Saturated fat is a type of fat where the fatty acids have single bonds. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and commonly found in animal products like meat and dairy. Unsaturated fats are usually liquid and found in plants and fish. The effects of saturated fat on disease risk are controversial, with some reviews finding links to cardiovascular disease and others finding no significant associations. Sources of saturated fat include meat, dairy, coconut and palm oil, while unsaturated fats are found in oils like olive and canola oil. Dietary guidelines generally recommend limiting saturated fat intake.
Consumption of saturated animal fats in the diet of humans may decrease the r...banafsheh61
Fats, as part of the human dietary regime are a concentrated source of energy. Animals contain saturated and plants contain unsaturated type of fatty acids. In this prospective research, the role of animal saturated fatty acids is highlighted and is proven to be a rational dietary source for the human diet. Saturated fats consumption is a wise choice in order to reduce the coronary heart disease risk, although it is believed in an opposite way. Researching through the healthiest tribes and knowing the biological function of saturated fats, and considering that eukaryotic cells need saturated fats to function properly, made this research important to conclude the rational dietary choice of edible fats and oils.
You obtain fats as a sort of nutrition from your food. While eating some fats is necessary, eating too much can be harmful. Your body gets the energy it needs to function correctly from the fats you consume. Your body burns calories from the carbs you’ve consumed while you workout.
Coconut oil was taken off the shelves for much of the 20th century due to concerns over its fat content. But by the turn of the century, coconut oil has exploded into one of the trendiest foods over the last 10-15 years. Learn the science behind the myths that coconut oil is bad for you.
The overall effect of exercise on HDL, LDL, total cholester.docxssusera34210
The overall effect of exercise on HDL, LDL, total cholesterol and total triglyceride profiles can be better solidified by analyzing the effect of various exercise intensities in combination of energy output rather than just the overall effect of exercise on those four functional properties. It should be understood that the production of lipids vary in response upon the duration of exercise, therefore influencing the relationship between C-reactive proteins and blood lipids. In order to calculate a more accurate analysis, blood lipid measurements should be taken at different maximum oxygen consumption sessions and intensities. In 2012, Tsao conducted a study that analyzed the effects of different exercise intensities comparable to C-reactive proteins and blood lipid levels. In the Tsao’s research it was found that LDL, total cholesterol and total triglyceride profiles had not changed with the influence of exercise intensity.3 On the contrary, as the maximum oxygen consumption increased from 25% to 65% to 85% during the exercise sessions, the HDL levels simultaneously increased from -0.42 HDL to -0.13 HDL to 0.23 HDL levels.3
According to a study conducted by Chaudhary in 2011, it can be stated that both aerobic exercise and resistance training influence the effect on HDL-C in the blood, thus perpetuating an effect on LDL-C in the blood. For the HDL cholesterol to increase, aerobic training (especially low intensity aerobic training) is first performed.1 The elevation of HDL cholesterol can then be inversely related to the risk of coronary heart disease in the participating individual due to the transportation HDL conducts. 1 As aerobic training continues, the triglyceride concentration decreases, therefore increasing the utilization of free fatty acids in the body.1 Subsequently through this process, the levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) decreases.1
The previous studies conducted by Tsao (2012) and Chaudhary (2012) focused on the effects of sporadic training on HDL-C levels. In comparison to the previous studies, the Musa (2009) study showed a difference in their study by increasing the duration of the work-rest interval intertwined with the eight week high-intensity exercise program conducted on untrained young adult me. The intention of the Musa (2009) study was to raise the subject’s HDL-C levels while simultaneously decreasing the total cholesterol levels and the atherogenic index (TC/HDL-C).2 If this study could prove the researcher’s hypothesis, then one could propose alternative exercise methods that would further reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.2
After the Musa (2009) study had concluded, it was found that there were no changes in total cholesterol levels in regards to the subjects that had been tested. Due to the fact that all of the tested subjects had entered the study with favorable pre-training mean total cholesterol levels, it can be assumed that there was no opportunity for the total cholesterol ...
It's sad to think about how many beautiful, happy days your migraines and headaches have ruined, isn't it?
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The reason why medications and other migraine and headache methods don't work in the long run is actually quite simple:
They don't tackle the underlying cause of migraines and headaches – only mask the tormenting symptoms.
But when you understand what really causes your attacks in the first place, it's surprisingly easy to eliminate them forever.
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When you join us as a partner you are signing on to help people in need, this is more than just making money! We really want a team of people working with us who believe in making people’s lives better!
Imagine helping someone to avoid going on dialysis? Well in promoting our product that is exactly the kind of thing you will be doing. So when you sign up please take this important fact on-board.
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Consumption of saturated animal fats in the diet of humans may decrease the r...banafsheh61
Fats, as part of the human dietary regime are a concentrated source of energy. Animals contain saturated and plants contain unsaturated type of fatty acids. In this prospective research, the role of animal saturated fatty acids is highlighted and is proven to be a rational dietary source for the human diet. Saturated fats consumption is a wise choice in order to reduce the coronary heart disease risk, although it is believed in an opposite way. Researching through the healthiest tribes and knowing the biological function of saturated fats, and considering that eukaryotic cells need saturated fats to function properly, made this research important to conclude the rational dietary choice of edible fats and oils.
You obtain fats as a sort of nutrition from your food. While eating some fats is necessary, eating too much can be harmful. Your body gets the energy it needs to function correctly from the fats you consume. Your body burns calories from the carbs you’ve consumed while you workout.
Coconut oil was taken off the shelves for much of the 20th century due to concerns over its fat content. But by the turn of the century, coconut oil has exploded into one of the trendiest foods over the last 10-15 years. Learn the science behind the myths that coconut oil is bad for you.
The overall effect of exercise on HDL, LDL, total cholester.docxssusera34210
The overall effect of exercise on HDL, LDL, total cholesterol and total triglyceride profiles can be better solidified by analyzing the effect of various exercise intensities in combination of energy output rather than just the overall effect of exercise on those four functional properties. It should be understood that the production of lipids vary in response upon the duration of exercise, therefore influencing the relationship between C-reactive proteins and blood lipids. In order to calculate a more accurate analysis, blood lipid measurements should be taken at different maximum oxygen consumption sessions and intensities. In 2012, Tsao conducted a study that analyzed the effects of different exercise intensities comparable to C-reactive proteins and blood lipid levels. In the Tsao’s research it was found that LDL, total cholesterol and total triglyceride profiles had not changed with the influence of exercise intensity.3 On the contrary, as the maximum oxygen consumption increased from 25% to 65% to 85% during the exercise sessions, the HDL levels simultaneously increased from -0.42 HDL to -0.13 HDL to 0.23 HDL levels.3
According to a study conducted by Chaudhary in 2011, it can be stated that both aerobic exercise and resistance training influence the effect on HDL-C in the blood, thus perpetuating an effect on LDL-C in the blood. For the HDL cholesterol to increase, aerobic training (especially low intensity aerobic training) is first performed.1 The elevation of HDL cholesterol can then be inversely related to the risk of coronary heart disease in the participating individual due to the transportation HDL conducts. 1 As aerobic training continues, the triglyceride concentration decreases, therefore increasing the utilization of free fatty acids in the body.1 Subsequently through this process, the levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) decreases.1
The previous studies conducted by Tsao (2012) and Chaudhary (2012) focused on the effects of sporadic training on HDL-C levels. In comparison to the previous studies, the Musa (2009) study showed a difference in their study by increasing the duration of the work-rest interval intertwined with the eight week high-intensity exercise program conducted on untrained young adult me. The intention of the Musa (2009) study was to raise the subject’s HDL-C levels while simultaneously decreasing the total cholesterol levels and the atherogenic index (TC/HDL-C).2 If this study could prove the researcher’s hypothesis, then one could propose alternative exercise methods that would further reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.2
After the Musa (2009) study had concluded, it was found that there were no changes in total cholesterol levels in regards to the subjects that had been tested. Due to the fact that all of the tested subjects had entered the study with favorable pre-training mean total cholesterol levels, it can be assumed that there was no opportunity for the total cholesterol ...
It's sad to think about how many beautiful, happy days your migraines and headaches have ruined, isn't it?
>>>click here: https://bit.ly/3zEpNGs <<<
And even if painkillers worked somewhat in the past, stronger and stronger doses are delivering less and less results, aren't they?
Plus the pain always returns with enhanced force within days or weeks at best, doesn't it?
The reason why medications and other migraine and headache methods don't work in the long run is actually quite simple:
They don't tackle the underlying cause of migraines and headaches – only mask the tormenting symptoms.
But when you understand what really causes your attacks in the first place, it's surprisingly easy to eliminate them forever.
All you need are a few, simple precautionary steps.
>>>click here: https://bit.ly/3zEpNGs <<<
The Kidney Disease Solution
>>>click here to avail: https://bit.ly/3tDPRxy <<<
The Kidney Disease Solution program has been around for over 10 years and is in the top 1% of performing products sold on Clickbank! We have recently undergone a renovation of sorts so our product, amazing bonuses and up-sells are all brand spanking new, with even more exciting changes on the way.
When you join us as a partner you are signing on to help people in need, this is more than just making money! We really want a team of people working with us who believe in making people’s lives better!
Imagine helping someone to avoid going on dialysis? Well in promoting our product that is exactly the kind of thing you will be doing. So when you sign up please take this important fact on-board.
>>>click here to avail: https://bit.ly/3tDPRxy <<<
Using Social Media and Intersectional Feminism for Transformative Education a...Julius Narciso
You need to be on social media. But the stress and time suck it takes to manage your social media channels can leave you feeling overwhelmed and unproductive. Download one of these 3 tools and stop the anxiety today!
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Meditation for Medicine
Here's an easy to follow guide that covers exactly how to meditate for beginners. In this comprehensive guide we will cover exactly: where to meditate, how to meditate, what to do with your mind, how long to do it for, and even how long before you start seeing benefits.
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Here's an easy to follow guide that covers exactly how to meditate for beginners. In this comprehensive guide we will cover exactly: where to meditate, how to meditate, what to do with your mind, how long to do it for, and even how long before you start seeing benefits.
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Here's an easy to follow guide that covers exactly how to meditate for beginners. In this comprehensive guide we will cover exactly: where to meditate, how to meditate, what to do with your mind, how long to do it for, and even how long before you start seeing benefits.
Click here: https://bit.ly/3kpsi6e
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Chronic kidney disease does NOT have to lead to dialysis or a kidney transplant. I know it might be hard to believe. I know that you’ve probably heard, over and over, from doctors and specialists, that kidney disease only ever runs in one direction, and that’s from bad to worse.
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Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
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the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
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Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
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Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
1. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A saturated fat is a type of fat, in which the fatty acids all have single bonds.
A fat is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of long chains
of carbon (C) atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double
bonds (-C=C-).[1] Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds. They are called saturated,
because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to (saturated with) a hydrogen
atom. Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated.[1] Saturated fats tend
to have higher melting points than their corresponding unsaturated fats, leading to the popular understanding
that saturated fats tend to be solids at body temperatures, while unsaturated fats tend to be liquid oils.
Various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Examples of foods containing a high
proportion of saturated fat include animal fat products such as cream, cheese, butter, other whole milk dairy
products and fatty meats which also contain dietary cholesterol.[2] Certain vegetable products have high
saturated fat content, such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil.[3] Many prepared foods are high in saturated fat
content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage.[2][4]
The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial. Many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated
fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death.[5] However, other reviews have
rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the
diet.[6][7][8]
1 Fat profiles
2 Examples of saturated fatty acids
3 Association with diseases
3.1 Cardiovascular disease
3.2 Cancer
3.3 Bones
4 Dietary recommendations
5 Molecular description
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
While nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among
food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in "tropical" oils (e.g., palm kernel, coconut)
and dairy products. The saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic
and stearic acids.
Saturated fat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat
1 of 15 1/2/2017 9:23 PM
2. Saturated fat profile of common foods; Esterified fatty acids as percentage of
total fat[9]
Food
Lauric
acid
Myristic
acid
Palmitic
acid
Stearic
acid
Coconut oil 47% 18% 9% 3%
Palm kernel oil 48% 1% 44% 5%
Butter 3% 11% 29% 13%
Ground beef 0% 4% 26% 15%
Salmon 0% 1% 29% 3%
Egg yolks 0% 0.3% 27% 10%
Cashews 2% 1% 10% 7%
Soybean oil 0% 0% 11% 4%
Some common examples of fatty acids:
Butyric acid with 4 carbon atoms (contained in butter)
Lauric acid with 12 carbon atoms (contained in coconut oil, palm kernel oil, and breast milk)
Myristic acid with 14 carbon atoms (contained in cow's milk and dairy products)
Palmitic acid with 16 carbon atoms (contained in palm oil and meat)
Stearic acid with 18 carbon atoms (also contained in meat and cocoa butter)
Saturated fat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat
2 of 15 1/2/2017 9:23 PM
5. Food
Saturated
Mono-
unsaturated
Poly-
unsaturated
As weight percent (%) of total fat
Cooking oils
Cookie, oatmeal
raisin
22 47 27
Cookie,
chocolate chip
35 42 18
Cake, yellow 60 25 10
Pastry, Danish 50 31 14
Fats added during cooking or at the table
Butter, stick 63 29 3
Butter, whipped 62 29 4
Margarine, stick 18 39 39
Margarine, tub 16 33 49
Margarine, light
tub
19 46 33
Lard 39 45 11
Shortening 25 45 26
Chicken fat 30 45 21
Beef fat 41 43 3
Dressing, blue
cheese
16 54 25
Dressing, light
Italian
14 24 58
Other
Egg yolk fat[19] 36 44 16
Avocado [20] 16 71 13
Unless else specified in boxes, then reference is:[21]
Since the 1950s, it has been commonly believed that consumption of foods containing high amounts of
saturated fatty acids (including meat fats, milk fat, butter, lard, coconut oil, palm oil, and palm kernel oil) is
potentially less healthy than consuming fats with a lower proportion of saturated fatty acids. Sources of lower
saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados,
safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, and cottonseed oils.[22]
Saturated fat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat
5 of 15 1/2/2017 9:23 PM
6. Cardiovascular disease
The effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial.
Many health authorities such as the American Dietetic Association,[23] the British Dietetic Association,[24]
American Heart Association,[25] the World Heart Federation,[26] the British National Health Service,[27] among
others,[28][29] advise that saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The World Health
Organization in May 2015 recommends switching from saturated to unsaturated fats.[30]
A number of systematic reviews have examined the relationship between saturated fat and cardiovascular
disease and have come to different conclusions:
A 2015 systematic review found no association between consumption and risk of heart disease, stroke,
diabetes, or death.[31]
A 2014 systematic review looking at observational studies of dietary intake of fatty acids, observational studies
of measured fatty acid levels in the blood, and intervention studies of polyunsaturated fat supplementation
concludes that the findings ″do not support cardiovascular guidelines that promote high consumption of
long-chain omega-3 and omega-6 and polyunsaturated fatty acids and suggest reduced consumption of total
saturated fatty acids.″[32] Researchers acknowledged that despite their results, further research is necessary,
especially in people who are initially healthy. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people
stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption.[33]
Saturated fat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat
6 of 15 1/2/2017 9:23 PM
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7. Harcombe,
2015[34]
No reduction in CHD and all-cause mortality were observed when replacing saturated fat with
polyunsaturated fat, even though reductions in serum cholesterol were observed.
Schwab,
2014[35]
There was convincing evidence that partial replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated
fat decreases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, especially in men.
Hooper,
2011[36]
Reducing saturated fat in diets did not reduce mortality, despite reducing the risk of having a
cardiovascular event by 14 percent.
Micha,
2010[37]
Based on consistent evidence from human studies, replacing saturated fatty acids with
polyunsaturated fat modestly lowers coronary heart disease risk, with ~10% risk reduction for
a 5% energy substitution; whereas replacing SFA with carbohydrate has no benefit and
replacing SFA with monounsaturated fat has uncertain effects.
Mozaffarian,
2010[38]
These findings provide evidence that consuming polyunsaturated fats (PUFA) in place of SFA
reduces Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) events in randomized controlled trials (RCT).
Replacing saturated fats with PUFAs as percentage of calories strongly reduced CHD
mortality.
Siri-Tarino,
2010[39]
5–23 years of follow-up of 347,747 subjects, 11,006 developed CHD or stroke. A
meta-analysis of prospective epidemiologic studies showed that there is no significant
evidence for concluding that dietary saturated fat is associated with an increased risk of CHD
or CVD.
Danaei,
2009[40]
Low PUFA intake has an 1-5% Increased risk of ischemic heart disease: Low dietary PUFA
(in replacement of SFA). age 30–44 Increase in RR 1.05.
Mente,
2009[41]
Single-nutrient RCTs have yet to evaluate whether reducing saturated fatty acid intake lowers
the risk of CHD events. For polyunsaturated fatty acid intake, most of the RCTs have not been
adequately powered and did not find a significant reduction in CHD outcomes.
Skeaff,
2009[42]
Intake of SFA was not significantly associated with CHD mortality, with a RR of 1.14.
Moreover, there was no significant association with CHD death. Intake of PUFA was strongly
significantly associated with CHD mortality, with a RR of 1.25. The Health Professionals
Follow-up Study and the EUROASPIRE study results mirrored those of total PUFA; intake of
linoleic acid was significantly associated with CHD mortality.
Jakobsen,
2009[43]
"The associations suggest that replacing saturated fatty acids with polyunsaturated fatty acids
rather than monounsaturated fatty acids or carbohydrates prevents CHD over a wide range of
intakes."
Van Horn,
2008[44] 25-35% fats but <7% SFA and TFA reduces risk.
While many studies have found that including polyunsaturated fats in the diet in place of saturated fats
produces more beneficial CVD outcomes, the effects of substituting monounsaturated fats or carbohydrates are
unclear.[45][46]
Dyslipidemia
The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk
factor for some types of cardiovascular disease.[47][48][49][50][51]
Saturated fat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat
7 of 15 1/2/2017 9:23 PM
8. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood cholesterol levels,
and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal.[52][53] Abnormal
blood lipid levels, that is high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of low-density
lipoprotein (LDL, "bad" cholesterol) or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, "good" cholesterol)
cholesterol are all associated with increased risk of heart disease and stroke.[26]
Meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels.[54]
High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with an increased risk of
cardiovascular disease.[55][56] However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL
cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol.[56] In a study of myocardial infarction in 52
countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 (related to LDL and HDL, respectively) ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD
among all risk factors.[57] There are other pathways involving obesity, triglyceride levels, insulin sensitivity,
endothelial function, and thrombogenicity, among others, that play a role in CVD, although it seems, in the
absence of an adverse blood lipid profile, the other known risk factors have only a weak atherogenic effect.[58]
Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.[59]
Cancer
Breast cancer
A meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies
between saturated fat and breast cancer.[60] However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant
associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk,[61][62] and note the prevalence of confounding
factors.[61][63]
Colorectal cancer
One review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of
colorectal cancer.[64]
Ovarian cancer
A meta-analysis of eight observational studies published in 2001 found a statistically significant positive
relationship between saturated fat and ovarian cancer.[65] However, a 2013 study found that a pooled analysis
of 12 cohort studies observed no association between total fat intake and ovarian cancer risk. Further analysis
revealed that omega-3 fatty acids were protective against ovarian cancer and that trans fats were a risk
factor.[66] This study revealed that histological subtypes should be examined in determining the impact of
dietary fat on ovarian cancer, rather than an oversimplified focus on total fat intake.
Prostate cancer
Some researchers have indicated that serum myristic acid[67][68] and palmitic acid[68] and dietary myristic[69]
and palmitic[69] saturated fatty acids and serum palmitic combined with alpha-tocopherol supplementation[67]
are associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in a dose-dependent manner. These associations may,
however, reflect differences in intake or metabolism of these fatty acids between the precancer cases and
controls, rather than being an actual cause.[68]
Saturated fat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat
8 of 15 1/2/2017 9:23 PM
9. Bones
Mounting evidence indicates that the amount and type of fat in the diet can have important effects on bone
health. Most of this evidence is derived from animal studies. The data from one study indicated that bone
mineral density is negatively associated with saturated fat intake, and that men may be particularly
vulnerable.[70]
Recommendations to reduce or limit dietary intake of saturated fats are made by the World Health
Organization,[71] Health Canada,[72] the US Department of Health and Human Services,[73] the UK Food
Standards Agency,[74] the Australian Department of Health and Aging,[75] the Singapore Government Health
Promotion Board,[76] the Indian Government Citizens Health Portal,[77] the New Zealand Ministry of
Health,[78] the Food and Drugs Board Ghana,[79] the Republic of Guyana Ministry of Health,[80] and Hong
Kong's Centre for Food Safety.[81]
In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expert
consultation report concluded that "intake of saturated fatty acids is directly related to cardiovascular risk. The
traditional target is to restrict the intake of saturated fatty acids to less than 10% of daily energy intake and less
than 7% for high-risk groups. If populations are consuming less than 10%, they should not increase that level
of intake. Within these limits, intake of foods rich in myristic and palmitic acids should be replaced by fats
with a lower content of these particular fatty acids. In developing countries, however, where energy intake for
some population groups may be inadequate, energy expenditure is high and body fat stores are low (BMI <18.5
kg/m2). The amount and quality of fat supply has to be considered keeping in mind the need to meet energy
requirements. Specific sources of saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, provide low-cost energy and may
be an important source of energy for the poor."[82]
A 2004 statement released by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) determined that "Americans need to
continue working to reduce saturated fat intake…"[83] In addition, reviews by the American Heart Association
led the Association to recommend reducing saturated fat intake to less than 7% of total calories according to its
2006 recommendations.[84][85] This concurs with similar conclusions made by the US Department of Health
and Human Services, which determined that reduction in saturated fat consumption would positively affect
health and reduce the prevalence of heart disease.[86]
The United Kingdom, National Health Service claims the majority of UK people eat too much saturated fat.
The British Heart Foundation also advises people to cut down on saturated fat. People are advised to cut down
on saturated fat and read labels on food they buy.[87][88]
Dr. German and Dr. Dillard of University of California and Nestle Research Center in Switzerland, in their
2004 review, pointed out that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified"
and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different
individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.[89]
Blanket recommendations to lower saturated fat were criticized at a 2010 conference debate of the American
Dietetic Association for focusing too narrowly on reducing saturated fats rather than emphasizing increased
consumption of healthy fats and unrefined carbohydrates. Concern was expressed over the health risks of
replacing saturated fats in the diet with refined carbohydrates, which carry a high risk of obesity and heart
disease, particularly at the expense of polyunsaturated fats which may have health benefits. None of the
Saturated fat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat
9 of 15 1/2/2017 9:23 PM
10. Two-dimensional representation of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid
A space-filling model of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid
panelists recommended heavy consumption of saturated fats, emphasizing instead the importance of overall
dietary quality to cardiovascular health.[90]
It should be noted, as this is
the defining factor of
saturated fats, that the
two-dimensional illustration
has implicit hydrogen
atoms bonded to each of the
carbon atoms in the
polycarbon tail of the
myristic acid molecule
(there are 13 carbon atoms
in the tail; 14 carbon atoms
in the entire molecule).
Carbon atoms are also
implicitly drawn, as they
are portrayed as
intersections between two
straight lines. "Saturated,"
in general, refers to a
maximum number of
hydrogen atoms bonded to
each carbon of the polycarbon tail as allowed by the Octet Rule. This also means that only single bonds (sigma
bonds) will be present between adjacent carbon atoms of the tail.
List of saturated fatty acids
List of vegetable oils
Trans fat
Food groups
Food guide pyramid
Healthy diet
Diet and heart disease
Fast food
Junk food
Advanced glycation endproduct
ANGPTL4
Iodine value
Framingham Heart Study
Seven Countries Study
Ancel Keys
D. Mark Hegsted
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