
advancements in science and technology changed people’s perceptions and beliefs.
To learn more about the characteristics of paradigm shifts, please read the following article:
Shuttleworth, M. and Wilson, L. (2008, October 24). What Is A Paradigm?. retrieved from
https://explorable.com/what-is-a-paradigm
Now that you have an idea of the characteristics of paradigm shifts, we will look at three important
intellectual revolutions. When reading about these intellectual revolutions, keep in mind the prevailing thoughts
before these revolutions occurred and how each thinker changed these prevailing thoughts.
COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
In early times, people were fascinated with the heavenly bodies. They became interested with the stars,
sun, moons, and planets. Their curiosity is focused on the components of the universe and want to know the
movement of the heavenly bodies and the effects in the world where they live.
In the 6th century, Claudius Ptolemy introduced the geocentric model which described the absolute
perception of the universe with the Earth as its center which was thought to be true by most of the people and
was widely accepted at that time.
Copernican Revolution marks the shift from the belief that the Earth was the center of the universe to the
heliocentric model of the universe where the sun is the center of the solar system, as articulated by the Polish
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century. In his heliocentric model, Copernicus repositioned the
Earth from the center of the Solar System and introduced the idea that the Earth rotates on its own axis causing
day and night. The Earth along with other heavenly bodies rotates around the sun.
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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Study Guide in GE 6: Science, Technology, and Society Module No. 3
Figure 3.1. Nicolaus Copernicus: Proponent of Heliocentrism.
Source: https://www.biography.com/
Figure 3.2. Comparison of the Geocentric and Heliocentric Theories
Source: http://www.actforlibraries.org/
The heliocentric model was hardly accepted by the people, primarily by the church accusing Copernicus
of heresy. He even faced persecution because of this. They held their stance on their beliefs and refused to
accept the heliocentric model of the universe as the truth.
The shift from geocentric to heliocentric slowly happened through the contributions of the following
intellectual persons.
• Johannes Kepler’s said that all planets move in elliptical orbits and the sun at the center
• Galileo Galilei used the telescope and observed Venus and Jupiter’s moons
• Sir Isaac Newton’s law of gravitation
Heliocentrism was eventually accepted by people and marks the birth of modern astronomy which
resulted in the transformation of society’s thoughts and beliefs. The Copernican Revolution marked a turning
point in the study of cosmology and astronomy making it a truly significant intellectual revolution.
To learn more about the details of this revolution, especially the resistance to the acceptance of
Copernicus’ ideas, please read Chapter 5 of Kuhn’s The Copernican revolution: planetary astronomy in the
development of western thought through this link: https://fpa2014.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/kuhn-thomas-s-
the-copernican-revolution.pdf.
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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Study Guide in GE 6: Science, Technology, and Society Module No. 3
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
This Darwinian Revolution started when Charles Darwin (1809-1882) (Figure 3.3) published his book
“On the Origin of Species” which emphasizes that organisms are the result of an evolution, a change in the
heritable characteristics of biological population over successive generations. He theorized that species of
organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small inherited variations that increase individual’s
ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Natural selection is often described as survival of the fittest, where
fitness refers to the ability to survive and reproduce. This theory of evolution has two main points: (1) all life on
Earth is connected and related to each other and (2) this diversity of life came about because of the
modifications in populations that were driven by natural selection. A commonly cited example of the evolutionary
process can be seen in the beaks of Galapagos finches. (Figure 3.4)
Figure 3.3. Charles Darwin: The Father of Evolution.
Source: https://www.biography.com/
Figure 3.4. Adaptation of the beak of Darwin’s Finches
Source: http://www.australasianscience.com.au/
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Study Guide in GE 6: Science, Technology, and Society Module No. 3
Just like Copernicus, Darwin’s theory of evolution also met resistance from society. Critics see the theory
of evolution to be contradictory to the church’s teachings that the source of life is a powerful creator. The theory
emerged at a time when most of the population believed and accepted the biblical version of the Earth’s creation.
This caused conflict among people. Some believed that the theory explained the origin of life, while the religious
and faithful contradicts it. This caused a debate between science and religion.
FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
According to MacNamara, et al. (2018), the field of psychology was considered more of an art rather
than a science and was classified under the area of philosophy. However, because of Sigmund Freud (Figure
3.5), the perception of society in psychology changed. In the 19th
century, Freud developed his theory of
psychoanalysis. According to Quinto, et al. (2019), psychoanalysis is “a scientific method of understanding
inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within one’s personality, springing from free associations, dreams,
and fantasies of the individual.” Among his ideas include the importance of the unconscious (Figure 3.6.), and
the concept of id, ego, and superego (Figure 3.7). Freud emphasized the understanding of the unconscious
because of its importance in human behavior.
Figure 3.5. Sigmund Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis
Source: https://www.britannica.com/
Figure 3.6. Freud compared the mind to an iceberg.
Source: www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html
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Study Guide in GE 6: Science, Technology, and Society Module No. 3
Figure 3.7. The Three Elements of Personality
Source: https://brookspsychology.wordpress.com/
Figure 3.8 The Three Elements of Personality
Source: https://sites.psu.edu/
These three revolutionizing theories are just some of the many scientific ideas that transformed and
molded societies and beliefs. The changes they brought to the perspectives and perceptions of the scientific
community and the public are evidence of science and technology’s link to humanity. Through scientific research
and experimentation, people will continue to deepen their understanding of the world and the universe.
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Study Guide in GE 6: Science, Technology, and Society Module No. 3
SUMMARY
The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:
• The Copernican Revolution refers to the paradigm shift of how the Earth and Sun were placed in the
universe. This idea rejected Ptolemaic Model or geocentric model (Earth is the center of the solar
system.) proposed by Claudius Ptolemy and proved the heliocentric model (The Sun is the center of
the Solar System having the Earth revolving around it.) proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus
• The Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin states that all species of an organism arise and develop
through the natural selection of small inherited variations that increase the individual’s ability to
compete, survive and reproduce. His work entitled “On The Origin of Species” changed how people
approach biology forever and has fundamental impacts on modern science, religion, and other aspects
of the society.
• Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is perhaps most known as the founder of
psychoanalysis which, defined as a set of psychological theories and therapeutic methods with the
belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. According to his
theory, personalities arise because of attempts to resolve conflicts between unconscious sexual and
aggressive impulses and societal demands to restrain these impulses.
REFERENCES
• Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019). Science, Technology, and Society. pp 35-46.
Quezon City: C & E Publishing.
• McNamara, DJ, Valverde VM, Beleno, R., III (2018). Science, Technology and Society., pp. 39-45.
Quezon City: C & E Publishing.
