problems of eduction

1. Introduction to the Problems of
Philosophy of Education
Session 1 – September 30, 2022

2. Introduction
• This provides a basic
introduction to the
philosophy of education. A
first step is to define
philosophy and what
philosophers of education do.
There are no simple,
uncontroversial answers to
likely questions here.
• Philosophers debate what
philosophy is and what kind
of inquiries philosophers
pursue, and there is little
consensus about what
philosophers do or should do.
This is also true of
philosophers of education,
who have diverse opinions
about their job. So, we
proceed with caution.

3. Introduction
• This lesson presents a particular view of
the nature and role of educational
philosophy, so its conclusions won't be
accepted by everyone in the field. Despite
this reservation, it is hoped that there will
be enough substance to allow an educator
– new comer or not, to the subject to
follow and participate in the ongoing
debate about its scope and role in
educational thinking. This session
examines the relationship between
general philosophy, education philosophy,
and educational theory.

4. Philosophy
and
Philosophy of
Education
• Partially, the philosophy of education is related to general
philosophy by its goals, but more directly by its methods.
To explain this, we must examine the enterprise-like nature
of philosophy. In the past, it was believed that the role of
the philosopher was to provide a comprehensive and
rational account of the nature of reality and man's place in
the grand scheme of things, as well as to address issues
such as God's existence, the immortality of the soul, and
the purpose of the universe.
• This type of philosophy is known as metaphysics, and from
Plato's time until relatively recently, metaphysics in one
form or another has been the primary focus of traditional
philosophy. Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Spinoza, and Hegel,
for instance, were preoccupied to a large extent with
providing an argumentatively supported overall picture of
reality. However, the problem with this type of philosophy
was that each philosopher gave a different account, and no
single account was deemed to be generally satisfactory.

5. Philosophy and
Philosophy of
Education
• After more than 2,000 years of metaphysical
speculation, questions about the true nature
of reality, the existence of God, the nature
of man and his soul, and the purpose of the
universe are still asked and still require an
answer that is generally accepted. This
persistence of philosophical problems has
been viewed as a stark contrast to the
history of scientific problems.

6. Contrast of
science
• Unlike scientists, philosophers rarely solve
their problems. Plato's metaphysical
questions remained unanswered. In the first
third of the century, a belief grew that the
whole project was flawed. Scientists solved
their problems because they had real
problems and effective methods.
Metaphysical questions puzzled
philosophers, but they weren't problems.
They were language-related pseudo-
problems. This led to a radical rethinking of
philosophy's role and methods.

7. Contrast of
science
•Two examples may help illustrate
the revolution in philosophy started
by G.E.Moore, Ludwig
Wittgenstein, and their disciples.
Metaphysicians like Descartes
believed that since 'body' was the
name of a material entity, 'mind'
must be the name of a nonmaterial
substance. How does a non-
material substance affect a
material one, and vice versa?

8. A language misuse
• Given the initial assumption, the supposed interaction was a great mystery.
The new approach to philosophy, which saw philosophical problems as
language misuse, made it seem possible to account for and eliminate
'mind-body' problems.
• Gilbert Ryle argued that if we abandon the assumption that a word must
refer to something substantial to be meaningful, the mind-body problem
becomes solvable. Ryle argued that 'mind' isn't a non-material entity. Mind
is not a substantial entity, so how mind interacts with body is not a
problem. Ryle said talking about the mind is talking about behavior.

9. A language
misuse
• "Mind" is not a thing or substance, but a
complex set of bodily functions. If accepted,
the mind-body problem disappears. Mind is a
body function; it doesn't interact with it.
Thus, the interaction problem is dissolved,
not solved. Again, metaphysicians struggled
to explain the universe's 'purpose.’
• How could one decide the universe's
purpose, if it does? Metaphysicians' answers
to this question were unsatisfactory because
they begged important questions, like God's
existence. No way we could tell if answers
were true or false.

10. “Dissolving
philosophical
self-inflicted
problems”
• Faced with such problems, philosophers tried to
dissolve them. One way to do this was to point out
that while it is appropriate to ask the purpose of
tools, gadgets, and the like, it doesn't make sense to
ask the same question of the universe itself. The
universe is, by definition, "all there is," so what
external purpose could it serve?
• The universe is complete. The question of what other
end it serves is a pseudo-problem arising from the
erroneous assumption that it makes sense to ask
about the whole what should be asked of the parts.
Once understood, the problem disappears.

11. “Dissolving
philosophical
self-inflicted
problems”
• This type of philosophizing aimed to rid the mind
of unnecessary and self-inflicted problems. These
examples don't provide perfect solutions to the
problems mentioned. They show how philosophy
has shifted from focusing on what exists or has a
purpose to examining how problems are stated.
Philosophy, it was said, is strictly a 'higher-order'
activity dealing with linguistic and conceptual
issues, the 'concept of mind' or the 'concept of
purpose,' rather than minds or purposes as such,
and dealing with problems that arise wholly or
largely from linguistic or conceptual confusions.
Philosophy became the analysis and clarification
of other concepts.

12. Some
critical
issues on
philosophy
Philosophy has no unique subject, it was said. It is a
general mode of enquiry about the concepts and theories
presupposed in other disciplines, such as science,
mathematics, history, law, or religion, and its arguments
and justifications. It aims to clarify concepts, test theory
coherence, and solve problems caused by linguistic
ambiguities.
This view of philosophy in general will not be discussed.
We will argue that philosophy is parasitic on theory and
that education philosophy is a higher-order activity whose
host is education theory and practice. However, while
some contemporary philosophy and much philosophy over
the past thirty years has focused on identifying and
dissolving pseudo-problems, philosophy of education has
not made or needed to make much progress in this area.

13. Education’s problems
• Education's problems aren't conceptual confusion, but
practice-based issues that need to be solved, not dissolved.
Metaphysical confusions don't concern education
philosophers. They engage in a higher-order activity, but
they focus on conceptual clarity to justify educational
theory and practice. Concerns about clarity and justification
lead them to examine educational theories.
• This is why it was said that education philosophy's methods
are more connected to general philosophy than its
therapeutic purposes. Education philosophy focuses on
theory and practice language. We will now examine these
areas' nature and relationship.

14. Nature of educational theory
• Philosophers of education examine what practitioners and
theorists say about education. We can view education as a
series of logical levels, where each level builds on the one
below it. At the lowest level, teachers teach, instruct,
motivate, advise, and correct students' work. Teachers at this
level use a specialized language and conceptual apparatus to
discuss their work. They'll talk about 'teaching,' 'learning,'
'knowledge,' 'experience'...an indefinite number of topics and
concepts. This is basic stuff.
• Without educational activities and discussion, higher-order
activities would have no topic. Educational theorizing, the first
higher-order concern, arises from these basic ground-floor
activities. Educational theorizing results in educational theory.

15. Examining the complex relationship
between practice and theory

16. Pedagogical
theories
• These limited theories may be called pedagogical
theories. Other theories of this type are broader and
more complex, such as the theory that education should
develop a student's innate potentialities or prepare him
for work, citizenship, or democracy. General theories of
education prescribe the production of a certain type of
person and, often, a certain type of society. These
educational theories are often found in philosophers'
writings.
• In The Republic, Plato gives a general theory of education
to recommend a certain type of man as the ruler of a
particular society. In Emile, Rousseau discusses education.
Frobel's The Education of Man, James Mill's "Essay on
Education," and Dewey's Democracy and Education offer
others. In each case, the theory prescribes a political,
social, or religious way of life to educators.

17. Propaganda
essays and
general
education
theories
• Propaganda essays often include general education theories.
These general, prescriptive theories have two flaws.
• First, they're not social sciences, unlike education theories.
They're not descriptions of what happens, but
recommendations for what should be done. As such, they
involve a deliberate commitment by the theorist, an assumption
of a desired end. The theory's recommendations presuppose
the value of a 'educated man' This value commitment means
these theories can't be verified or validated like descriptive,
scientific theories. Whereas a scientist is committed only to the
formal assumption that the truth is worth having, an
educational theorist is committed to the conviction that a
certain state of affairs is desirable, that a certain type of
individual should exist. The validation of a prescriptive theory
requires a more complex and piecemeal approach, involving
both empirical evidence and a justification of a substantial value
judgement.

18. Flaws of
prescriptive
theories, 2
• Second, such general theories are sometimes
called "philosophies of education," such as
Plato's, Froeber's, or Dewey's. This book says
calling them that is misleading. Not everything
philosophers write is philosophy, and these
practical education theories are not
philosophical. Philosophers' education theories.
They may be closely related to educational
philosophy, but they are not equivalent or
identical. What's the link?

19. Educational Theory and Educational
Practice

20. Educational
Theory and
Educational
Practice, 2
• Teachers do educational groundwork
professionally. They set tasks for students,
motivate them, help them, control their
performances, and improve their
understanding and skills. All this requires
practical theories.
• A practical theory involves a commitment to
some end thought worth accomplishing, and
everything a teacher does involves such a
commitment, along with a recognition that
certain measures are necessary to achieve
that end.

21. Educational
Theory and
Educational
Practice, 3
• Even everyday classroom activities like asking
children to be quiet, open their books, and
write in them are based on theories. If you
want students to hear you, keep them quiet;
if you want them to write, give them writing
materials. If the teacher allows children to
work in groups, it's because he has a theory
about how to achieve his educational goals. If
he organizes their work based on individual
discovery, he also has a theory.

22. Educational theory before educational practice
• Educational theory comes before educational practice. Unless something is done
according to a theory, with a desired end and means in mind, it's not practice, just
random behavior. What applies to daily classroom matters applies to a teacher's work
ethic. If he gives the children a lot of freedom, he's following a libertarian theory; if
he's didactic and authoritarian, he's following a theory about how to achieve the
desired educational end. If he teaches to produce well-integrated personalities,
democratic citizens, dedicated communists, or dedicated Christians, he's acting on a
theory.
• It's important to emphasize that theory comes before practice, since many believe the
opposite. Theoretical treatises codify either theories that have been implemented or
those that should be. Practice may modify or refine theories, but practice never comes
first. This applies to education in general. A theory underlies all educational practice.
Now, what can be done can be discussed.

23. What should be done?
• In addition to classroom practices, there is discussion about what should
be done. Insofar as it is serious, educational discourse will describe what
is being done, what is being taught and how, and what results are being
obtained. It will also make recommendations about what should be
done and argue for these recommendations.
• Informal educational theory will dominate educational discourse. In the
classroom or staffroom, theories are often implied rather than explicit
and are only made explicit when challenged. Theory may be more
detailed, structured, and explicit at conferences. When the discourse is
formalized in books, the theories will be most explicit, with convincing
rationales.

24. Prescriptive educational theory
• The same conceptual apparatus will be used practically
and theoretically. Teachers discussing their work and
educational theorists making practice recommendations
will use terms like 'education,' 'teaching,' 'knowledge,'
'the curriculum,' 'authority,' 'equal opportunity,' and
'punishment' When there is explicit theorizing about
education, there will be argument and justification, since
prescriptive educational theory is never just assertion.
Theoretical recommendations may be appropriate,
relevant, or adequate.

25. Philosophy of Education
• The educational philosopher studies this discourse. He will have two concerns.
The conceptual apparatus will interest him. He'll want to examine major
concepts used by teachers and theorists to see what this language means.
What is "education"? Teaching? When can someone be said to 'know'
something? What criteria must be met before a teacher's actions are
considered "punishing"? What does 'equal opportunities' mean? In education,
what is "freedom"?
• These questions and their answers involve philosophical analysis to determine
the correct use of these terms. This activity of analysis is important as a
prelude to the philosopher's second interest, educational theory. Educational
discourse is largely based on educational theory, which must be evaluated for
validity.

26. Acceptability of educational theory
• The philosopher is concerned with the acceptability of educational theory, and
any inquiry into a theory's credentials requires that its terms be as clear as
possible. Examining begins with conceptual analysis. The theory's internal
coherence, conformity with human nature, moral convictions, and
practicability are then examined. The philosopher will ask what a general
theory of education recommends. Does it suffice?
• This can be done in several ways. One way is to take a historical approach,
starting with Plato, Rousseau, Mill, Froebel, and Spencer, and ending with
Dewey. This would require examining the various assumptions made in each
case, such as what constituted an educated man, human nature, and the
nature of knowledge and methods, and testing each assumption and the
argument as a whole to see how rationally it could be maintained.

27. Educational theory and major emerging topics
• This course will also examine educational theory in terms of major emerging topics.
Educators have taken a wide range of positions on educational practice in the past and
today. These views range from conventional, unreflective comments on schooling to
detailed descriptions of education's roles and functions.
• They have asked, "What is education?" Its purpose? Why teach? Why aren't all subjects
taught? How to teach? How should they be regulated? How should education be
distributed?
• They answer questions about the curriculum, valuable knowledge, teaching methods,
and social issues like equality, freedom, authority, and democracy in education. These
answers are implicit or explicit in educational theories. These questions and their
answers have interested not only Plato and Rousseau, but also many educators.

28. Practice is theory-loaded
• The questions and answers are important because they will
determine what is done in practice, which will have far-reaching
social and other consequences. Philosophy of education, which
examines the theories behind such positions, can critically
examine these views and answers. The main idea of this course is
that “Practice is theory-loaded”.
• If this is true, a review is necessary. Inadequate theory leads to
poor practice, which leads to poor education. Philosophy of
education has a social function beyond its intrinsic interest.

29. Closing the
introduction
• This course's introduction described philosophy
as a higher-order activity that rids the mind of
conceptual or linguistic confusions. This article
does not defend or suggest that this is the only
way to understand philosophy. As mentioned
earlier, it's not clear that this view explains
everything a philosopher of education tries to
do, since most of his problems aren't linguistic
confusion but rather justification issues.
• The sketch showed an analogous shift in
'educational philosophy' In the past, this
category included comprehensive theories of
education that tried to treat education like
metaphysicians treat reality. These historical
general theories had many merits and are still
worth studying, but they also had flaws, which
will be discussed in the next chapter.

30. Closing the
introduction,
2
• They were often based on assumptions that weren't
generally accepted, were often unargued, and rarely
based on systematic research. This type of
educational philosophy has been largely replaced by
a view that distinguishes between educational theory
and philosophy of education and holds the
philosopher's task to be analysis and criticism.
• Thus understood, education philosophy lacks the
glamour of large-scale educational recommendations
and metaphysical confusions. Education philosophers
rarely solve educational problems. The patient
examination of educational discourse's conceptual
apparatus and the painstaking inquiry into past and
present educational theorizing make up for what
they lack in intellectual excitement. We have here
two points.

31. Closing the
introduction,3
• FIRST POINT. The distinction between educational
theorizing and philosophy of education is not as
clear-cut as the account suggests. Sometimes it's a
matter of emphasis whether a writer is offering a
theory or engaging in philosophy. Philosophers need
not offer their own educational theories, but they
may, either explicitly, as Plato does, or implicitly by
approving or disapproving of an existing theory.
• A philosopher who argues for a particular curriculum
has an educational theory. A philosopher who
criticizes or rejects the theory implicitly supports a
rival theory. The line between philosophical criticism
and affirmation is fine. Despite this blurring, theory
is a body of overt recommendations for practice, and
philosophy is the critical examination of such
theories.

32. Closing the
introduction,
4
• SECOND POINT, while this course is about education
philosophy, it won't just describe what philosophers do.
The best way to introduce philosophy is to do some, so
the following chapters will include some elementary
philosophizing. The distinction between descriptive and
prescriptive theories, involving a substantial commitment
to some end, is part of an analysis of what constitutes a
theory, a concept analysis. Contrary to popular belief,
theory is logically prior to practice. This conclusion arises
from an analysis of what counts as a practice.

34. General Theory of Education
• A comprehensive theory aims to produce a certain type of person, an educated man,
whereas a limited theory focuses on specific educational issues, such as how to teach a
subject or how to handle children of a certain age and ability.
• Plato, in The Republic, offers a number of limited theories of education, how to give
children a sense of nature's orderliness and regularity, how to deal with poets and poetry
in education, how to make sure future soldiers are healthy and strong, etc., but he does
so within a general theory that aims to produce a certain type of individual, one capable
of ruling the state. Rousseau's Emile contains many useful limited theories about sense
training, physical training, self-reliance, and social awareness, but he offers these
theories within a general theory designed to give an education 'according to nature' and
to produce a 'natural man'.

35. General Theory of
Education, 2
• A general theory of education will include specific, limited theories as part
of its practice recommendations. All such theories, however, are limited or
based on presuppositions. A general education theory will have general
presuppositions.
• One will be a commitment to value, in this case a general notion of an
educated man. Assumptions will be made about the raw material to be
worked on, the nature of students, and the effectiveness of various
pedagogical methods. These assumptions will form the basis of an
argument whose conclusion will be practical education recommendations.
• Here are concepts like 'education' and the 'educated man,' assumptions
about ends to be achieved, about what counts as an educated man,
assumptions about the nature of knowledge and methods, and an
argument to support practical recommendations. These are the
philosophical hotspots in this field.

36. Educational Aims
• A general theory of education's most important assumption is its goal. This
commitment to value is a logical requirement for any theory. All limited or
general practical theories must begin with a desired end. Formally, education
has one goal: to produce an educated man. How do you give this formal goal
substance? Two options exist.
• First, analyze the concept of education to determine its criteria. The criteria
will distinguish educated from uneducated men. Analytical philosopher of
education sets these criteria. We start with a complication. "Education" has
multiple meanings.
• One use is descriptive. Experiences make up a person's education. It's perfectly
acceptable to say a man got his education as a street urchin, in a mining camp,
or in the army. Use it to describe what happens in schools or colleges.

37. Multiple meanings of “education”
• In this case, a man's education means his passage through a system. 'He attended such-
and-such a school' means he attended. A narrower sense refers to education's value. This
definition of education implies that what happens to a person improves him. In a purely
descriptive sense, it's enough to have attended school for a certain period to qualify.
• A well-educated man is a desirable end-product, according to normative usage. This
normative sense of education provides the logical starting point for a general theory, the
commitment to produce a valuable individual. Such a person would have certain skills,
knowledge, and attitudes. The educated man would have developed intellectual abilities,
be sensitive to moral and aesthetic concerns, appreciate mathematical and scientific
thinking, view the world from historical and geographical perspectives, and value truth,
accuracy, and elegance in thinking. The educated man's knowledge and understanding are
integrated, not piecemeal and unrelated. These criteria allow us to give content to the
formal idea of an educated man by specifying what conditions must be met.

38. • Second, place the goal in a social, political, or religious context. The
formal aim requires an educated man, but this concept varies by time,
place, and culture. For Plato, an educated man was trained in math and
philosophy, aware of true reality through his grasp of the Forms, and
willing to act as a state guardian and ruler.
• For Herbert Spencer, who lived in a very different time and society than
Plato, an educated man had the knowledge and intellectual
development to support himself in an industrial and commercial society,
to raise and support a family, to play a citizen's role, and to use his
leisure wisely.

39. Differences of “educated man”
• Plato's knowledge and skill were irrelevant in Spencer's England. James
Mill, Thomas Arnold, Cardinal Newman, and John Dewey each defined
an educated man differently. Cuba, emerging Africa, and China's rulers
will have very different ideas than 19th-century Europeans. Each will
view the educated man based on social expectations.
• The fact that the goal's substance is culture-relative is a good reason
why no general theory can provide recommendations for all educational
situations and why no such theory will command universal acceptance.
All such theories assume that an educated man is worth producing. This
assumption lays the groundwork for a general theory of education.

40. Aims and
purposes in
education
• A philosophical point has been made about education's
aim, namely that an aim is a logical prerequisite of a
practical theory. No practical theory is possible without a
valuable end. A practical theory is a recommendation for
achieving a goal. Practice is always theory-laden, chapter
1 said. A distinction can be made between an 'aim' and a
'purpose’
• This distinction can be made by asking a practical worker
two different questions. What's up? and why? Why?
(Second question) is to assume an external goal that the
activity is designed to achieve. Why learn French? So I
can visit France. What are you digging? to grow potatoes
Both questions could have asked about the activity's
purpose. In each case, the answer is instrumental, with
the end-product outside the activity. 'Purposes' are
external goals.

41. • First, what are you doing? Someone is asked to describe his action. I'm trying
to master French or I'm excavating this area. Here, the explanation has no
external purpose; it clarifies what's happening. In these cases, ask the agent
about his aim. What's your deal? His reply explains his purpose.
• Purpose is another issue. This point can be summed up by saying that while
purposes always refer to an external end, aims refer to the activity's internal
end.
• Education is about aims and purposes. A teacher may be asked to explain his
goal for a particular lesson. He may also be asked why he is trying to get his
students to write poetry or solve quadratic equations. So, too, can education's
aims and purpose be asked? Teacher goals fall under educational goals.

42. • The goal of education is to produce a man who meets intellectual, moral, and
aesthetic standards. Education has subordinate aims, such as developing literary
awareness or appreciating scientific or mathematical modes of thinking, but
taken together, these subordinate aims coalesce into making a certain kind of
person. No outside education is mentioned. What is education's purpose?
• This question's answers differ from those about goals. Education's purpose is to
produce literate, knowledgeable citizens or doctors, lawyers, civil servants,
engineers, etc. This refers to social, political, or economic goals outside of
education. This is fundamental.
• To ask the purpose of education is to think of it as an end in itself, something
good that develops a person. To ask its purpose or purposes is to think of it as a
device to bring external goods, skilled workers, executives, professionals.

43. Are education’s goals internal?
• Because of this distinction, it's often said that education's goals are internal and it's
inappropriate to ask for an external goal. This is a conceptual truth derived from
education's normative meaning. In fact, the aim of any activity is internal to it, since
asking about an aim is asking what the activity is; however, education is good in and of
itself.
• Recognizing that education is valuable leads to the unfortunate conclusion that asking
its purpose is ill-mannered. As an end in itself, education may not need a purpose. This
exclusivity is unwarranted. Education is good in and of itself. Why do we want
sensitive, intellectually capable, well-developed people? social and political well-being.
• The educated man must also be a good citizen, worker, and colleague, and education
may help him achieve these external goals. Education has many goals.

44. Further reading
• P.H.Hirst and R.S.Peters, The Logic of Education, chapter 2, contains a
discussion of the aims of education. A symposium on this topic, Aims of
Education—A Conceptual Inquiry by R.S.Peters, J.Woods and W.H.Dray
appears in The Philosophy of Education (ed. R.S.Peters, Oxford University
Press, 1975).
• The various assumptions about human nature made by past educational
theorists have to be studied in the original texts, references to which are
given in the bibliography. A discussion of the assumptions made by some of
the more important theorists is given in T.W.Moore, Educational Theory: An
Introduction, chapters 3 and 4.

45. Assignment
• Give a brief introduction about yourself,
including among others, your own view of
education, general education problems, and
some of the issues we tackled this session.
• What for you are the main issues of the
philosophy of education?
• If you were to teach this course to young
prospective teachers, how would you
proceed? Which topics will you focus on the
most? Why?