During the second urbanization period in India from the 6th century BCE onwards, cities emerged again in the Gangetic plains after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. This was facilitated by developments in iron tool technology that increased agricultural output, like iron axes for clearing forests and iron ploughs. Archaeologists have found evidence of many agricultural settlements from this era. Sixteen major states known as the Mahajanapadas flourished at this time, including both monarchies like Magadha and Kosala and "republics" that were more like oligarchies ruled by clans.

1. SECOND URBANISATION

2. When was It?
 From the 6th century BCE onwards, cities emerged in India for the second
time  the period of second urbanisation in India.
 This development was focused on the Gangetic plains.
 As the IVC declined, it was mostly villages in the subcontinent – in this
settled agricultural society, land and cattle were the markers of wealth.
 Chieftains would have wanted an expansion of both – either through raids or
by clearing forest lands.
 Archaeological evidences show that many agricultural settlements emerged
between in the 8th – 6th centuries BCE.
 This was also the period of the development of iron tools.

3.  Use of Iron Implements: Iron axes were better suited for clearing
forests, and iron ploughs for agriculture. There was a much higher
agricultural output. In the Gangetic valley paddy cultivation
became the main agricultural produce. Larger food production
made it possible to sustain larger populations.
 In North India, this period is associated with a type of pottery
called Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It is a wheel-made
pottery with a glossy surface. Many of the pottery found from sites
in this period are black, but other colours were present as well.

4. The 16 Mahajanapadas

5.  There are mentions of 16 powerful states (solanka mahajanapadas)
that flourished in the 6th century BCE.
 “Janapada”: referred to a region with urban and rural settlements.
Literally, it meant the footholds of a tribe, or jana.
 There were two kinds of states in the list of Mahajanapadas:
1. Rajyas or monarchies
2. Ganas or Sanghas, which had other forms of governments.
Sometimes, they are called “republics,” though they were more
oligarchies than republics.
 The most powerful states in the 6th century were Magadha, Kosala,
Vatsa, and Avanti.

7. The Monarchies
1. Kashi
2. Kosala
3. Anga
4. Magadha (becomes important later on)
5. Chedi
6. Vatsa (or Vamsa)
7. Kuru
8. Panchala
9. Surasena
10. Assaka (or Asmaka)
11. Avanti
12. Gandhara
13. Kamboja

8. The Republics
1. Vajji (or Vrijji)
2. Malla
3. Matsya
 These were more like oligarchies, ruled by a group of families or
clans.