Special literary forms prophecy, poetry...

SPECIAL LITERARY FORMS
PROPHECY, APOCALYPTIC
LITERATURE, AND TYPES

SPECIAL LITERARY FORMS PROPHECY, APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, AND TYPES
• Prophecy
• The interpretation of prophecy is a highly complex subject, not so much
because of disagreement regarding proper interpretive principles but
because of differences of opinion over how to apply those principles.
• In Scripture “a prophet is a spokesman for God who declares God’s will to
the people.”
• Within the Old Testament are several categories of prophets.
• The Former Prophets function within the historical writings of Joshua,
Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings and include such
figures as Elijah and Elisha.
• The remaining prophets for whom respective biblical writings are named
are called Latter Prophets and are additionally split into two categories:
major and minor. The terms major and minor do not evaluate the
importance of the various prophets but rather indicate the relative length
of the prophetic writing.

• Prophets as Foretellers
• Old Testament prophets predicted various judgments and blessings,
and their predictions concerned events in the future.
• Example: Jeremiah spoke God’s message of destruction to Jerusalem
(Jer. 6), the city was still standing.
• Predictive prophecy can serve a number of important functions.
• It can bring glory to God by testifying to his wisdom and sovereignty
over the future.
• It can grant assurance and comfort to oppressed believers.
• It can motivate its hearers to stronger faith and deeper holiness (John
14:29; 2 Peter 3:11).

• The fulfillment of predictive prophecies involves three different time
frames
• prophet’s near future. Most often the prophetic word was fulfilled
within the nation of Israel. But from our perspective, many of these
predicted events are now past events. The prophetic fulfillment has
already occurred. Jeremiah’s prophecy of the fall of Jerusalem was
fulfilled at the hands of the Babylonian army in 586 BC. For today’s
interpreters, then, much of the interaction with prophetic texts
involves looking backward rather than forward to identify the
prophetic fulfillment.
• The second time period of prophetic fulfillment is the messianic
period.
• Finally, other prophecy is eschatological and will be fulfilled in the end
times.

• Prophets as Forthtellers
• Although today we typically use the word prophecy to speak of
foretelling future events, this is only one aspect of biblical prophecy.
In Scripture foretelling was usually in the service of forthtelling. The
pattern frequently was “in light of what the Lord is going to do
[foretelling], we should be living godly lives [forthtelling].”

Issues in the Interpretation of Prophecy
The majority of evangelical scholars concur that the interpretation of
prophecy starts with the procedures we have labeled as historical-cultural,
contextual, lexical-syntactical, and theological analyses.
Hermeneutical principles: Lexical-syntactical analysis would proceed as with
other genres, with the recognition that prophecy tends to use words more
frequently in symbolic, figurative, and analogical senses than do other
genres. Theological analysis would ascertain how the prophecies fit into
other parallel information in Scripture.
Deeper sense: Is there an additional, deeper meaning in a prophetic text, a
meaning intended by God but not necessarily by the human author? Some
scholars say “yes”. Some say “no” and some say “may be but not to the
fullest”. Example: Did Isaiah understand the prophecy of virgin birth.

• Literal versus symbolic interpretation: how much of prophecy is to be
interpreted literally and how much symbolically or analogically. Are
Babylon, beast literal or symbolic.
• The differences between literalists and symbolists are relative rather than
absolute, involving questions of how much and which parts of prophecy
should be interpreted symbolically rather than literally.
• In certain parts of prophecy some interpreters prefer an analogical
approach, a sort of via media between the strictly literal and the strictly
symbolic. In this approach, statements are interpreted literally but then
translated into their modern-day equivalents.

• G. B. Caird suggests six indicators to help identify when an author does not
intend his words to be taken literally:
• (1) the author makes an explicit statement to that end
• (2) a literal interpretation is impossible
• (3) a low degree of correspondence exists
• (4) the imagery is highly developed,
• (5) the author piles up multiple images
• (6) the author uses original imagery
• The context and the historical uses of the words are the best general guides
in making decisions concerning their use within a specific passage.

• Universality: whether a symbol means the same thing each time it is used.
Some earlier writers tended to ascribe universal symbolic significance to
certain numbers, colors, or items; for example, oil was always a symbol of
the Holy Spirit, leaven always a symbol of evil. Probably the majority of
contemporary evangelical scholars reject the notion of universal symbols
but do accept the idea that there is a regularity in the symbolism of some
biblical authors.
• Conditionality: A fifth issue is how to distinguish between conditional and
unconditional prophecy. Conditional prophecy presents a scenario that
may or may not ensue depending on the response of the people, while
unconditional prophecy looks only to the faithful character of God as the
basis for its realization.

• Single versus multiple meaning: prophetic passages have single or
multiple meanings. Advocates of the multiple-meaning position use a
variety of terms to describe their position, such as “double meaning,”
“double reference,” “manifold fulfillment,” or “multiple sense.”

In place of the concept of multiple meanings, Payne substitutes the concepts of
prophetic telescoping, progressive prediction, and developmental fulfillment
• Prophetic statements occasionally telescope all three time periods. Prophetic
telescoping is best described with a comparison to the perception of a mountain
range. When one views a mountain range from a distance, the peaks appear to
be quite near to one another. However, on closer examination it becomes
evident that wide valleys and many miles separate the individual peaks. When
the prophets looked toward the future, they also saw things that appeared to
them to be side by side, yet as the time of fulfillment approaches, significant
gaps become visible. Thus “biblical prophecy may leap from one prominent peak
to another, without notice of the valley between, which may involve no
inconsiderable lapse in chronology.” The telescoping that sometimes occurred
when prophets blended the first and second advents of Christ is an example of
this phenomenon.

• Progressive prediction refers to the fact that although each prophetic
passage has a single intended fulfillment, often a series of passages
exhibit a pattern of chronological progress in the prophetic enactment.
Thus passage A may tell us about certain events, passage B about the
events immediately following them, and passage C about the
culminating events of the series. The combination of these various
passages forms a whole that can be identified as progressive prediction.

• A third concept of prophetic meaning, developmental fulfillment, refers
to the realization of a generalized, comprehensive prophecy in several
progressive stages. This is also referred to as sequentially fulfilled
prophecy. An example is the Genesis 3:15 prophecy, which speaks in
general terms of the bruising of Satan’s head. The progressive stages in
the fulfillment of this prophecy begin with Christ’s death, resurrection,
and ascension (John 12:31–32; Rev. 12:5, 10), continue in the church
(Rom. 16:20), and end with Satan’s imprisonment in the abyss (Rev.
20:3) and the lake of fire (Rev. 20:10).

• Apocalyptic Literature
• a word derived from the Greek apokalypsis (found in Rev. 1:1), which
means “uncovering” or “revelation.” Apocalyptic literature’s primary focus
is the revelation of what has been hidden, particularly with regard to the
end times.

• . Leon Morris identifies some of these features:
1. The writer tends to choose a great man of the past (e.g., Enoch or Moses) and
make him the hero of the book.
2. This hero often takes a journey, accompanied by a celestial guide who shows
him interesting sights and comments on them.
3. Information is often communicated through visions.
4. The visions often make use of strange, even enigmatic symbolism.
5. The visions are often pessimistic with regard to the possibility that human
intervention will ameliorate the present situation.
6. The vision usually ends with God’s bringing the present state of affairs to a
cataclysmic end and establishing a better situation.
7. The apocalyptic writer often uses a pseudonym, claiming to write in the name of
his chosen hero.
8. The writer often takes past history and rewrites it as if it were prophecy.
9. The focus of apocalyptic is on comforting and sustaining the “righteous
remnant.”

• George Ladd sees the development of apocalyptic as the result of three
main factors.
• The first is “the emergence of a ‘Righteous Remnant,’ ” a minority group,
usually without substantial political power, who view themselves as
remaining faithful to God while surrounded by those who are not.
• A second is “the problem of evil.” As early as the book of Job, the concept
that God rewards the just and punishes evildoers had been recorded. How
then could the righteous remnant reconcile the fact that they were
oppressed by those much more wicked than themselves?
• Third, “the cessation of prophecy” (recorded in the non-canonical 2 Baruch
85:3) created a spiritual vacuum: the righteous remnant longed for a word
from God, but none was forthcoming. The apocalyptists attempted to bring
a word of comfort and reassurance from God to the people of their day.

• Similarities between prophetic (foretelling) and apocalyptic literature:
a. Both are concerned with the future.
b. Both frequently employ figurative and symbolic language.
c. Both emphasize the unseen world lying behind the action of the visible
world.
d. Both emphasize the future redemption of the faithful believer.

• There are a number of differences as well, including the following:
1. The initial presentation of prophecy was usually in spoken form and was written at a
later time. The initial presentation of apocalyptic literature was usually in writing.
2. Prophetic utterances most often are separate, brief oracles. Apocalyptic literature is
often longer, more continuous; cycles of material may be repeated a second or third
time in parallel form.
3. Apocalyptic literature tends to contain more symbolism, especially of animals and
other living forms.
4. Apocalyptic literature places a greater stress on dualism (angels and the Messiah
versus Satan and the antichrist) than does prophecy.
5. Apocalyptic literature primarily comforts and encourages the righteous remnant.
Prophecy often castigates the nominally religious.
6. Apocalyptic literature is generally pessimistic about the effectiveness of human
intervention in changing the present. Prophecy focuses on the importance of human
change.
7. Apocalyptic literature was usually written pseudonymously. Prophecy was usually
written or spoken in the name of its author.

• These distinctions are matters of degree and emphasis rather than
absolute differences. Exceptions can be cited to each of them;
however, most conservative Bible scholars would agree with the
distinctions
• Apocalyptic sections do occur within the canonical books, most
notably in Daniel (chaps. 7–12) and in Revelation. There are also
apocalyptic passages in Joel, Amos, and Zechariah. In the New
Testament, Jesus’ Olivet Discourse (Matt. 24–25 and parallels)
contains apocalyptic elements.

• variety of positions theologians hold with regard to the end times.
• Premillennialism is the theory that Christ will return before the millennium (pre-
millennium). He will descend to earth and set up a literal one-thousand-year earthly
kingdom with its headquarters in Jerusalem.
• Postmillennialism is the view that through evangelism, the world eventually will be
reached for Christ. There will be a period in which the world will experience joy and
peace because of its obedience to God. Christ will return to earth at the end of the
millennium (post-millennium).This view lost popularity during the first half of the
twentieth century.
• Amillennialism is conceptually a form of postmillennialism. The millennium in this
theory is symbolic and refers to the time between Christ’s first and second coming,
not to a literal one-thousand-year period. During this time Christ rules symbolically in
human hearts. Christ’s second coming will mark the end of the period. Some
amillennialists believe that Christ will never have an earthly rule, even symbolically.
For them the millennium refers to Christ’s celestial rule in eternity.
• the majority of evangelical Christians today identify themselves as either
premillennialists or amillennialists.

• The English word type is related Greek word typos.
• The basic ideas expressed by typos and its synonyms are the concepts
of resemblance, likeness, and similarity.
• David Baker provides a solid general definition identifying a type as “a
biblical event, person or institution which serves as an example or
pattern for other events, persons or institutions.” A typological
relationship exists between an initial event that through divine
inspiration foreshadows a corresponding event occurring at a later
time in salvation history.

• Example: John 3:14–15, where Jesus says, “Just as Moses lifted up the
snake in the desert, so the Son of Man must be lifted up, that everyone
who believes in him may have eternal life.” Jesus points out two
corresponding resemblances: (1) the lifting up of the serpent and of
himself, and (2) life for those who respond to the object lifted up.

• Typology is based on the assumption that there is a pattern in God’s
work throughout salvation history. God prefigured his redemptive work
in the Old Testament and fulfilled it in the New; in the Old Testament are
shadows of things to be more fully revealed in the New. The ceremonial
laws of the Old Testament, for example, demonstrated to Old Testament
believers the necessity of atonement for their sins; these ceremonies
pointed forward to the perfect atonement to be made in Christ. The
prefigurement is called the type; the corresponding figure is called the
antitype.

• Types are similar to symbols and can even be considered a special kind of
symbol. However, there are two differentiating characteristics.
• First, symbols serve as signs of something they represent without
necessarily being similar in any respect, whereas types resemble in one or
more ways the things they prefigure. For example, bread and wine are
symbols of Christ’s body and blood; the seven golden lampstands (Rev.
1:20) are symbols of the churches in Asia.
• Second, types point forward in time, whereas symbols may not. A type
always historically precedes its antitype, whereas a symbol may precede,
exist concurrently with, or come after the thing it symbolizes.
• Typology is also to be distinguished from allegorism

• Characteristics of a Type
• Three primary characteristics of types can be identified.
• First, “there must be some notable point of resemblance or analogy”
between the type and its antitype. Adam and Christ
• Second, “there must be evidence that the type was appointed by God to
represent the thing typified.” There is some disagreement among
scholars regarding how explicit God’s declaration must be.
• Third, a type “must prefigure something in the future.” Antitypes in the
New Testament present truth more fully realized than in the Old
Testament.
• Jesus used persons in the Old Testament as types of himself (David,
Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Isaiah, Jonah) or of John the Baptist (Elijah); he
refers to Old Testament institutions as types of himself and his work (the
priesthood and the covenant);

• In summary, then, for a figure to be a type there must be
(1) a notable resemblance or analogy between the type and its
antitype,
(2) evidence that the type was appointed by God to represent the
thing typified, and
(3) a future corresponding antitype.

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