The Michelson interferometer splits a beam of monochromatic light into two beams using a beam splitter. One beam reflects off a stationary mirror while the other reflects off a movable mirror before recombining at the beam splitter. As the movable mirror is adjusted, the interference pattern of light and dark projected changes, allowing the number of alterations between constructive and destructive interference to be counted. By tracking this change over a known distance, the wavelength of the light can be calculated.
The document discusses Michelson's interferometer. It begins by explaining interference and interference fringes. It then describes how Michelson's interferometer works by splitting light into two beams using a beam splitter, sending the beams to mirrors with one fixed and one movable, and recombining the beams to produce an interference pattern. Key applications of Michelson's interferometer include measuring the wavelength of light, measuring small wavelength separations, detecting gravitational waves, and its role in the Michelson-Morley experiment.
A detailed presentation on fraunhofer diffraction and also an introduction to the concept of diffraction.There is also a brief discussion on fresnel diffraction and the difference between former and the latter.
This document discusses the key branches and concepts of modern physics. It begins by outlining the objectives of becoming familiar with modern physics, stating the postulates of special relativity, and differentiating between inertial and non-inertial reference frames. The main branches of modern physics discussed are atomic and nuclear physics, quantum physics, relativistic physics, solid state physics, and plasma physics. Special relativity introduced ideas like time dilation, length contraction, and mass increase that defy common sense. The general theory of relativity further unified these ideas and proposed gravity is a manifestation of curved spacetime due to mass-energy and momentum.
This ppt contains the information regarding the measurement of force and various instruments that are used for the measurement of force. This a topic in the fifth unit of Metrology and instrumentation for the third mechanical in JNTUACEP.
for detailed information or video of this ppt just follow the youtube link attached below
https://youtu.be/aCMXmWc2poU
Dynamometers are used to measure the torque and power of rotating shafts. There are three main types: absorption, transmission, and driving. Absorption dynamometers dissipate power as heat, transmission dynamometers transmit power for further use after measurement, and driving dynamometers can operate motors or generators. Common absorption dynamometers include Prony brakes, rope brakes, and hydraulic dynamometers which use friction to absorb power. Transmission dynamometers like belt and epicyclic train dynamometers measure power during transmission between shafts. Driving dynamometers are useful for testing devices like pumps and compressors.
This document provides an overview of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, focusing on visual inspection. It defines visual inspection as the oldest and most basic NDT method, using only the naked eye to look for flaws. The document distinguishes between unaided visual inspection, using only the eye, and aided visual inspection, which employs optical or mechanical instruments like borescopes, microscopes, calipers and feeler gauges to enhance inspection capabilities. It provides examples of different optical and mechanical aids used to conduct aided visual inspections.
1. The document discusses various wave optics phenomena including interference, diffraction, and thin film interference.
2. Key concepts covered include the Michelson interferometer, conditions for constructive and destructive interference, single and double slit diffraction experiments, and how thin films can produce interference patterns based on their thickness.
3. Examples are provided to demonstrate how concepts like wavelength can be measured using interference patterns from double slit experiments.
The Michelson interferometer splits a beam of monochromatic light into two beams using a beam splitter. One beam reflects off a stationary mirror while the other reflects off a movable mirror before recombining at the beam splitter. As the movable mirror is adjusted, the interference pattern of light and dark projected changes, allowing the number of alterations between constructive and destructive interference to be counted. By tracking this change over a known distance, the wavelength of the light can be calculated.
The document discusses Michelson's interferometer. It begins by explaining interference and interference fringes. It then describes how Michelson's interferometer works by splitting light into two beams using a beam splitter, sending the beams to mirrors with one fixed and one movable, and recombining the beams to produce an interference pattern. Key applications of Michelson's interferometer include measuring the wavelength of light, measuring small wavelength separations, detecting gravitational waves, and its role in the Michelson-Morley experiment.
A detailed presentation on fraunhofer diffraction and also an introduction to the concept of diffraction.There is also a brief discussion on fresnel diffraction and the difference between former and the latter.
This document discusses the key branches and concepts of modern physics. It begins by outlining the objectives of becoming familiar with modern physics, stating the postulates of special relativity, and differentiating between inertial and non-inertial reference frames. The main branches of modern physics discussed are atomic and nuclear physics, quantum physics, relativistic physics, solid state physics, and plasma physics. Special relativity introduced ideas like time dilation, length contraction, and mass increase that defy common sense. The general theory of relativity further unified these ideas and proposed gravity is a manifestation of curved spacetime due to mass-energy and momentum.
This ppt contains the information regarding the measurement of force and various instruments that are used for the measurement of force. This a topic in the fifth unit of Metrology and instrumentation for the third mechanical in JNTUACEP.
for detailed information or video of this ppt just follow the youtube link attached below
https://youtu.be/aCMXmWc2poU
Dynamometers are used to measure the torque and power of rotating shafts. There are three main types: absorption, transmission, and driving. Absorption dynamometers dissipate power as heat, transmission dynamometers transmit power for further use after measurement, and driving dynamometers can operate motors or generators. Common absorption dynamometers include Prony brakes, rope brakes, and hydraulic dynamometers which use friction to absorb power. Transmission dynamometers like belt and epicyclic train dynamometers measure power during transmission between shafts. Driving dynamometers are useful for testing devices like pumps and compressors.
This document provides an overview of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, focusing on visual inspection. It defines visual inspection as the oldest and most basic NDT method, using only the naked eye to look for flaws. The document distinguishes between unaided visual inspection, using only the eye, and aided visual inspection, which employs optical or mechanical instruments like borescopes, microscopes, calipers and feeler gauges to enhance inspection capabilities. It provides examples of different optical and mechanical aids used to conduct aided visual inspections.
1. The document discusses various wave optics phenomena including interference, diffraction, and thin film interference.
2. Key concepts covered include the Michelson interferometer, conditions for constructive and destructive interference, single and double slit diffraction experiments, and how thin films can produce interference patterns based on their thickness.
3. Examples are provided to demonstrate how concepts like wavelength can be measured using interference patterns from double slit experiments.
This document provides an overview of X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). It explains that XAS involves measuring the absorption of X-rays by a material as photon energy is varied. Strong absorption peaks occur when the photon energy matches the energy needed to excite core electrons to unoccupied states. This provides information about elemental composition and chemical environment. Different XAS techniques provide varying levels of surface or bulk sensitivity. Synchrotron light sources are important for XAS as they generate tunable, high-intensity X-rays.
Mirrors and lenses reflect and refract light to form real or virtual images. Reflection off flat surfaces follows the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Concave mirrors can form real or virtual images depending on the position of the object. Convex lenses diverge light rays to form reduced virtual images, while concave lenses converge light to form real images that can be magnified or reduced. The eye focuses light using a convex lens, and conditions like nearsightedness and farsightedness occur when the eye is too long or short.
Polarized light is light where the electromagnetic vibrations occur in a single plane rather than randomly. Ordinary unpolarized light has vibrations in all planes perpendicular to propagation, while polarized light restricts vibrations to one direction after reflection or transmission through materials. Polarized light can be linearly, circularly, or elliptically polarized depending on whether the vibration direction remains fixed or rotates as the light propagates. Applications include testing sugar solutions, measuring material stresses, and reducing glare.
Laser interferometers use the precise wavelength of lasers to perform high-precision measurements of distance, angles, and other quantities. There are two main types: homodyne laser interferometers, which are based on Michelson interferometry, and heterodyne laser interferometers, which detect Doppler shifts. Key components include a laser source, beam splitters, retroreflectors, and a measurement receiver. Applications include measuring displacement, angles, flatness, straightness, and vibrations in fields like engineering and manufacturing.
History and current practice in Pinhole Photography. Physics of Pinhole Photography. Experiments with Thingify Pinhole Pro. Build a digital pinhole camera
This presentation discusses various methods of dimension measurement in industrial instrumentation. Thickness can be measured using contact gauges like inductive and capacitive types or non-contact gauges using lasers or beta radiations. Length is commonly measured using laser Doppler velocimeters. Width is often captured through stereoscopic camera systems. Diameter is typically gauged with laser transmitters and receivers that detect changes in beam intensity. Dimension measurements help ensure quality control and conformance to specifications for industrial machinery and products.
The document discusses methods for determining particle size from SEM micrographs and XRD data. It provides background on SEM, describing how it can be used to obtain particle morphology, size, and other information from micrographs. It also discusses how to measure particle size manually from micrographs and using ImageJ software. For XRD, it describes how the Scherrer equation can be used to calculate crystallite size from peak broadening in XRD patterns. Examples of SEM micrographs and XRD patterns are provided to illustrate these techniques.
Dual Nature of Light, Wave nature of light,Young's double slit experiment, Reflection, Refraction of light, Polarization, Particle Nature of Light, Photoelectric Effect of light ..
This document discusses telescopes and their components. It describes the main types of telescopes as refracting (using lenses) and reflecting (using mirrors) and compares their advantages. Bigger telescopes are generally better as they can collect more light, allowing fainter objects to be seen, and provide better resolution to see finer detail. However, viewing is impacted by turbulence in the atmosphere which causes images to twinkle. Putting telescopes at high altitudes improves viewing conditions by rising above much of the turbulent air. The document provides examples of different telescopes and their resolving powers based on aperture size.
1) Earth itself acts like a giant magnet with a north and south pole that generates a magnetic field extending 50,000 miles into space, allowing compasses to function by pointing towards Earth's magnetic north pole.
2) A compass needle is magnetic and orients itself towards the north-seeking pole of Earth's magnetic field, though it may be affected inside steel buildings or ships due to magnetic attraction between the needle and nearby steel.
3) Magnetic fields surround all magnets and are represented by magnetic lines of force showing the direction and strength of the magnetic force, with lines closest together at the poles where the force is strongest.
There are two main types of telescopes: Keplerian/astronomical telescopes and Galilean telescopes. Keplerian telescopes produce an inverted image while Galilean telescopes produce an upright image. Telescopes can be modified to compensate for refractive errors by adding lenses or changing the tube length to allow viewing of objects that are not at optical infinity.
Extensometer: Types, How It Works, ApplicationsArushi Bhalla
Geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring is a vast field that includes several monitoring instruments such as piezometers, tiltmeters, strain gauges, beam sensors, extensometers etc.
Extensometers or extension-meters are extensively used to measure the change in the length of an object. They are designed for strain measurements or to carry out tensile tests.
Since extensometers are one of the most significant monitoring instruments, let us give you a better insight into its working principle, construction, specifications, and application areas.
1) Flow measurement devices use principles like differential pressure and velocity to measure flow rate. Differential pressure devices like Venturi meters and orifice plates cause a pressure drop that is measured to calculate flow.
2) Bernoulli's equation relates pressure, velocity, and height of a fluid flowing through a pipe. It is the basis for differential pressure flow measurement. Devices like Pitot tubes and turbine meters measure velocity which relates to flow rate.
3) Vibration is oscillatory motion that can be caused by unbalanced forces, elasticity, or external excitation. It can have harmful or beneficial effects depending on the system. Measurement devices like vibrometers and accelerometers are used to characterize vibrations.
The document discusses the concept of resonance through examples such as bridges and mechanical systems. It explains that resonance occurs when an object vibrates at greater amplitudes due to another source emitting its natural frequency. Specifically, it discusses how the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed in 1940 due to wind-induced oscillations resonating with the structure of the bridge. It also summarizes the collapse of the Nimitz Freeway in 1989, which was caused by an earthquake matching the bridge's resonant frequency. The document provides background on concepts like kinetic energy, potential energy, amplitude, and frequency to explain the physics of resonance.
Focused ion beam (FIB) systems use a finely focused beam of gallium ions to image and mill samples at the micrometer and nanometer scale. FIB works similarly to scanning electron microscopy but uses ions instead of electrons. Gallium liquid metal ion sources are most common and produce beams with nanometer spot sizes. FIB allows for high resolution imaging as well as precise site-specific milling or deposition through ion beam induced deposition of materials like tungsten.
This document discusses the principles and techniques of interferometry and optical flatness testing. It begins with an introduction to interferometry, describing how it uses the principle of superposition of waves to produce interference patterns. It then discusses the interference of light waves in detail, including the conditions required and how constructive and destructive interference produce light and dark bands. The document focuses on using optical flats and interferometry to evaluate the flatness of surfaces. It describes how optical flats are used and evaluated, and how an interferometer like the NPL flatness interferometer can be used to precisely measure flatness and detect deviations in both flatness and parallelism of surfaces.
Dr. Jeff Bodycomb shares the core principle behind laser diffraction and two laser diffraction models (Fraunhofer and Mie) that are the backbone of laser diffraction theory.
Microscopic examination using Atomic force microscopy and Confocal scanning ...rasha mohamed
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very high-resolution type of scanning force microscopy, invented in 1986 by Binning, quate and Gerber.
AFMs can be operated in air, vacuum, and in liquids. Biological measurements in particular, are often carried out in vitro in biological fluids, friction and chemical functionality.
Ability of an AFM to achieve near atomic level resolution depends on three essential components:
1). Cantilever with sharp tip
2). Scanner that controls the x-y-z position
3). Feedback control and loop
Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy (SLCM)is a valuable tool for obtaining high resolution images and 3-D
reconstructions.
The document discusses the Nicol prism, which is used to manipulate polarized light. It describes how the Nicol prism was invented in 1828 and consists of a specially cut calcite crystal. Unpolarized light enters the prism and is split into two beams with perpendicular polarizations, with one beam transmitted and the other absorbed. This allows the Nicol prism to selectively filter polarized light. It finds applications in various fields such as optics, biomedicine, materials testing, and more. Future research continues to explore uses in emerging technologies.
This document provides an overview of X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). It explains that XAS involves measuring the absorption of X-rays by a material as photon energy is varied. Strong absorption peaks occur when the photon energy matches the energy needed to excite core electrons to unoccupied states. This provides information about elemental composition and chemical environment. Different XAS techniques provide varying levels of surface or bulk sensitivity. Synchrotron light sources are important for XAS as they generate tunable, high-intensity X-rays.
Mirrors and lenses reflect and refract light to form real or virtual images. Reflection off flat surfaces follows the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Concave mirrors can form real or virtual images depending on the position of the object. Convex lenses diverge light rays to form reduced virtual images, while concave lenses converge light to form real images that can be magnified or reduced. The eye focuses light using a convex lens, and conditions like nearsightedness and farsightedness occur when the eye is too long or short.
Polarized light is light where the electromagnetic vibrations occur in a single plane rather than randomly. Ordinary unpolarized light has vibrations in all planes perpendicular to propagation, while polarized light restricts vibrations to one direction after reflection or transmission through materials. Polarized light can be linearly, circularly, or elliptically polarized depending on whether the vibration direction remains fixed or rotates as the light propagates. Applications include testing sugar solutions, measuring material stresses, and reducing glare.
Laser interferometers use the precise wavelength of lasers to perform high-precision measurements of distance, angles, and other quantities. There are two main types: homodyne laser interferometers, which are based on Michelson interferometry, and heterodyne laser interferometers, which detect Doppler shifts. Key components include a laser source, beam splitters, retroreflectors, and a measurement receiver. Applications include measuring displacement, angles, flatness, straightness, and vibrations in fields like engineering and manufacturing.
History and current practice in Pinhole Photography. Physics of Pinhole Photography. Experiments with Thingify Pinhole Pro. Build a digital pinhole camera
This presentation discusses various methods of dimension measurement in industrial instrumentation. Thickness can be measured using contact gauges like inductive and capacitive types or non-contact gauges using lasers or beta radiations. Length is commonly measured using laser Doppler velocimeters. Width is often captured through stereoscopic camera systems. Diameter is typically gauged with laser transmitters and receivers that detect changes in beam intensity. Dimension measurements help ensure quality control and conformance to specifications for industrial machinery and products.
The document discusses methods for determining particle size from SEM micrographs and XRD data. It provides background on SEM, describing how it can be used to obtain particle morphology, size, and other information from micrographs. It also discusses how to measure particle size manually from micrographs and using ImageJ software. For XRD, it describes how the Scherrer equation can be used to calculate crystallite size from peak broadening in XRD patterns. Examples of SEM micrographs and XRD patterns are provided to illustrate these techniques.
Dual Nature of Light, Wave nature of light,Young's double slit experiment, Reflection, Refraction of light, Polarization, Particle Nature of Light, Photoelectric Effect of light ..
This document discusses telescopes and their components. It describes the main types of telescopes as refracting (using lenses) and reflecting (using mirrors) and compares their advantages. Bigger telescopes are generally better as they can collect more light, allowing fainter objects to be seen, and provide better resolution to see finer detail. However, viewing is impacted by turbulence in the atmosphere which causes images to twinkle. Putting telescopes at high altitudes improves viewing conditions by rising above much of the turbulent air. The document provides examples of different telescopes and their resolving powers based on aperture size.
1) Earth itself acts like a giant magnet with a north and south pole that generates a magnetic field extending 50,000 miles into space, allowing compasses to function by pointing towards Earth's magnetic north pole.
2) A compass needle is magnetic and orients itself towards the north-seeking pole of Earth's magnetic field, though it may be affected inside steel buildings or ships due to magnetic attraction between the needle and nearby steel.
3) Magnetic fields surround all magnets and are represented by magnetic lines of force showing the direction and strength of the magnetic force, with lines closest together at the poles where the force is strongest.
There are two main types of telescopes: Keplerian/astronomical telescopes and Galilean telescopes. Keplerian telescopes produce an inverted image while Galilean telescopes produce an upright image. Telescopes can be modified to compensate for refractive errors by adding lenses or changing the tube length to allow viewing of objects that are not at optical infinity.
Extensometer: Types, How It Works, ApplicationsArushi Bhalla
Geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring is a vast field that includes several monitoring instruments such as piezometers, tiltmeters, strain gauges, beam sensors, extensometers etc.
Extensometers or extension-meters are extensively used to measure the change in the length of an object. They are designed for strain measurements or to carry out tensile tests.
Since extensometers are one of the most significant monitoring instruments, let us give you a better insight into its working principle, construction, specifications, and application areas.
1) Flow measurement devices use principles like differential pressure and velocity to measure flow rate. Differential pressure devices like Venturi meters and orifice plates cause a pressure drop that is measured to calculate flow.
2) Bernoulli's equation relates pressure, velocity, and height of a fluid flowing through a pipe. It is the basis for differential pressure flow measurement. Devices like Pitot tubes and turbine meters measure velocity which relates to flow rate.
3) Vibration is oscillatory motion that can be caused by unbalanced forces, elasticity, or external excitation. It can have harmful or beneficial effects depending on the system. Measurement devices like vibrometers and accelerometers are used to characterize vibrations.
The document discusses the concept of resonance through examples such as bridges and mechanical systems. It explains that resonance occurs when an object vibrates at greater amplitudes due to another source emitting its natural frequency. Specifically, it discusses how the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed in 1940 due to wind-induced oscillations resonating with the structure of the bridge. It also summarizes the collapse of the Nimitz Freeway in 1989, which was caused by an earthquake matching the bridge's resonant frequency. The document provides background on concepts like kinetic energy, potential energy, amplitude, and frequency to explain the physics of resonance.
Focused ion beam (FIB) systems use a finely focused beam of gallium ions to image and mill samples at the micrometer and nanometer scale. FIB works similarly to scanning electron microscopy but uses ions instead of electrons. Gallium liquid metal ion sources are most common and produce beams with nanometer spot sizes. FIB allows for high resolution imaging as well as precise site-specific milling or deposition through ion beam induced deposition of materials like tungsten.
This document discusses the principles and techniques of interferometry and optical flatness testing. It begins with an introduction to interferometry, describing how it uses the principle of superposition of waves to produce interference patterns. It then discusses the interference of light waves in detail, including the conditions required and how constructive and destructive interference produce light and dark bands. The document focuses on using optical flats and interferometry to evaluate the flatness of surfaces. It describes how optical flats are used and evaluated, and how an interferometer like the NPL flatness interferometer can be used to precisely measure flatness and detect deviations in both flatness and parallelism of surfaces.
Dr. Jeff Bodycomb shares the core principle behind laser diffraction and two laser diffraction models (Fraunhofer and Mie) that are the backbone of laser diffraction theory.
Microscopic examination using Atomic force microscopy and Confocal scanning ...rasha mohamed
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very high-resolution type of scanning force microscopy, invented in 1986 by Binning, quate and Gerber.
AFMs can be operated in air, vacuum, and in liquids. Biological measurements in particular, are often carried out in vitro in biological fluids, friction and chemical functionality.
Ability of an AFM to achieve near atomic level resolution depends on three essential components:
1). Cantilever with sharp tip
2). Scanner that controls the x-y-z position
3). Feedback control and loop
Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy (SLCM)is a valuable tool for obtaining high resolution images and 3-D
reconstructions.
The document discusses the Nicol prism, which is used to manipulate polarized light. It describes how the Nicol prism was invented in 1828 and consists of a specially cut calcite crystal. Unpolarized light enters the prism and is split into two beams with perpendicular polarizations, with one beam transmitted and the other absorbed. This allows the Nicol prism to selectively filter polarized light. It finds applications in various fields such as optics, biomedicine, materials testing, and more. Future research continues to explore uses in emerging technologies.