The document discusses the human sensory system and neurological functions. It describes how the sensory system processes sensory information through sensory receptors, transduction, and neural pathways in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It discusses the main sensory modalities of vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, and how stimuli are coded by sensory receptors in terms of type, intensity, location, and duration. The anatomy and physiology of neurons, neuroglia, and the central and peripheral nervous systems are also summarized.
3. SENSORY SYSTEM
3
ยจ Responsible for processing sensory information
ยค Senses are physiological capacities of organisms that
provide data for perception.
n Physiology is the science of the function of living systems.
This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells,
and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical
functions that exist in a living system.
n Perception (from the Latin perceptio, percipio) is the process
of attaining awareness or understanding of the environment
by organizing and interpreting sensory information.All
perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in
turn result from physical stimulation of the sense organs.
drjAlo
4. 4
ยจ VISION involves light striking the retinas of the eyes,
smell is mediated by odor molecules and hearing
involves pressure waves.
ยค Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals,
but can be shaped by learning, memory and
expectation.
ยค Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous
system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because
this processing happens outside conscious awareness.
drjAlo
5. 5
ยจ The senses and their operation, classification, and
theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of
fields, most notably neuroscience, cognitive
psychology (or cognitive science), and philosophy of
perception. The nervous system has a specific sensory
system or organ, dedicated to each sense.
ยจ Senses are transducers from the physical world to
the realm of the mind
drjAlo
6. 6
ยจ Human beings have a multitude of senses.
ยค Sight (ophthalmoception),
ยค hearing (audioception),
ยค taste (gustaoception),
ยค smell (olfacoception or olfacception), and
ยค touch (tactioception) are the five traditionally recognized
and the only senses proven to to be existent in humans.
ยจ Some believe in other senses, including temperature
(thermoception), kinesthetic sense (proprioception), pain
(nociception), balance (equilibrioception) and
acceleration (kinesthesioception)
drjAlo
7. Sensory system consists of
7
ยจ Sensory receptors
ยค is a sensory nerve ending that responds to a
stimulus in the internal or external environment of
an organism. In response to stimuli the sensory
receptor initiates
n sensory transduction by creating graded potentials or
action potentials in the same cell or in an adjacent one.
drjAlo
8. 8
ยจ Transduction is the conversion of a stimulus from
one form to another
ยค graded potential, is the transmembrane potential
difference of a sensory receptor
Transmembrane receptor:E=extracellular space;
I=intracellular space; P=plasma membrane
drjAlo
11. Coding of sensory stimuli
11
ยจ Stimulus strength is coded as the frequency of AP
ยจ Higher the stimulus more frequent are the APs
ยจ Amplitude of AP is constant
drjAlo
13. Sensory coding
13
ยจ A receptor must convey the type ยจ It must send information about
of information it is sending ร the location and receptive field,
the kind of receptor activated characteristic of the receptor
determined the signal
recognition by the brain
ยจ It must convey the intensity of the
stimulus ร the stronger the
signals, the more frequent will
be the APs
drjAlo
14. Transduction in different receptors
14
ยจ Different receptors have different ion channels
ยจ Their opening causes receptor potential
drjAlo
16. NEURAL PATHWAYS and parts of the
16
brain
ยจ Involved in sensory perception.
ยค neural pathway, neural tract, or neural face,
connects one part of the nervous system with
another and usually consists of bundles of
elongated, myelin-insulated neurons, known
collectively as white matter. Neural pathways serve
to connect relatively distant areas of the brain or
nervous system, compared to the local
communication of grey matter.
drjAlo
17. Sensory pathway
17
ยจ Once a receptor is stimulated
ยจ impulse travels through a particular pathway
ยจ known as sensory pathway or ascending pathway
ยจ up to the brain
drjAlo
18. Sensory pathway Sensory area
in the brain
18
Ascending
Sensory pathway
Central Connections
Sensory nerve
Touch stimulus
Receptor
Sensory
modality
drjAlo
19. Receptors
19
ยจ Receptor cells are specific cells that are sensitive to
different forms of energy from the environment
ยจ These cells contain membrane receptors coupled to
ion channels
ยจ They transform the stimulus into electrical signals
drjAlo
20. HUMAN SENSORY RECEPTORS
20
Classifications:
ยจ Chemosensor โ TRANSDUCES a chemical signal into
an action potential
ยจ Nociceptor - responds to potentially damaging
stimuli by sending nerve signals to the spinal cord
and brain
drjAlo
21. 21
ยจ Mechanoreceptor โ RESPONDS to mechanical
pressure or distortion. Transform displacement or
mechanical force into action potentials.
drjAlo
22. 22
ยจ Photoreceptor - specialized type of neuron found in
the retina that is capable of phototransduction.
drjAlo
23. 23
ยจ Thermoreceptor - is a sensory receptor, or more
accurately the receptive portion of a sensory
neuron, that codes absolute and relative changes in
temperature
drjAlo
24. Two ascending pathways
24
ยจ Dorsal column - medial lemniscus pathway
fast pathway
ยจ Spinothalamic pathway
slow pathway
These two pathways come together at the level of thalamus
drjAlo
27. Dorsal column pathway Spinothalamic pathway
27
ยจ touch: fine degree ยจ Pain
ยจ highly localised touch ยจ Thermal sensations
sensations ยจ Crude touch & pressure
ยจ crude localising sensations
ยจ vibratory sensations
ยจ tickle & itch
ยจ sensations signalling ยจ sexual sensations
movement
ยจ position sense
ยจ pressure: fine degree
drjAlo
28. 3rd
thalamocortical tracts order
neuron
internal capsule
thalamus
2nd
Medial lemniscus order
neuron
Dorsal column nuclei
(cuneate & gracile nucleus)
1st
Dorsal column order
neuron
28 drjAlo
29. dorsal column - medial lemniscus pathway
29
ยจ after entering the spinal cord
ยค lateral branch: participates in spinal cord reflexes
ยค medial branch: turns upwards
ยจ forms the dorsal columns
ยจ spatial orientation:
ยค medial: lower parts of the body
ยค lateral: upper part of the body
drjAlo
30. dorsal column - medial lemniscus pathway
30
ยจ synapse in the dorsal column nuclei
ยค nucleus cuneatus & nucleus gracilus
ยจ 2nd order neuron cross over to the opposite
side and ascends upwards as medial
lemniscus
ยจ as this travels along the brain stem fibres
from head and neck are joined (trigeminal)
ยจ ends in the thalamus (ventrobasal complex)
ยค ventral posterolateral nuclei
drjAlo
31. dorsal column - medial lemniscus pathway
31
ยจ spatial orientation in the thalamus
ยค medial: upper part of the body
ยค lateral: lower part of the body
drjAlo
32. 3rd
thalamocortical tracts order
neuron
internal capsule
thalamus
2nd
Spinothalamic order
tracts neuron
1st
order
neuron
32 drjAlo
33. spinothalamic pathway
33
ยจ after entering the spinal cord
ยค synapse in the dorsal horn
ยจ cross over to the opposite side
ยจ divide in to two tracts
ยค lateral spinothalamic tract:
n pain and temperature
ยค anterior spinothalamic tract
n crude touch
drjAlo
34. spinothalamic pathway
34
ยจ spatial orientation
ยค medial: upper part of the body
ยค lateral: lower part of the body
drjAlo
36. STIMULUS
36
ยจ Sensory systems code for four aspects of a stimulus;
ยค type (modality)
n Receptors are sensitive to certain types of stimuli (for
example, different mechanoreceptors respond best to
different kinds of touch stimuli, like sharp or blunt objects).
ยค Intensity
n Receptorssend impulses in certain patterns to send
information about the intensity of a stimulus (for example,
how loud a sound is)
drjAlo
37. 37
ยค Location
n gives the brain information about the location of the stimulus
(for example, stimulating a mechanoreceptor in a finger will
send information to the brain about that finger)
ยค Duration
n The duration of the stimulus (how long it lasts) is conveyed by
firing patterns of receptors. These impulses are transmitted
to the brain through afferent neurons.
ยค Arrival time of a sound pulse and phase differences of
continuous sound are used for localization of sound
sources.
drjAlo
39. MODALITY
39
ยจ A stimulus modality (sensory modality) is a
type of physical phenomenon that can be
sensed.
nExamples are temperature, taste, sound,
and pressure. The type of sensory receptor
activated by a stimulus plays the primary
role in coding the stimulus modality.
drjAlo
42. I. Anatomy/Physiology
42
A. Neuron- highly specialized for the processing and
transmission of cellular signals
1. Basic component of the nervous sy.
2. Composed of cell body, axon & dendrites
a. Cell body = center of metabolism
b. Axon =long fibers > conduct impulses away from the cell
body; usually 1 axon for each cell body
c. Dendrites = short, unsheathed fibers> receive nerve
impulses> transmit to cell body
drjAlo
43. 43
3. Myelin sheath โ covering that protects nerve fiber>
facilitates> speed of impulse conductor
a. Axon & dendrite โ may/may not have myelin
sheath
b. Most axons leaving the CNS โ heavily myelinated
w/ schwann cells
c. Gaps in myelin sheath โ termed Nodes of Ranvier
drjAlo
44. 44
4. Primary fxn โ transmission of nerve impulses
a. Afferent (sensory) n. โ transmit impulses from
peripheral receptors } CNS
b. Efferent (motor) n. โ conduct impulses from CNS
c. Action potentials travel along axons} end of
nerve fiber }impulse is transmitted across
junction bet. nerve cells (synapse) }chemical
interaction
drjAlo
45. 45
5. Neuroglia โ glial cells
a. Provide support,
b. Nourishment and
c. Protection for neurons
drjAlo
47. 47
C. CNS contains:
1. Cerebrum โ divided into: left right hemisphere}
longitudinal fissure
drjAlo
48. 48
a. Frontal lobes
n Precentral gyrus โ contralateral movement; face, arm, leg,
trunk
n Brocaโs area โ dominant hemisphere } respon.> formation of
words
n Supplementary motor area โ contralateral head & eye
turning
n Prefrontal area- personality, initiative
n Paracentral lobule- contralateral inhibition of bladder &
bowel
drjAlo
49. 49
b. Parietal lobes
ยค Postcentralgyrus โ body sensations; temp, touch,
pressure, pain }from opposite side of the body
ยค Dominant parietal lobe- wernickesโ speech area,
auditory & visual aspects> comprehensions are
integrated
n Responsible for skills { handle numbers & calculations
ยค Nondominant parietal lobe- concept of body image &
awareness of external envi{ ability to construct shapes
drjAlo
50. 50
c. Occipital lobes โ visual center; comprehension of
written word
d. Temporal lobes
ยค Dominant hearing of language; taste, smell
ยค Memory
ยค Wernickeโs speech area โ recognition of language
drjAlo
51. 51
2. Basal ganglia โ reg & integr skeletal voluntary &
autonomic motor activity originating in cerebral cortex
3. Diencephalon โ connects the cerebrum & brain stem;
contains several small structures, the most important of
w/c are the thalamus & hypothalamus
a. Thalamus โ relay station for discrimination of sensation
}received from periphery>several nuclei in the thalamus,
each w/ specific fxns} such as: integration of sensory stimuli
necessary for abstract thinking & reasoning, vision, hearing;
relay station for fibers going to limbic system
drjAlo
52. 52
ยค Hypothalamus- responsible for maintaining
momeostasis} thru the secretion of hormones & central
control of ANS
n Controls vital fxn: water balance, BP, sleep, appetite, temp
n Affects some emotional responses ] pleasure/fear
n Control center for pituitary fxn
n Affects both divisions of the ANS
drjAlo
53. 53
c. Limbic system โresponsible for controlling various
functions in the body. Structures of this system
include the hippocampus, hypothalamus, and
thalamus
ยค Fig.
drjAlo
54. 54
4. Brain stem- contains; midbrain, pons & medulla
oblangata, extending from the cerebral
hemispheres to the foramen magnum @ the base of
the skull
a. Contains nuclei- 5,6,7,8th Cnerves & ascending
sensory & descending motor tracts
b. Contains vital center- respiratory, vasomotor &
cardiac fxn
c. Reticular formation โ relays sensory of info; controls
vasomotor/respiratory activity
drjAlo
55. 55
5. Ventricular system & CSF โ supports & cushions
CNS
ยค Removes metabolic wastes
ยค Compensatory mechanisms for ICVolume/pressure
ยค Produces 55 cc/d of CSF; 130-150cc amt ave in sy
drjAlo
56. 56
6. Cranial meninges
ยค Dura mater โ dense, fibrous, outermost layer serves as
periosteum for Cnerves
ยค Arachnoid mater
n Delicate, avascular membrane lying under dura
n Surrounds brain loosely
n Subarachnoid space contains; CSF, arteries & veins
n Contains arachnoid granulations that enable CSF } pass from
subarachnoid space>venous system
ยค Pia mater
n Most delicate inner meningeal layer
n Barrier system
drjAlo
57. 57
7. Cerebellum โ control of: muscle motion, balance,
coordination; trunk mobility & equilibrium
ยค Spinal cord โ communications link bet CNS & PNS
n Ascending pathways ] transmit
n Sensory information
n Descending pathways] relay
n Motor instrtuctions
drjAlo
58. HUMAN SENSORY SYSTEM
58
ยจ The Human sensory system consists of the following
sub-systems:
ยค Visual system consists of the photoreceptor cells, optic nerve, and
V1.
ยค Auditory system
ยค Somatosensory system consists of the receptors, transmitters
(pathways) leading to S1, and S1 that experiences the sensations
labelled as touch or pressure, temperature (warm or cold), pain
(including itch and tickle), and the sensations of muscle movement
and joint position including posture, movement, and facial
expression (collectively also called proprioception).
ยค Gustatory system
ยค Olfactory system
drjAlo
59. I. ANATOMY OF THE EYE
59
ยจ A. three layers
ยค Sclera โfibrous outer coat
ยค Choroid โ middle vascular coat
ยค Retina โ inner nerve coat
ยจ B. Lens
ยค Lies behind pupil & iris
ยค Held in position by suspensory ligament attached to the
ciliary body
ยค Elastic qualities allow accommodation to focus image on
the retina
drjAlo
60. 60
ยจ C. Iris
ยค Colored portion of eye
ยค Attached around circumference by ciliary body
ยค Opening at center โ pupil
ยค Controls the amt of light entering eye
ยจ D. retina
1. Innermost lining
2. Contains rods & cons
a. Rods fxns w/ colorless, twilight vision
b. Cones fxns w/ perception of color & bright, daylight vision
drjAlo
61. 61
c. Optic disk
1) Point of entrance of nerve & bld vessels
2) Blind spot
3) Most prominent structure visible on the fundus (retina
lining of the back of the eye)
a) Excessive pallor signals optic atrophy, a partial
or complete destruction of the optic nerve
b) Excessive redness- papilledema inflamation
c) Papilledema โ choked disks: severe form
i. Inflammation
ii. Passive congestion from ICP
drjAlo
62. II. VISUAL FUNCTION
62
ยจ A. Assessment (fig)
ยค Test
n Tonometry โmeasures IOP
n Visual fields โ measurement of range of vision
(perimetry)
n Snellen test โ visual acuity
n Client preparation: recumbent/sitting position,
remove contact lenses, not to
squint/cough/hold breath during procedure
drjAlo
63. 63
ยจ B. S/S of eye problem
1. Redness, pain & burning
2. Edema
3. #lacrimation & exudate
4. Headache
5. Nausea & vomiting
6. Squinting
7. Visual disturbances
8. Disorders of accommodation
drjAlo
64. 64
DISORDERS OF ACCOMMODATION
Types Nsg Considerations
Myopia (nearsightedness) โ Corrective lenses
light rays refract at a point in
front of the retina
Hyperopia (farsightedness) โ Corrective lenses
light rays refract behind the
retina
Presbyopia with aging Commonly occurs after age 35
Astigmatism โ uneven curvature Corrective lenses
of cornea causing blurring of
vision drjAlo
65. 65
ยจ C. Treatments
1. Eye irrigation method
a. Tilt head back toward the side of affected area
b. Allow irrigating fluid to flow from the inner to outer
canthus
c. Use a small bulb syringe/eye dropper to dispense fluid
d. Place a small basin close to head to collect excess
fluid/drainage
drjAlo
66. 66
ยค 2. Eyedrop instillation
a. Tilt head back toward the side of affected area
b. Allow irrigating fluid to flow from the inner to outer
canthus
c. Use a small bulb syringe/eye dropper to dispense fluid
d. Place a small basin close to head to collect excess
fluid/drainage
drjAlo
67. 67
ยจ D. Nsg Mgt
1. Prevent eye injuries
a. Provide safe toys
b. Use of eye protectors when working w/ chemicals
c. Use of eye protectors during sports
d. Protect eyes from ultraviolet rays
e. Instruction for first aid
drjAlo
68. 68
ยค 2. Emergency Treatment
n A. Burns
Types Nsg Considerations
Chemical โ acids, cleanser, Eye irrigation w/ copious
insecticides amts of H2O for 15-20min
Radiation โ sun, lightning, Prevention- use of
eclipses eyeshields
Thermal โ hot metals, Use of goggles to protect
liquids, occupational the cornea, patching,
hazards analgesics
drjAlo
69. 69
ยจ B. EyeTrauma
Types Nsg considertions
Nonpenetrating- abrasions Eye patch for
24hrs
Nonpenetrating- contusions Cold compresses,
analgesics
Penetrating โ pointed or Cover w/ patch
sharp objects
drjAlo
70. III. Visual Function
70
ยจ A. Assessment
1. Adjustment to vision loss depends upon:
a. Age of onset
b. Degree of suddenness
2. Principles of working w/ blind persons
a. Facilitate normal lifestyle patterns
a. Adapted household eqpt
b. Books/newspaper w/ large print for partially sighted
c. Information > aids for the blind
d. Braile, canes, guide dogs
e. Facilitate dev patterns
f. Enc social devt
g. Provide for educ & employment
drjAlo
71. 71
ยจ 3. Nsg Mgt for the blind px
a. Enhance communication
a. Address px by name
b. Always introduce self
c. State reason for being there
d. Inform px when leaving the room
b. Provide sense of safety/security
a. Explain procedures in detail
b. Keep furniture arrangement consistent, provide hand rail
c. Door should never be half open
d. Lightweight walking stick if walking alone
drjAlo
72. IV. SELECTED DISORDERS OF THE EYE
72
ยจ A. DETACHED RETINA
ยค 1. History
n Flashes of light
n Blurred or sooty vision
n Sensation of particles moving in line of vision
n Delineated of vision areas blank
n Feeling of coating coming u & down
n Loss of vision
n Confusion/apprehension
drjAlo
73. 73
ยจ 2. Characteristics
ยค Separation of the retina from choroid
ยค Cause
n Trauma
n Aging process
n Diabetes
n Tumors
ยค Medical mgt
n Sedatives & tranquilizers
n Surgery- retina to adhere to choroid
drjAlo
74. 74
ยจ 3. Nsg Mgt
ยค Bedrest
ยค Affected eye maybe patch- to decrease movement of
eyes
ยค Specific positioning
ยค Hairwashing delayed for 1 wk
ยค Avoid strenuous activity for 3 mos
drjAlo
75. 75
ยจ B. CATARACTS
ยค 1. Hx
n Objects appear distorted and blurred
n Annoying glare
n Pupil changes from black to gray to milky white
drjAlo
76. 76
ยจ 2. Assessment
ยค Partial/total opacity of the normally transparent
crystalline lens
ยค Cause
n Congenital
n Trauma
n Aging process
n Assoc w/ diabetes mellitus, intraocular surgery
n Drugs- steroid therapy
drjAlo
77. 77
ยค Surgical Mgt โ laser surgery
n Extracapsular extraction โ cut thru the anteriorcapsule to express
the opaque lens material
n Intracapsular extraction (method of choice) โentire removal of
lens & capsule
n Lens implantation
ยค Nsg Mgt
n Observe for post-operative complications
n Hemorrhage
n #IOP
n Slipped suture
n If lens implant, pupil should remain constricted; if aphakic, pupil
remains dilated
drjAlo
78. 78
n Avoid straining /no heavy lifting
n Bend from the knees only to pick up things
n Instruct in instillation of eye drops/use of night shields
n Protect from bright light
n Adjustments needed if aphakic
n Diversional activities
drjAlo
79. 79
ยจ GLAUCOMA
ยค 1. Assessment
n Cloudy, blurry vision
n Artificial lights appear to have rainbows
n Loss of vision
n #decreased peripheral vision
n Pain, headache
n Nausea, vomiting
n Tonometer readings exceed normal IOP (10-21mmhg)
drjAlo
80. 80
ยจ 2. Characteristics
ยค A. Abnormal #IOP leading to visual disability/blindness
โ obstruction of outflow of aqueous humor
ยค B. Types
n Acute/close(narrow) โ angle glaucoma; sudden onset
n Chronic or open (wide) โ angle glaucoma; most common
ยค C. Causes
n Close-angle glaucoma โ assoc w/ ocular dโs, trauma
n Open-angle glaucoma โ assoc w/ aging, heredity, retinal
vein occlusion
drjAlo
81. 81
ยค D. Tx
n Meds โ miotics, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, oral glycerin
& mannitol
n Surgery โ laser trabeculoplasty, standard glaucoma surgery
ยค Common nsg diagnosis โ sensory/ perceptual/visual
alteration
drjAlo
82. 82
ยจ Nsg Mgt
ยค Compliance w/ medical therapy
ยค Avoid tight clothing
ยค Reduce external stimuli
ยค Avoid heavy lifting, straining at stool
ยค Avoid use of mydriatics
ยค Educate public to 5 danger signs of glaucoma:
n Brow arching
n Blurry vision
n Diminished peripheral vision
n Headache or eye pain
drjAlo
83. I. Anatomy & Physiology of EAR
83
ยจ A. External Ear
ยค Pinna/auricle
ยค External acoustic meatus
ยค External auditory canal
drjAlo
84. 84
ยจ B. Middle ear
ยค Located in temporal lobe
ยค Contains ossicles
n Malleus
n Incus
n Stapes
ยค Eustachian tube โ connects middle ear to the throat &
assist in equalizing pressure
drjAlo
85. 85
ยค Physiology of sound
n Sound waves enter external auditory canal >tympanic
membrane >vibrates, triggering ossicles(m,i,s) } transmitted
to oval window to acoustic nerve and brain
ยจ C. Inner ear
ยค Contains: vestibule, semicircular canals,
cochlea(labyrinth) } movment of the sensory hair signals
changes in position; aids in maintaining stable posture
drjAlo
86. II. Alterations in Fxn
86
ยจ A. Assessment
ยค S/S } pain, fever, headache, discharge, altered growth
& dev, personality changes (irritability, depression,
suspiciousness, w/drawal
ยค Dx } Audiogram โ quantitative(degree of loss), Tuning
fork โ qualitative (type of loss)
ยค Types:
n Conductive loss
drjAlo
87. 87
ยค Types:
n 1. Conductive loss โ disorder in auditorycanal, eardrum/ossicles
n Causes: infection, inflammation, foreign body, trauma
n Complications : meningitis resulting from initial infection
n Nsg Mgt: heat, antibiotics, ear drops/ointments/irrigation, surgery,
hearing aid
n 2. perceptive(sensorineural loss) โ due to disorder of organ of
corti/auditory nerve
n Causes: congenital-maternal exposure to comโcable dโs, infection,
drug toxicity, trauma, labyrinth dsfxn(Meniereโs dโs
n Complications: vertigo, tinnitus, vomiting
n Mgt: meds, surgery, combined loss- conductive & sensorineural,
psychogenic loss-functional
drjAlo
88. 88
ยจ C. Nsg Mgt
ยค Ear irrigation
ยค Ear drop instillation
ยค Px undergoing surgery
ยค Discharge teaching โ avoid getting water in ear, flying,
drafts, crowds, exercise caution around people w/
respiratory infections
drjAlo
89. 89
ยจ III. Selected disorders
ยค A. Acute otitis media โ infection of middle ear, cause:
pathogenic organisms(bacteria/virus)
ยค B. Mastoiditis โinflammation
ยค C. meniereโs syndrome(endolymphatic hydrops) โ
dilation of the labyrinth, causes: trauma,
intoxication,syphilis, otitis media, otosclerosis
drjAlo
90. 90
ยจ Medical & Nsg Mgt
ยค Saltfree/neutral ash diet(furstenberg diet) โ restrict
h2o & salt intake
ยค Symptomatic treatment: antiemetics, histamines,
vasodilators
ยค Px education: need to slow down body motion, self
protection, occupational counseling
drjAlo
91. SOMATIC SENSATION (TOUCH)
91
ยจ somatosensory system
ยค isa diverse sensory system composed of the
receptors and processing centres to produce the
sensory modalities such as touch, temperature,
proprioception (body position), and nociception
(pain). The sensory receptors cover the skin and
epithelia, skeletal muscles, bones and joints, internal
organs, and the cardiovascular system.
drjAlo
93. Taste/GUSTATION
93
ยจ Taste (also called smatch)
ยคis one of the traditional five senses. It
refers to the ability to detect the flavor
of substances such as food, certain
minerals, poisons
drjAlo