The study investigated the nutritional status of under-five children of farm households. The study utilized primary data from 352 farm households with 140 under-five children. Household crop commercialization index (CCI) was used to estimate cassava farm household crop sale ratio and categorize the households into four commercialization levels while WHO Anthro software was employed to analyze under-five children anthropometric indices such as weight-for-age z-score (WAZ), height-for-age z-score (HAZ) and weight-for-height z-score (WHZ). Logit regression model (LRM) was used to examine the drivers of under-five children’s nutritional status of farm households. The study found that 42.9%, 7.9% and 3.6% of the children are stunted, underweight and wasted respectively. The highest stunting level was recorded in zero level households (CCI 1). Although, some higher CCI households (medium-high and very-high level) recorded increased percent of stunted children. This revealed that being a member of low or high-level commercialization households may not guarantee better nutritional status of young children of farm households. The results of LRM indicated that the predictors of children nutritional status were child’s age, farm size, access to electricity, healthcare and commercialization variables. Moreover, weak positive and negative relationships exist between CCI and children’s nutrition outcomes as measured by the z-scores. The study recommended maternal nutrition-sensitive education intervention that can improve nutrition knowledge of mothers and provision of infrastructure that enhance increased farm production and promote healthy living among farm households.
Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm Households: Do ...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
The study investigated the nutritional status of under-five children of farm households. The study utilized primary data from 352 farm households with 140 under-five children. Household crop commercialization index (CCI) was used to estimate cassava farm household crop sale ratio and categorize the households into four commercialization levels while WHO Anthro software was employed to analyze under-five children anthropometric indices such as weight-for-age z-score (WAZ), height-for-age z-score (HAZ) and weight-for-height z-score (WHZ). Logit regression model (LRM) was used to examine the drivers of under-five children’s nutritional status of farm households. The study found that 42.9%, 7.9% and 3.6% of the children are stunted, underweight and wasted respectively. The highest stunting level was recorded in zero level households (CCI 1). Although, some higher CCI households (medium-high and very-high level) recorded increased percent of stunted children. This revealed that being a member of low or high-level commercialization households may not guarantee better nutritional status of young children of farm households. The results of LRM indicated that the predictors of children nutritional status were child’s age, farm size, access to electricity, healthcare and commercialization variables. Moreover, weak positive and negative relationships exist between CCI and children’s nutrition outcomes as measured by the z-scores. The study recommended maternal nutrition-sensitive education intervention that can improve nutrition knowledge of mothers and provision of infrastructure that enhance increased farm production and promote healthy living among farm households.
Exploring dietary diversity, nutritional status of adolescents amongfarmhouse...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Purpose –This study aims to explore dietary diversity (DD) and nutritional status of adolescents among rural farm households in Southwestern Nigeria. It analyses whether higher commercialization levels of farm households translate to better nutrition. Design/methodology/approach –This study was conducted in Ogun and Oyo States of Southwestern Nigeria, using primary data from352 farm households with a total of 160 adolescent members. The individual version of dietary diversity score (DDS) of nine food groups was used to calculate adolescent DDS over a 24-h recall period. World Health Organization AnthroPlus software was used in analyzing adolescents’ anthropometric data (height-for-age z-score and body mass index-for-age z-score) while household crop commercialization index (CCI) was estimated for each farm household. Separate logit models were used to examine thedriversof adolescents’ DDandmalnutrition. Findings –Thestudyfindings indicated that 100% of the adolescents consumed starchy staples while 0%, 3.1% and 12.5% consumed organ meat, milk/milk products and eggs, respectively. Results revealed that 74.1%and21.2%ofboyswerestuntedandthinwhiletheprevalenceinadolescent girls was 50.7%and9.3%, respectively. Prevalence of stunting was found to be very high (60%–83%) in all the four CCI levels’ households indicating that belonging to highly commercialized households (CCI 3–4) may not necessarily translate to better nutrition of adolescent members. Food expenditure (p < 0.01) and access to piped water (p <0.01) negatively influenced adolescents’ stunting mainly because of lower expenditure on food items and lower percent of household having access to piped water, respectively, while education (p < 0.01) had positive effects on adolescents’ DD. Originality/value –Previous studies have contributed to the body of knowledge concerning the link between agricultural commercialization and nutrition using under-five children of the households. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that investigated the influence of CCI on DDSandnutritional status of adolescent members of farm households in Nigeria. This study fills this existing knowledge gap in investigating adolescents’ DD and malnutrition among smallholder farm households.
Exploring dietary diversity, nutritional status of adolescents among farm hou...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Nutrition and Food Science (NFS) July, 2022: DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/NFS-03-2022-0104
Purpose:
This study explored dietary diversity and nutritional status of adolescents among rural farm households in Southwestern Nigeria. It analyses if higher commercialization levels of farm households translate to better nutrition.
Design/methodology/approach: The study was conducted in Ogun and Oyo States of Southwestern Nigeria, utilizing primary data from 352 farm households with a total of 160 adolescent members. The individual version of dietary diversity score (DDS) of nine (9) food groups was used to calculate adolescent DDS over a 24-h recall period, World Health Organization (WHO) AnthroPlus software was used in analyzing adolescents’ anthropometric data (height-for-age z-score and BMI-for-age z-score) while household crop commercialization index (CCI) was estimated for each farm household. Separate logit models were used to examine the drivers of adolescents’ dietary diversity and malnutrition.
Findings: The study findings indicated that 100% of the adolescents consumed starchy staples while 0%, 3.1% and 12.5% consumed organ meat, milk/milk poducts, and eggs respectively. Results revealed that 74.1% and 21.2% of boys were stunted and thin while the prevalence in adolescent girls was 50.7% and 9.3% respectively. Prevalence of stunting was found to be very high (60-83%) in all the four CCI levels’ households indicating that belonging to highly commercialized households (CCI 3-4) may not necessarily translate to better nutrition of adolescent members. Food expenditure (p< 0.01) and access to piped water (p< 0.01) negatively influenced adolescents’ stunting mainly due to lower expenditure on food items and lower percent of household having access to piped water respectively while education (p< 0.01) had positive effect on adolescents’ dietary diversity.
Originality/value: Previous studies have contributed to the body of knowledge concerning the link between agricultural commercialization and nutrition using under-five children of the households. However, this is the first study that investigated the influence of CCI on DDS and nutritional status of adolescent members of farm households in Nigeria. Our study fills this existing knowledge gap in investigating adolescents’ dietary diversity and malnutrition among smallholder farm households.
Dietary diversity, nutritional status, and agricultural commercialization: ev...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Access tohealthyandaffordablediethingedontherealizationofSustainableDevelopmentGoal2,higherproductivity and, economic prosperity while it is difficult for a poorly nourished people to achieve optimum production of goods and services. This study assessed whether dietary diversity (DD) and nutritional status of adult men are associated with crop commercialization index (CCI) levels of agricultural households in two states of Southwestern Nigeria. This research utilized 352 farm households, comprising 277 adult malemembers. The individualversionofdietary diversity score (DDS)of9foodgroupswasusedtocalculateadultmen’sDDSovera24-hrecall.Anthropometricdatawas obtained using bodymass index(BMI)whileCCIlevelswas estimatedfor eachagricultural household. Logistic regression and ordered logit models were used to examine the determinants of adult men’s dietary diversity and nutritional status respectively. Hundred percent of adult men consumed starchy staples, with 11.2% consuming egg, 5.8% milk andmilkproducts and 0.4%consumingorganmeatover24-hrecall. Adultmen ofCCI2andCCI4agriculturalhouseholds recorded overweight prevalence of >20% in Ogun state while the association between DDS and CCI was statistically insignificant suggesting that being a member of any of the CCI households may not guarantee the consumption of healthy diets among adult men. From Logit regression analysis, it is more likely for adult men with higher farm size toattaintheminimumDDSof4foodgroupsthanthosewithsmallersizeoffarmland(OR=4.78;95%CI:1.94,11.76; p =0.001). The age, farm experience, and cassava marketing experience were positively related to the likelihood of obtaining the minimum DDS. For adult men to achieve a healthy diet, their diet pattern must incorporate a more diversifiedintakeoffoodfromdifferentfoodgroupscapableofimprovingtheirnutritionalstatus.Thisstudyemphasized the need for relevant stakeholders to provide adequate nutrition knowledge intervention programmes capable of improving the diets and nutrition of adult men and other members of farm households.
Dietary diversity, nutritional status, and agricultural commercialization: ev...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Access to healthy and affordable diet hinged on the realization of Sustainable Development Goal 2, higher productivity and, economic prosperity while it is difficult for a poorly nourished people to achieve optimum production of goods and services. This study assessed whether dietary diversity (DD) and nutritional status of adult men are associated with crop commercialization index (CCI) levels of agricultural households in two states of Southwestern Nigeria. This research utilized 352 farm households, comprising 277 adult male members. The individual version of dietary diversity score (DDS) of 9 food groups was used to calculate adult men’s DDS over a 24-h recall. Anthropometric data was obtained using body mass index (BMI) while CCI levels was estimated for each agricultural household. Logistic regression and ordered logit models were used to examine the determinants of adult men’s dietary diversity and nutritional status respectively. Hundred percent of adult men consumed starchy staples, with 11.2% consuming egg, 5.8% milk and milk products and 0.4% consuming organ meat over 24-h recall. Adult men of CCI 2 and CCI 4 agricultural households recorded overweight prevalence of >20% in Ogun state while the association between DDS and CCI was statistically insignificant suggesting that being a member of any of the CCI households may not guarantee the consumption of healthy diets among adult men. From Logit regression analysis, it is more likely for adult men with higher farm size to attain the minimum DDS of 4 food groups than those with smaller size of farmland (OR = 4.78; 95% CI: 1.94, 11.76; p = 0.001). The age, farm experience, and cassava marketing experience were positively related to the likelihood of obtaining the minimum DDS. For adult men to achieve a healthy diet, their diet pattern must incorporate a more diversified intake of food from different food groups capable of improving their nutritional status. This study emphasized the need for relevant stakeholders to provide adequate nutrition knowledge intervention programmes capable of improving the diets and nutrition of adult men and other members of farm households.
Dietary diversity, nutritional status, and agricultural commercialization: ev...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Access tohealthyandaffordablediethingedontherealizationofSustainableDevelopmentGoal2,higherproductivity and, economic prosperity while it is difficult for a poorly nourished people to achieve optimum production of goods and services. This study assessed whether dietary diversity (DD) and nutritional status of adult men are associated with crop commercialization index (CCI) levels of agricultural households in two states of Southwestern Nigeria. This research utilized 352 farm households, comprising 277 adult malemembers. The individualversionofdietary diversity score (DDS)of9foodgroupswasusedtocalculateadultmen’sDDSovera24-hrecall.Anthropometricdatawas obtained using bodymass index(BMI)whileCCIlevelswas estimatedfor eachagricultural household. Logistic regression and ordered logit models were used to examine the determinants of adult men’s dietary diversity and nutritional status respectively. Hundred percent of adult men consumed starchy staples, with 11.2% consuming egg, 5.8% milk andmilkproducts and 0.4%consumingorganmeatover24-hrecall. Adultmen ofCCI2andCCI4agriculturalhouseholds recorded overweight prevalence of >20% in Ogun state while the association between DDS and CCI was statistically insignificant suggesting that being a member of any of the CCI households may not guarantee the consumption of healthy diets among adult men. From Logit regression analysis, it is more likely for adult men with higher farm size toattaintheminimumDDSof4foodgroupsthanthosewithsmallersizeoffarmland(OR=4.78;95%CI:1.94,11.76; p =0.001). The age, farm experience, and cassava marketing experience were positively related to the likelihood of obtaining the minimum DDS. For adult men to achieve a healthy diet, their diet pattern must incorporate a more diversifiedintakeoffoodfromdifferentfoodgroupscapableofimprovingtheirnutritionalstatus.Thisstudyemphasized the need for relevant stakeholders to provide adequate nutrition knowledge intervention programmes capable of improving the diets and nutrition of adult men and other members of farm households.
Abstract
The paper investigates Nigeria’s attempt at improving food security using the agricultural promotion policy and Sustainable Development Goal 2. It situates the discussion via empirical and cross-national review that juxtaposes Nigeria with seven other countries. The study relied on secondary sources of data, which were textually analysed. It is observable from the review that food insecurity results from a plethora of factors, namely: poor funding of agriculture; top-bottom approach to policy formulation and implementation; inadequate appreciation of the role of science and technology; natural disasters; and human-induced afflictions such as insurgency, banditry and general security deficits within and across national borders. To ameliorate these, strategic planning; robust technology adoption/adaptation; resuscitation of agricultural co-operative societies and funding institutions operating at reduced or free-interest on loans to practising farmers are canvassed by this paper. Other suggestions proffered are capable of redressing food security deficits identified.
Keywords: Agriculture, Food, Food Security, Policy, Nigeria
Dietary diversity, environment and health-related factors of under-five child...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Diverse and quality diets are crucial to sustainable growth and development of under-five children, especially those of rural farming households. This study investigated the dietary diversity, environment, and health-related factors of young children. The study employed the use of cross-sectional survey data from 140 under-five children of cassava farming households in Ogun and Oyo states, South-West Nigeria. The study estimated factors influencing dietary diversity of under-five children and assessed children dietary diversity, and the availability of some environment and health-related factors of the farming households. The findings indicated that 98.7% and 97.5% of children consumed grains, with roots and tubers while 36.7% and 36.3% consumed legumes in Ogun and Oyo states respectively. The results also found that 48.6% of children sampled met the minimum cut-off point of 4 food groups with dietary diversity mean score of 3.28. The logit regression analysis indicated that child’s age, mothers’ age, distance to farm, and food expenditure were among the significant determinants of children dietary diversity. Therefore, this study seeks the collaborative efforts of stakeholders in providing nutrition-sensitive intervention programs for household members, especially mothers and young children in order to promote consumption of diversified diets and enhance healthy living of rural farming households.
Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm Households: Do ...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
The study investigated the nutritional status of under-five children of farm households. The study utilized primary data from 352 farm households with 140 under-five children. Household crop commercialization index (CCI) was used to estimate cassava farm household crop sale ratio and categorize the households into four commercialization levels while WHO Anthro software was employed to analyze under-five children anthropometric indices such as weight-for-age z-score (WAZ), height-for-age z-score (HAZ) and weight-for-height z-score (WHZ). Logit regression model (LRM) was used to examine the drivers of under-five children’s nutritional status of farm households. The study found that 42.9%, 7.9% and 3.6% of the children are stunted, underweight and wasted respectively. The highest stunting level was recorded in zero level households (CCI 1). Although, some higher CCI households (medium-high and very-high level) recorded increased percent of stunted children. This revealed that being a member of low or high-level commercialization households may not guarantee better nutritional status of young children of farm households. The results of LRM indicated that the predictors of children nutritional status were child’s age, farm size, access to electricity, healthcare and commercialization variables. Moreover, weak positive and negative relationships exist between CCI and children’s nutrition outcomes as measured by the z-scores. The study recommended maternal nutrition-sensitive education intervention that can improve nutrition knowledge of mothers and provision of infrastructure that enhance increased farm production and promote healthy living among farm households.
Exploring dietary diversity, nutritional status of adolescents amongfarmhouse...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Purpose –This study aims to explore dietary diversity (DD) and nutritional status of adolescents among rural farm households in Southwestern Nigeria. It analyses whether higher commercialization levels of farm households translate to better nutrition. Design/methodology/approach –This study was conducted in Ogun and Oyo States of Southwestern Nigeria, using primary data from352 farm households with a total of 160 adolescent members. The individual version of dietary diversity score (DDS) of nine food groups was used to calculate adolescent DDS over a 24-h recall period. World Health Organization AnthroPlus software was used in analyzing adolescents’ anthropometric data (height-for-age z-score and body mass index-for-age z-score) while household crop commercialization index (CCI) was estimated for each farm household. Separate logit models were used to examine thedriversof adolescents’ DDandmalnutrition. Findings –Thestudyfindings indicated that 100% of the adolescents consumed starchy staples while 0%, 3.1% and 12.5% consumed organ meat, milk/milk products and eggs, respectively. Results revealed that 74.1%and21.2%ofboyswerestuntedandthinwhiletheprevalenceinadolescent girls was 50.7%and9.3%, respectively. Prevalence of stunting was found to be very high (60%–83%) in all the four CCI levels’ households indicating that belonging to highly commercialized households (CCI 3–4) may not necessarily translate to better nutrition of adolescent members. Food expenditure (p < 0.01) and access to piped water (p <0.01) negatively influenced adolescents’ stunting mainly because of lower expenditure on food items and lower percent of household having access to piped water, respectively, while education (p < 0.01) had positive effects on adolescents’ DD. Originality/value –Previous studies have contributed to the body of knowledge concerning the link between agricultural commercialization and nutrition using under-five children of the households. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that investigated the influence of CCI on DDSandnutritional status of adolescent members of farm households in Nigeria. This study fills this existing knowledge gap in investigating adolescents’ DD and malnutrition among smallholder farm households.
Exploring dietary diversity, nutritional status of adolescents among farm hou...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Nutrition and Food Science (NFS) July, 2022: DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/NFS-03-2022-0104
Purpose:
This study explored dietary diversity and nutritional status of adolescents among rural farm households in Southwestern Nigeria. It analyses if higher commercialization levels of farm households translate to better nutrition.
Design/methodology/approach: The study was conducted in Ogun and Oyo States of Southwestern Nigeria, utilizing primary data from 352 farm households with a total of 160 adolescent members. The individual version of dietary diversity score (DDS) of nine (9) food groups was used to calculate adolescent DDS over a 24-h recall period, World Health Organization (WHO) AnthroPlus software was used in analyzing adolescents’ anthropometric data (height-for-age z-score and BMI-for-age z-score) while household crop commercialization index (CCI) was estimated for each farm household. Separate logit models were used to examine the drivers of adolescents’ dietary diversity and malnutrition.
Findings: The study findings indicated that 100% of the adolescents consumed starchy staples while 0%, 3.1% and 12.5% consumed organ meat, milk/milk poducts, and eggs respectively. Results revealed that 74.1% and 21.2% of boys were stunted and thin while the prevalence in adolescent girls was 50.7% and 9.3% respectively. Prevalence of stunting was found to be very high (60-83%) in all the four CCI levels’ households indicating that belonging to highly commercialized households (CCI 3-4) may not necessarily translate to better nutrition of adolescent members. Food expenditure (p< 0.01) and access to piped water (p< 0.01) negatively influenced adolescents’ stunting mainly due to lower expenditure on food items and lower percent of household having access to piped water respectively while education (p< 0.01) had positive effect on adolescents’ dietary diversity.
Originality/value: Previous studies have contributed to the body of knowledge concerning the link between agricultural commercialization and nutrition using under-five children of the households. However, this is the first study that investigated the influence of CCI on DDS and nutritional status of adolescent members of farm households in Nigeria. Our study fills this existing knowledge gap in investigating adolescents’ dietary diversity and malnutrition among smallholder farm households.
Dietary diversity, nutritional status, and agricultural commercialization: ev...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Access tohealthyandaffordablediethingedontherealizationofSustainableDevelopmentGoal2,higherproductivity and, economic prosperity while it is difficult for a poorly nourished people to achieve optimum production of goods and services. This study assessed whether dietary diversity (DD) and nutritional status of adult men are associated with crop commercialization index (CCI) levels of agricultural households in two states of Southwestern Nigeria. This research utilized 352 farm households, comprising 277 adult malemembers. The individualversionofdietary diversity score (DDS)of9foodgroupswasusedtocalculateadultmen’sDDSovera24-hrecall.Anthropometricdatawas obtained using bodymass index(BMI)whileCCIlevelswas estimatedfor eachagricultural household. Logistic regression and ordered logit models were used to examine the determinants of adult men’s dietary diversity and nutritional status respectively. Hundred percent of adult men consumed starchy staples, with 11.2% consuming egg, 5.8% milk andmilkproducts and 0.4%consumingorganmeatover24-hrecall. Adultmen ofCCI2andCCI4agriculturalhouseholds recorded overweight prevalence of >20% in Ogun state while the association between DDS and CCI was statistically insignificant suggesting that being a member of any of the CCI households may not guarantee the consumption of healthy diets among adult men. From Logit regression analysis, it is more likely for adult men with higher farm size toattaintheminimumDDSof4foodgroupsthanthosewithsmallersizeoffarmland(OR=4.78;95%CI:1.94,11.76; p =0.001). The age, farm experience, and cassava marketing experience were positively related to the likelihood of obtaining the minimum DDS. For adult men to achieve a healthy diet, their diet pattern must incorporate a more diversifiedintakeoffoodfromdifferentfoodgroupscapableofimprovingtheirnutritionalstatus.Thisstudyemphasized the need for relevant stakeholders to provide adequate nutrition knowledge intervention programmes capable of improving the diets and nutrition of adult men and other members of farm households.
Dietary diversity, nutritional status, and agricultural commercialization: ev...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Access to healthy and affordable diet hinged on the realization of Sustainable Development Goal 2, higher productivity and, economic prosperity while it is difficult for a poorly nourished people to achieve optimum production of goods and services. This study assessed whether dietary diversity (DD) and nutritional status of adult men are associated with crop commercialization index (CCI) levels of agricultural households in two states of Southwestern Nigeria. This research utilized 352 farm households, comprising 277 adult male members. The individual version of dietary diversity score (DDS) of 9 food groups was used to calculate adult men’s DDS over a 24-h recall. Anthropometric data was obtained using body mass index (BMI) while CCI levels was estimated for each agricultural household. Logistic regression and ordered logit models were used to examine the determinants of adult men’s dietary diversity and nutritional status respectively. Hundred percent of adult men consumed starchy staples, with 11.2% consuming egg, 5.8% milk and milk products and 0.4% consuming organ meat over 24-h recall. Adult men of CCI 2 and CCI 4 agricultural households recorded overweight prevalence of >20% in Ogun state while the association between DDS and CCI was statistically insignificant suggesting that being a member of any of the CCI households may not guarantee the consumption of healthy diets among adult men. From Logit regression analysis, it is more likely for adult men with higher farm size to attain the minimum DDS of 4 food groups than those with smaller size of farmland (OR = 4.78; 95% CI: 1.94, 11.76; p = 0.001). The age, farm experience, and cassava marketing experience were positively related to the likelihood of obtaining the minimum DDS. For adult men to achieve a healthy diet, their diet pattern must incorporate a more diversified intake of food from different food groups capable of improving their nutritional status. This study emphasized the need for relevant stakeholders to provide adequate nutrition knowledge intervention programmes capable of improving the diets and nutrition of adult men and other members of farm households.
Dietary diversity, nutritional status, and agricultural commercialization: ev...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Access tohealthyandaffordablediethingedontherealizationofSustainableDevelopmentGoal2,higherproductivity and, economic prosperity while it is difficult for a poorly nourished people to achieve optimum production of goods and services. This study assessed whether dietary diversity (DD) and nutritional status of adult men are associated with crop commercialization index (CCI) levels of agricultural households in two states of Southwestern Nigeria. This research utilized 352 farm households, comprising 277 adult malemembers. The individualversionofdietary diversity score (DDS)of9foodgroupswasusedtocalculateadultmen’sDDSovera24-hrecall.Anthropometricdatawas obtained using bodymass index(BMI)whileCCIlevelswas estimatedfor eachagricultural household. Logistic regression and ordered logit models were used to examine the determinants of adult men’s dietary diversity and nutritional status respectively. Hundred percent of adult men consumed starchy staples, with 11.2% consuming egg, 5.8% milk andmilkproducts and 0.4%consumingorganmeatover24-hrecall. Adultmen ofCCI2andCCI4agriculturalhouseholds recorded overweight prevalence of >20% in Ogun state while the association between DDS and CCI was statistically insignificant suggesting that being a member of any of the CCI households may not guarantee the consumption of healthy diets among adult men. From Logit regression analysis, it is more likely for adult men with higher farm size toattaintheminimumDDSof4foodgroupsthanthosewithsmallersizeoffarmland(OR=4.78;95%CI:1.94,11.76; p =0.001). The age, farm experience, and cassava marketing experience were positively related to the likelihood of obtaining the minimum DDS. For adult men to achieve a healthy diet, their diet pattern must incorporate a more diversifiedintakeoffoodfromdifferentfoodgroupscapableofimprovingtheirnutritionalstatus.Thisstudyemphasized the need for relevant stakeholders to provide adequate nutrition knowledge intervention programmes capable of improving the diets and nutrition of adult men and other members of farm households.
Abstract
The paper investigates Nigeria’s attempt at improving food security using the agricultural promotion policy and Sustainable Development Goal 2. It situates the discussion via empirical and cross-national review that juxtaposes Nigeria with seven other countries. The study relied on secondary sources of data, which were textually analysed. It is observable from the review that food insecurity results from a plethora of factors, namely: poor funding of agriculture; top-bottom approach to policy formulation and implementation; inadequate appreciation of the role of science and technology; natural disasters; and human-induced afflictions such as insurgency, banditry and general security deficits within and across national borders. To ameliorate these, strategic planning; robust technology adoption/adaptation; resuscitation of agricultural co-operative societies and funding institutions operating at reduced or free-interest on loans to practising farmers are canvassed by this paper. Other suggestions proffered are capable of redressing food security deficits identified.
Keywords: Agriculture, Food, Food Security, Policy, Nigeria
Dietary diversity, environment and health-related factors of under-five child...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Diverse and quality diets are crucial to sustainable growth and development of under-five children, especially those of rural farming households. This study investigated the dietary diversity, environment, and health-related factors of young children. The study employed the use of cross-sectional survey data from 140 under-five children of cassava farming households in Ogun and Oyo states, South-West Nigeria. The study estimated factors influencing dietary diversity of under-five children and assessed children dietary diversity, and the availability of some environment and health-related factors of the farming households. The findings indicated that 98.7% and 97.5% of children consumed grains, with roots and tubers while 36.7% and 36.3% consumed legumes in Ogun and Oyo states respectively. The results also found that 48.6% of children sampled met the minimum cut-off point of 4 food groups with dietary diversity mean score of 3.28. The logit regression analysis indicated that child’s age, mothers’ age, distance to farm, and food expenditure were among the significant determinants of children dietary diversity. Therefore, this study seeks the collaborative efforts of stakeholders in providing nutrition-sensitive intervention programs for household members, especially mothers and young children in order to promote consumption of diversified diets and enhance healthy living of rural farming households.
Association Between Bio-fortification and Child Nutrition Among Smallholder H...Premier Publishers
We explored the empirical relationship between bio-fortification and child nutrition in Uganda. The research expanded the traditional approach used to address child nutrition by including in the model a categorical dependent variable for a household growing bio-fortified crop varieties. We used three waves of panel data from the Feed. The Future Innovation Lab for Nutrition, collected from 6 districts in Uganda. We performed univariate analysis and also estimated a panel logistic regression model to study the association between child stunting and production of bio-fortified crop varieties among smallholder farmers in Uganda. The results confirmed a very strong association between production of bio-fortified crop varieties and child stunting among children aged 0-59 months of age. The strength of the relationship, however was insensitive to the number of bio-fortified crop varieties grown by a particular household. Other important covariates of child stunting were male gender, 24-59 months age bracket, child birth weight, dietary diversity, education of caregiver, antenatal care, household size, access to improved water and household livestock score. These results can be used to vindicate current government policy of promoting production of bio-fortified crop varieties and underscore the need for intensified efforts to promote bio-fortification as a complementary means of addressing long-term child malnutrition in Uganda.
Assessing the Food Security Determinants among Rural Households in Kano, NigeriaPremier Publishers
Food security is a serious challenge in Nigeria as a whole and Kano in particular. Numerous factors combine to make households food insecure, especially the rural households in Kano State. The aim and objective of the study is to indicate the food status of the rural households and identify the major determinants of food security in the region. Using a sample size of 326 rural households from eight local government areas in Kano, this study assessed the food security of rural households through a food security index (FSI). A binary regression was applied to identify the factors that determine food security in rural Kano. The FSI result revealed that 60% of the rural households are food insecure. Binary regression outcome revealed that age of household head, education, involvement in farming, farm size, expenditure, livestock ownership, household size and income of household members were found to be statistically significant factors. It is suggested that household heads, especially males, should curtail the size of the household; women in the study area need to be educated on the basic nutritional requirements and minimum standards of hygiene so that households; food security could be improved.
Productive Safety Net Program Determinants and their Impact on Rural Household Food Security in Somali Regional State: The Case of Kebri Dehar District) Ethiopia
as part of the IFPRI-Egypt Seminar Series- funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) project called “Evaluating Impact and Building Capacity” (EIBC) that is implemented by IFPRI.
Shenggen Fan
Transforming Agriculture and Food systems for Higher Income and Better Nutrition: Global and Emerging Perspective, IFPRI-JICA Workshop
June 28, 2018
Johan Swinnen
GLOBAL FOOD POLICY REPORT
Netherlands Discussion of IFPRI’s 2021 Global Food Policy Report: Transforming Food Systems After COVID-19
Co-Organized by The Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, IFPRI and Netherlands Food Partnership
APR 15, 2021 - 08:00 AM TO 09:15 AM EDT
How far has Africa gone in achieving zero hunger target? evidence from Nigeria Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Sustainable Development Goal 2 is hinged on achieving zero hunger, worldwide, by the year 2030. Many developing countries, especially African countries, are faced with extreme hunger often caused or compounded by bad governance, conflicts and climate change. In this paper, we review patterns of Global Hunger Index scores across Africa from 2000 to 2018 noting advances and setbacks in the fight against hunger in relation to the underlying causes of hunger in these nations, using Nigeria, the poverty capital of the world, as a case study. We also review selected policies of the Nigerian government and development partners aimed at reducing hunger in Nigeria and proffer solutions that can help actualise the target of zero hunger by 2030.
How far has Africa gone in achieving the zero hunger target? Evidence from Ni...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Sustainable Development Goal 2 is hinged on achieving zero hunger, worldwide, by the year 2030. Many developing countries, especially African countries, are faced with extreme hunger often caused or compounded by bad governance, conflicts and climate change. In this paper, we review patterns of Global Hunger Index scores across Africa from 2000 to 2018 noting advances and setbacks in the fight against hunger in relation to the underlying causes of hunger in these nations, using Nigeria, the poverty capital of the world, as a case study. We also review selected policies of the Nigerian government and development partners aimed at reducing hunger in Nigeria and proffer solutions that can help actualise the target of zero hunger by 2030.
Johan Swinnen
GLOBAL FOOD POLICY REPORT
GLOBAL LAUNCH EVENT - 2021 Global Food Policy Report: Transforming Food Systems After COVID-19
APR 13, 2021 - 09:30 AM TO 11:00 AM EDT
Assessing Food Insecurity and Its Drivers among Smallholder Farming Household...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Hunger and food insecurity take center stage in most debates in Africa, and in recent times with serious concerns about Nigeria. This study assessed food insecurity among farming households in rural Oyo State, Nigeria, using cross-sectional datasets from 211 farming households through a multi-stage sampling procedure. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) module was employed in assessing food insecurity status of farming households, and the ordered logit model (OLM) was used to analyze factors influencing food insecurity among farming households. The results revealed that 12.8% of the farming households were food secure while 87.2% had varying levels of food insecurity. The OLM results indicated that age, household head’s years of schooling, gender, farm size, farm experience, non-farm income, food expenditure, and access to extension service significantly influenced food insecurity among farming households. Based on the findings, efforts should be geared towards promoting households’ education-related intervention programs in order to improve their nutrition-related knowledge that can enhance their food security status. Additionally, there should be provision of rural infrastructural facilities such as piped water, rural electrification, and healthcare service that promote healthy living and enhance households’ agricultural productivity.
As part of the IFPRI Egypt Seminar in partnership with the National Nutrition Committee (ASRT affiliated): "100 million healthy lives: Scientific evidence on the double burden of malnutrition in Egypt"
WEBINAR: European Commission Discussion of IFPRI’s 2021 Global Food Policy Re...Francois Stepman
13 May 2021. In the 2021 Global Food Policy Report, IFPRI researchers and experts explore the impacts of the pandemic and government policy responses to date, particularly for the poor and disadvantaged, and consider what it all means for transforming our food systems to be healthy, resilient, efficient, sustainable, and inclusive.
During this session, speakers shared evidence on the impact of COVID-19, and discuss the way forward for food systems transformation.
Video recording will be posted shortly on INTPA/Infopoint Conference
Leonard Mizzi - Head of Unit, European Union Directorate General for Planet and Prosperity, European Commission
Johan Swinnen - Director General, International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI
John McDermott - Director, CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH), IFPRI
Neha Kumar - Senior Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI
Danielle Resnick - Senior Research Fellow, and Theme Leader, Governance, IFPRI
Resource
IFPRI (2021). 2021 Global Food Policy Report: Transforming Food Systems after COVID-19. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. 124
Countdown to the 2030 Global Goals: A Bibliometric Analysis of the Research T...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
As we approach the deadline for achieving the United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which is less than a decade away, it is crucial for researchers and research institutions at both national and international levels to conduct rigorous scientific assessments of the progress made towards these goals. The assessment is of utmost importance as it will provide valuable insights and information to political leaders and other stakeholders, guiding their actions and efforts towards successfully attaining the SDGs by the year 2030. This study aimed at providing vivid descriptions of the SDG 2 – zero hunger-related research endeavour. It employed bibliometric analysis and geographical patterns of SDG 2-related publications extracted from Scopus database from 2015 to 2023. A total of 397 documents were extracted where Sustainability journal ranked 1st among the journal outlets of zero hunger-related publications. The publication of zero hunger-related documents grew from 1.5% in 2016 to 29.7% in 2022. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and Chinese Academy of Sciences were the top 2 institutions publishing zero hunger-related documents while the lead article was published by Journal of Cleaner Production with 128 citations. The funding sponsors of SDG 2-related publications were dominated by sponsors from developed countries (such as China, Belgium, United States, and United Kingdom) while no funding sponsors from developing countries were among the top 10. The United States and United Kingdom were the two most productive countries while only one African country (South Africa) made the list of top 10 countries publishing zero hunger-related documents. This study provided political leaders and key stakeholders with in-depth understanding of the SDG 2-related research activities and highlighted research funding and collaboration gaps facing the developing nations.
Investigating and Quantifying Food Insecurity in Nigeria: A Systematic Review Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Given the recent increase in the number of Nigerians estimated to be at risk of food insecurity, it is crucial to explore the array of tools used to quantify food insecurity (FI). This exploration will help determine the prevalence and severity of FI in Nigeria. This review explored the scope of FI research carried out in Nigeria to examine how the design was quantified. A systematic review was performed to compile the accessible Nigerian studies. Seventy-nine studies were reviewed. Eighteen used the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale module (HFIAS) to investigate FI status; thirteen used the recommended daily calorie requirement approach; twelve employed the Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM); ten used the food insecurity index (through household per capita food expenditure); seven used the Food Insecurity Experienced Scale (FIES); two used the Food Consumption Score (FCS); and the others employed less standardized or thorough approaches. Different prevalence levels and gravities of FI in the Nigerian populations were documented. The prevalence of FI varied from 12% to 100%, based on the instrument and demography being studied. In accordance with the findings of this review, the authors propose standardization of the FI instrument and highlight the need for a measurement tool that would be appropriate for the Nigerian setting. This will enable researchers to attain a comprehensive knowledge of the occurrence rate of FI in Nigeria, leading to improved food-and nutrition-sensitive policy development.
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We explored the empirical relationship between bio-fortification and child nutrition in Uganda. The research expanded the traditional approach used to address child nutrition by including in the model a categorical dependent variable for a household growing bio-fortified crop varieties. We used three waves of panel data from the Feed. The Future Innovation Lab for Nutrition, collected from 6 districts in Uganda. We performed univariate analysis and also estimated a panel logistic regression model to study the association between child stunting and production of bio-fortified crop varieties among smallholder farmers in Uganda. The results confirmed a very strong association between production of bio-fortified crop varieties and child stunting among children aged 0-59 months of age. The strength of the relationship, however was insensitive to the number of bio-fortified crop varieties grown by a particular household. Other important covariates of child stunting were male gender, 24-59 months age bracket, child birth weight, dietary diversity, education of caregiver, antenatal care, household size, access to improved water and household livestock score. These results can be used to vindicate current government policy of promoting production of bio-fortified crop varieties and underscore the need for intensified efforts to promote bio-fortification as a complementary means of addressing long-term child malnutrition in Uganda.
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Food security is a serious challenge in Nigeria as a whole and Kano in particular. Numerous factors combine to make households food insecure, especially the rural households in Kano State. The aim and objective of the study is to indicate the food status of the rural households and identify the major determinants of food security in the region. Using a sample size of 326 rural households from eight local government areas in Kano, this study assessed the food security of rural households through a food security index (FSI). A binary regression was applied to identify the factors that determine food security in rural Kano. The FSI result revealed that 60% of the rural households are food insecure. Binary regression outcome revealed that age of household head, education, involvement in farming, farm size, expenditure, livestock ownership, household size and income of household members were found to be statistically significant factors. It is suggested that household heads, especially males, should curtail the size of the household; women in the study area need to be educated on the basic nutritional requirements and minimum standards of hygiene so that households; food security could be improved.
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Netherlands Discussion of IFPRI’s 2021 Global Food Policy Report: Transforming Food Systems After COVID-19
Co-Organized by The Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, IFPRI and Netherlands Food Partnership
APR 15, 2021 - 08:00 AM TO 09:15 AM EDT
How far has Africa gone in achieving zero hunger target? evidence from Nigeria Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Sustainable Development Goal 2 is hinged on achieving zero hunger, worldwide, by the year 2030. Many developing countries, especially African countries, are faced with extreme hunger often caused or compounded by bad governance, conflicts and climate change. In this paper, we review patterns of Global Hunger Index scores across Africa from 2000 to 2018 noting advances and setbacks in the fight against hunger in relation to the underlying causes of hunger in these nations, using Nigeria, the poverty capital of the world, as a case study. We also review selected policies of the Nigerian government and development partners aimed at reducing hunger in Nigeria and proffer solutions that can help actualise the target of zero hunger by 2030.
How far has Africa gone in achieving the zero hunger target? Evidence from Ni...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Sustainable Development Goal 2 is hinged on achieving zero hunger, worldwide, by the year 2030. Many developing countries, especially African countries, are faced with extreme hunger often caused or compounded by bad governance, conflicts and climate change. In this paper, we review patterns of Global Hunger Index scores across Africa from 2000 to 2018 noting advances and setbacks in the fight against hunger in relation to the underlying causes of hunger in these nations, using Nigeria, the poverty capital of the world, as a case study. We also review selected policies of the Nigerian government and development partners aimed at reducing hunger in Nigeria and proffer solutions that can help actualise the target of zero hunger by 2030.
Johan Swinnen
GLOBAL FOOD POLICY REPORT
GLOBAL LAUNCH EVENT - 2021 Global Food Policy Report: Transforming Food Systems After COVID-19
APR 13, 2021 - 09:30 AM TO 11:00 AM EDT
Assessing Food Insecurity and Its Drivers among Smallholder Farming Household...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Hunger and food insecurity take center stage in most debates in Africa, and in recent times with serious concerns about Nigeria. This study assessed food insecurity among farming households in rural Oyo State, Nigeria, using cross-sectional datasets from 211 farming households through a multi-stage sampling procedure. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) module was employed in assessing food insecurity status of farming households, and the ordered logit model (OLM) was used to analyze factors influencing food insecurity among farming households. The results revealed that 12.8% of the farming households were food secure while 87.2% had varying levels of food insecurity. The OLM results indicated that age, household head’s years of schooling, gender, farm size, farm experience, non-farm income, food expenditure, and access to extension service significantly influenced food insecurity among farming households. Based on the findings, efforts should be geared towards promoting households’ education-related intervention programs in order to improve their nutrition-related knowledge that can enhance their food security status. Additionally, there should be provision of rural infrastructural facilities such as piped water, rural electrification, and healthcare service that promote healthy living and enhance households’ agricultural productivity.
As part of the IFPRI Egypt Seminar in partnership with the National Nutrition Committee (ASRT affiliated): "100 million healthy lives: Scientific evidence on the double burden of malnutrition in Egypt"
WEBINAR: European Commission Discussion of IFPRI’s 2021 Global Food Policy Re...Francois Stepman
13 May 2021. In the 2021 Global Food Policy Report, IFPRI researchers and experts explore the impacts of the pandemic and government policy responses to date, particularly for the poor and disadvantaged, and consider what it all means for transforming our food systems to be healthy, resilient, efficient, sustainable, and inclusive.
During this session, speakers shared evidence on the impact of COVID-19, and discuss the way forward for food systems transformation.
Video recording will be posted shortly on INTPA/Infopoint Conference
Leonard Mizzi - Head of Unit, European Union Directorate General for Planet and Prosperity, European Commission
Johan Swinnen - Director General, International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI
John McDermott - Director, CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH), IFPRI
Neha Kumar - Senior Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI
Danielle Resnick - Senior Research Fellow, and Theme Leader, Governance, IFPRI
Resource
IFPRI (2021). 2021 Global Food Policy Report: Transforming Food Systems after COVID-19. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. 124
Aspects,need for food security,hunger,Global hunger index,
Similar to Nutrition outcomes of under-five children of smallholder farm households: do higher commercialization levels leads to better nutritional status? (20)
Countdown to the 2030 Global Goals: A Bibliometric Analysis of the Research T...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
As we approach the deadline for achieving the United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which is less than a decade away, it is crucial for researchers and research institutions at both national and international levels to conduct rigorous scientific assessments of the progress made towards these goals. The assessment is of utmost importance as it will provide valuable insights and information to political leaders and other stakeholders, guiding their actions and efforts towards successfully attaining the SDGs by the year 2030. This study aimed at providing vivid descriptions of the SDG 2 – zero hunger-related research endeavour. It employed bibliometric analysis and geographical patterns of SDG 2-related publications extracted from Scopus database from 2015 to 2023. A total of 397 documents were extracted where Sustainability journal ranked 1st among the journal outlets of zero hunger-related publications. The publication of zero hunger-related documents grew from 1.5% in 2016 to 29.7% in 2022. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and Chinese Academy of Sciences were the top 2 institutions publishing zero hunger-related documents while the lead article was published by Journal of Cleaner Production with 128 citations. The funding sponsors of SDG 2-related publications were dominated by sponsors from developed countries (such as China, Belgium, United States, and United Kingdom) while no funding sponsors from developing countries were among the top 10. The United States and United Kingdom were the two most productive countries while only one African country (South Africa) made the list of top 10 countries publishing zero hunger-related documents. This study provided political leaders and key stakeholders with in-depth understanding of the SDG 2-related research activities and highlighted research funding and collaboration gaps facing the developing nations.
Investigating and Quantifying Food Insecurity in Nigeria: A Systematic Review Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Given the recent increase in the number of Nigerians estimated to be at risk of food insecurity, it is crucial to explore the array of tools used to quantify food insecurity (FI). This exploration will help determine the prevalence and severity of FI in Nigeria. This review explored the scope of FI research carried out in Nigeria to examine how the design was quantified. A systematic review was performed to compile the accessible Nigerian studies. Seventy-nine studies were reviewed. Eighteen used the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale module (HFIAS) to investigate FI status; thirteen used the recommended daily calorie requirement approach; twelve employed the Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM); ten used the food insecurity index (through household per capita food expenditure); seven used the Food Insecurity Experienced Scale (FIES); two used the Food Consumption Score (FCS); and the others employed less standardized or thorough approaches. Different prevalence levels and gravities of FI in the Nigerian populations were documented. The prevalence of FI varied from 12% to 100%, based on the instrument and demography being studied. In accordance with the findings of this review, the authors propose standardization of the FI instrument and highlight the need for a measurement tool that would be appropriate for the Nigerian setting. This will enable researchers to attain a comprehensive knowledge of the occurrence rate of FI in Nigeria, leading to improved food-and nutrition-sensitive policy development.
Measuring the economic performance of smallholder organic maize farms; Implic...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
The use of chemical inputs in conventional agriculture is associated with some health and environmental issues. This led to a call for more sustainable and environmentally friendly agriculture without health issues. However, there is low participation in organic farming in Nigeria, which could be linked to less knowledge about its profitability. The study investigated smallholder organic maize farming profitability in Northern Nigeria. We employed descriptive statistics, profitability analysis, and a multiple regression model to analyse data collected from 480 maize farmers. The results revealed that organic maize farmers had a gross profit of USD 604.81 per hectare, a 0.46 profit ratio, a 0.54 gross ratio, a 0.32 operating ratio, a benefit-cost ratio of 1.85, and a 0.85 return on capital invested. Thus, organic maize farming is a productive and profitable venture. Organic manure, compost manure, farm size, selling price, cooperative membership, extension contact, access to credit, irrigation, education, and major occupation were factors that enhanced organic maize farming’s net profit. However, seed and transportation costs negatively influenced organic maize farming's net profit. Therefore, government and development agencies must intervene to make organic farming more sustainable and profitable by subsidizing seed costs and providing f inancial assistance to farmers.
Concerns about food safety issues have put considerable pressure on pesticide producers in Europe and worldwide to reduce the levels of pesticide residues in food. The aim of this work is to assess the use of traditional pesticides and their effects, to present perspectives in this field and to identi-fy regulatory needs for their use and implementation. The work is based on a systematic review in which the research problem was defined, primary sources were selected and critically appraised, data were collected, analysed and evaluated, and conclusions were formulated. The state of the pesticide market and the current legal requirements for risk assessment in relation to exposure to chemical sub-stances were reviewed. Food safety issues are presented through the prism of pesticide residues in food. Their widespread use and considerable persistence have made them ubiquitous in the natural environment and their residues pose a threat to the environment and to human and animal health. It has been shown that the most important factor influencing the search for new tools to control diseas-es and pests of crops is the progressive development of resistance of these populations to currently used pesticides. Various alternatives to the phasing out of synthetic pesticides in the form of natural products are therefore being developed to support the development of the natural products market.
COVID-19 Pandemic impacted food security and caused psychosocial stress in so...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
The COVID-19 disease has infected many countries, causing generalized impacts on different income categories. We carried out a survey among households (n = 412) representing different income groups in Nigeria. We used validated food insecurity experience and socio-psychologic tools. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The earning capacities of the respondents ranged from 145 USD/month for low-income earners to 1945 USD/month for high-income earners. A total of 173 households (42%) ran out of food during the COVID-19 pandemic. All categories of households experienced increasing dependency on the general public and a perception of increasing insecurity, with the high-income earners experiencing the greatest shift. In addition, increasing levels of anger and irritation were experienced among all categories. Of the socio-demographic variables, only gender, educational level of the household head, work hours per day, and family income based on society class were associated (p < 0.05) with food security and hunger due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Although psychological stress was observed to be greater in the low-income earning group, household heads with medium and high family income were more likely to have satisfactory experiences regarding food security and hunger. It is recommended that socio-economic groups should be mapped and support systems should target each group to provide the needed support in terms of health, social, economic, and mental wellness.
Assessing agricultural commercialization and rural infrastructure development...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
This study assessed agricultural commercialization and rural infrastructure development of smallholder cassava farmers in rural Southwestern Nigeria. The study was conducted in Nigeria with cross-sectional data collected from 352 smallholder cassava farmers. Crop commercialization index (CCI) was used to compute each farmer’s CCI and categorized into four levels while ordered logit model was employed to analyze the determinants of agricultural commercialization of cassava farmers in the study areas. Availability of some important rural infrastructures were assessed across cassava farmers’ commercialization levels. The results revealed that 13.1 % of cassava farmers did not participate in the sale of cassava roots while 86.9 % of them participated actively in the output market. T he mean and maximum CCI in the study areas was 59.1 and 95.5 respectively. The results also showed that less than 40 % and 20 % of cassava farmers in all commercialization levels had access to electricity and piped water respectively. The ordered logit regression analysis indicated that age, transport cost, cassava marketing experience, and distance to market were among the determinants of agricultural commercialization. Therefore, stakeholders should expedite policy actions capable of promoting rural infrastructure development that will enhance agricultural production, marketing and improve the quality of life of rural farming communities.
Exploring women's preferences for attributes of long-acting reversible contr...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
There is low LARC uptake in Nigeria and not much is documented about Nigerian women‟s preferences for these products and how these preferences affect women‟s choices. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide empirical evidence on the decision-making behavior of Nigerian women regarding LARCs. Three hypothetical LARCs were presented. Informed by results obtained from the review of relevant literature and focus group discussion held with selected family planning services providers, the identified attributes were effect on weight, cost, LARC effectiveness and effect on bleeding patterns, each at three levels. A D-optimal design was used to construct nine choice sets. An additional choice set was included to conduct the testretest stability test. The choice sets and other socio-demographic questions formed the discrete choice experiment questionnaire. A random sample of 150 eligible women was selected from women who enrolled and attended family planning clinics in public healthcare facilities in Ibadan, Nigeria through a three-stage sampling technique. Mixed logit modelling was used to obtain estimates of the parameters and willingness to pay (WTP) for each attribute was calculated. The test-retest stability result showed that 76.7% of the respondents responded in a consistent and rational manner. The women preferred LARCs that have no effect on their weights compared to LARCs that cause either slight weight loss or gain. Also, they preferred LARCs that offer 1/1000 level of effectiveness in a year. The most preferred attribute level, „women experience infrequent bleeding‟, increases WTP by NGN 13,984.584 (USD 33.68) while the least preferred level, „women experience frequent/prolonged bleeding‟, has a negative mean WTP (-NGN 19,598.378 (-USD 47.20)) indicating dispreference for the level. Furthermore, women derived higher utilities from very cheap LARCs. Evidence-based information on women‟s preferences regarding LARC usage would help policymakers in the deployment of strategies that would ensure that preferred LARCs are procured and made readily available to women.
Assessing agricultural commercialization and rural infrastructure development...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Abstract: This study assessed agricultural commercialization and rural infrastructure development of smallholder cassava farmers in rural Southwestern Nigeria. The study was conducted in Nigeria with cross-sectional data collected from 352 smallholder cassava farmers. Crop commercialization index (CCI) was used to compute each farmer’s CCI and categorized into four levels while ordered logit model was employed to analyze the determinants of agricultural commercialization of cassava farmers in the study areas. Availability of some important rural infrastructures were assessed across cassava farmers’ commercialization levels. The results revealed that 13.1 % of cassava farmers did not participate in the sale of cassava roots while 86.9 % of them participated actively in the output market. T he mean and maximum CCI in the study areas was 59.1 and 95.5 respectively. The results also showed that less than 40 % and 20 % of cassava farmers in all commercialization levels had access to electricity and piped water respectively. The ordered logit regression analysis indicated that age, transport cost, cassava marketing experience, and distance to market were among the determinants of agricultural commercialization. Therefore, stakeholders should expedite policy actions capable of promoting rural infrastructure development that will enhance agricultural production, marketing and improve the quality of life of rural farming communities.
Dietary Diversity Choices of Women: Evidence from Cassava Farming Households ...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
In this study, we examined dietary diversity of women in cassava farming households of South-
West, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling procedure was used to collect data on 352 farming households comprising 212 women members (158 women of child-bearing age (20-49 years) and 54 women
above 49 years) between December 2019 and March 2020 in Oyo and Ogun States of South-
West, Nigeria. The Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women (MDD-W) questionnaire was adapted and used to obtain the dietary diversity scores (DDS) of women of child bearing age over a 24-hour recall period. The individual version of the Household dietary diversity questionnaire was adapted and used to obtain the DDS of women above 49 years. Separate logistic regression models were
fitted to determine the influence of selected variables on the dietary diversity of the two categories of women. Our results show that more than half of the women (55.1%) in the child-bearing
category (20-49 years) did not attain the minimum score of 5 out of 10 food groups. In the older
women category (> 49 years), more than half of the women (68.5%) met the required 4 or more food groups. In the child-bearing age category, the odds of attaining the minimum dietary diversity
level were 0.04% smaller with an additional increase in transport cost. Also, women who had
female household heads were approximately three times more likely to attain the minimum dietary diversity level than women who did not have female household heads. In the older women category, the odds of attaining the minimum dietary diversity level were 98.9% smaller for women
with good road condition than for women with poor road condition. These results are useful for
evidence-based decision making that can have positive impact on the lives of women in cassava
farming households.
Assessing the determinants of agricultural commercialization and challenges c...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
This study assesses the agricultural commercialization levels, determinants, and challenges confronting smallholder cassava farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria. This study was conducted in Oyo State, Nigeria using cross-sectional data from 211 smallholder cassava farmers and employing multi-stage sampling procedures. Descriptive statistics, Crop Commercialization Index (CCI), and Ordered Logit Model (OLM) were used to analyze the data collected. The results revealed that 83.9% of the cassava farmers participated in the commercialization of their cassava roots while the remaining farmers were non-participants. The greatest challenge faced by the cassava farmers in the study area was the incessant attacks by the Fulani herdsmen (destroying growing cassava on the farm) while other challenges included cassava cyclical gluts and poor access road. Moreover, OLM revealed that age, farm size, cassava marketing experience and distance to market had significant influence on commercialization levels of cassava farmers. However, in order to enhance increased commercialization levels of cassava farmers and peaceful coexistence in the study area, policies and intervention programmes that will facilitate rural infrastructure development and proffer lasting solution to the farmers-herders crisis should be given upmost priority.
Biological properties and polyphenols content of Algerian Cistus salviifolius...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
This study evaluated the in vitro antioxidant properties, antibacterial and antifungal activities and in vivo anti-inflammatory properties, and identifying the phenolic compounds in Cistus salviifolius. The methanolic leaf extract showed the highest antioxidant activity with 6.1±1.60 μg/ml IC50 value using DPPH and 55.5±0.20 μg/ml using Reducing Power Activity. The study revealed that the butanolic leaf extract and
the aqueous leaf infusion exhibited the strongest growth-inhibiting effect against all Gram positive and Gram negative strains tested, respectively, whereas the methanolic leaf extract showed the strongest antifungal activity against the yeast tested. The MIC value for the butanolic leaf extract was 4 mg/ml against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli. The pharmacotoxicological tests proved the safety of the aqueous leaf infusion, which exhibit a moderate anti-inflammatory effect, with a significant inhibition of the oedema development equal to 44.7% compared to 59.3% for the reference product diclofenac
sodium. Methanolic extracts of the leaf and flower buds showed varied contents of polyphenols, flavonoids, and hydrolysable tannins; which were 228.411.4 mg GAE/g, 34.20.6 mg QE/g, and 36.92.6 mg TAE/g of
the dry weight for leaves; and 241.15.4 mg GAE/g, 47.64.5 mg QE/g, and 22.01.3 mg TAE/g of the dry weight for flower buds, respectively. Analysis of the ethereal and butanolic leaf extracts using Reversed Phase High Performance Liquid Chromatographic Method coupled with a Photodiode-Array Detector identified thirteen phenolic compounds, including ascorbic acid, vanillic acid, gallic acid, quercetin, and orientin.
Plant-derived stimulants and psychoactive substances – social and economic as...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
An analysis of the drug market was carried out, in the context of changing patterns of drug use, cultural and social factors as well as economic and links with wider crime. The drug markets remain one of the most profitable areas of economic activity of organized criminal groups. The impact of the drug market on society is enormous and goes beyond the immediate effects of their use. It involves participation in other types of criminal activity and terrorism, impact on legally operating companies and the economy, the burden on public institutions and corruption, as well as the impact on the whole society and its health. Globalization and technological development has accelerated the pace of changes taking place on the drug market. Geographically, this type of activity focuses on several existing for a long time, but also on new markets. Changes in this area pose a challenge for entities undertaking actions in response to problems related to the functioning of the drug markets, including those indirectly resulting from them. A detailed analysis of the conditions for growing the most common types of stimulants has also been made and the key information on this subject is presented in the following work.
How far has Africa gone in achieving sustainable development goals? Exploring...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
The dataset describes the status of African countries on the
attainment of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Datasets on SDG Index (SDGI) scores and other selected variables were
compiled from relevant secondary sources. Graphical illustrations
were used to describe the type of association existing between the
SDGI scores and each of the selected variables to corroborate. Further rigorous statistical analysis can be carried out using these data, in conjunction with other datasets to establish scientifically proven cause and effect relationships among the variables.
The global emergence of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19)
in December, 2019 became a major turning point in the global health system. As at 4th May, 2020, the Republic of South Africa, Egypt and Nigeria had 6 783, 6 465 and 2 558 confirmed cases of COVID-19, respectively. Surprisingly, the number of cases in South Africa has risen to 563 598 cases with 10 621 deaths, and the number of cases in Egypt has increased to 95 666 cases with 5 035 deaths while Nigeria has 46 867 cases with 950 deaths[2]. Many African countries that were not having any reported cases of COVID-19 before now have confirmed cases while some experienced a huge spike in the number of confirmed cases due to SARS Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).
STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE: A CASE S...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
In this study, we investigated challenges facing the effective teaching and learning of Agricultural Science in public secondary schools of Ibadan North local government area of Oyo state and ways of handling such challenges. We also examined students’ attitudes to Agricultural Science as a subject finding out whether students’ attitudes to the subject had any relationship with their performance in the subject. The population for this study was made up of all Agricultural Science teachers, Vice Principals, Principals and SSS II students offering Agricultural Science in all public secondary schools in Ibadan North local government area of Oyo State, Nigeria. Furthermore, simple random sampling technique was used to select three schools from all the public secondary schools in the area. A total of thirty Agricultural Science teachers, Vice Principals, Principals and one hundred SSS II students in the selected schools constituted the sample size. Two different structured questionnaire were administered. The first one was for the teachers. It addressed challenges facing Agricultural Science as a subject with suggested ways of managing the challenges. The other questionnaire was for the students. It addressed their attitudes to the subject.
The two instruments used a four-point likert assessment scale. Reliability index value was obtained for the research instruments using Cronbach’s Alpha. Agricultural Science Achievement Test was conducted for the students. The questions were selected using item analysis technique. The performance of the students in the Achievement Test was categorized using the standard values of the Students’ Result Format (SRF). Chi-square test of independence was used to ascertain if there was any
relationship between the students’ academic achievement in Agricultural Science and
their attitudes to the study of Agricultural Science as a subject.
The major challenges confronting effective teaching and learning of Agricultural Science in public schools in the area are the use of traditional methods of teaching, irregular practice by students on school farms, inadequate farmlands for practical lessons and inadequate fund to manage practical oriented Agricultural Science.
Agricultural Science Education in Secondary Schools of Ibadan, Nigeria: An An...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
In this study, we investigated challenges facing the effective teaching and learning of
Agricultural Science in public secondary schools of Ibadan North local government area of Oyo state and ways of handling such challenges. We also examined students’
attitudes to Agricultural Science as a subject finding out whether students’ attitudes to the subject had any relationship with their performance in the subject.
The population for this study was made up of all Agricultural Science teachers, Vice Principals, Principals and SSS II students offering Agricultural Science in all public secondary schools in Ibadan North local government area of Oyo State, Nigeria.
Furthermore, simple random sampling technique was used to select three schools from all the public secondary schools in the area. A total of thirty Agricultural Science teachers, Vice Principals, Principals and one hundred SSS II students in the selected schools constituted the sample size. Two different structured questionnaire were administered. The first one was for the teachers. It addressed challenges facing Agricultural Science as a subject with suggested ways of managing the challenges. The other questionnaire was for the students. It addressed their attitudes to the subject. The two instruments used a four-point likert assessment scale. Reliability index value was obtained for the research instruments using Cronbach’s Alpha. Agricultural
Science Achievement Test was conducted for the students. The questions were selected using item analysis technique. The performance of the students in the Achievement Test was categorized using the standard values of the Students’ Result
Format (SRF). Chi-square test of independence was used to ascertain if there was any
relationship between the students’ academic achievement in Agricultural Science and
their attitudes to the study of Agricultural Science as a subject.
Investigating Academic Performance in Practical Agriculture: Evidence from Si...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
This study investigated the attitudes of students to practical agriculture and examined whether there were significant differences in the mean scores in Practical Agriculture Achievement Test (PAAT) among the three categories of schools used for this study. This study was a descriptive survey design carried out in Ibadan Metropolis, Oyo State, Nigeria. Nine (9) public secondary schools were randomly selected from three different Local Government Areas (LGAs) out of eleven (11) present in Ibadan zone comprising three (3) Boys’ only, three (3) Girls’ only and three (3) Co-educational schools. A total of two hundred and fifty-five (255) Senior Secondary Schools (SSSIII) students from three selected categories of schools participated in this study. PAAT and AtPAQ were the research instruments used for data collection. The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square test of independence, ANOVA and multiple comparison techniques. The ANOVA test was significant (p = .00). Boys’ only schools had the highest mean scores of 48.14 followed by Girls’ only schools with 42.72 while Co-educational schools had 34.92. Least Significant Difference (LSD), a multiple comparison technique, on the ANOVA showed that there existed significant differences in the mean scores of PAAT for all pairs of the three categories of schools. There was no association between students' mean scores and selected attitudinal variables. The study recommended awareness campaign on the importance of agricultural science education and training as a vocational subject which can make them self-employed after leaving school and also boost agricultural productivity in the nation.
In recent time, the prevalence of hunger, malnutrition and food insecurity have increased in most African countries as the continent continued to experience rising number of people that are undernourished. This paper reveals the progress of African region in pursuit of SDG 2 target by 2030 considering both the global and Africa SDG threshold (rating) in 2019. The SDG2 target achievement in Africa is facing serious obstacles such as high level of poverty, unemployment, social exclusion, corruption, banditry, kidnapping, conflicts, and terrorism. With enormous challenges confronting Africa, can SDG 2 target be achieved in the continent by 2030?
Test positivity – Evaluation of a new metric to assess epidemic dispersal med...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Epidemic control may be hampered when the percentage of asymptomatic cases is high. Seeking remedies for this problem, test positivity was explored between the first 60 to 90 epidemic days in six countries that reported their first COVID-19 case between February and March 2020: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Uruguay.
Test positivity (TP) is the percentage of test-positive individuals reported on a given day out of all individuals tested the same day. To generate both country-specific and multi-country information, this study was implemented in two stages. First, the epidemiologic data of the country infected last (Uruguay) were analyzed. If at
least one TP-related analysis yielded a statistically significant relationship, later assessments would investigate the six countries. The Uruguayan data indicated (i) a positive correlation between daily TP and daily new cases (r = 0.75); (ii) a negative correlation between TP and the number of tests conducted per million inhabitants (TPMI, r = 0.66); and (iii) three temporal stages, which differed from one another in both TP and TPMI medians (p < 0.01) and, together, revealed a negative relationship between TPMI and TP. No significant relationship
was found between TP and the number of active or recovered patients. The six countries showed a positive correlation between TP and the number of deaths/million inhabitants (DMI, r = 0.65, p < 0.01). With one exception –a country where isolation was not pursued , all countries showed a negative correlation between
TP and TPMI (r = 0.74). The temporal analysis of country-specific policies revealed four patterns, characterized by: (1) low TPMI and high DMI, (2) high TPMI and low DMI; (3) an intermediate pattern, and (4) high TPMI and
high DMI. Findings support the hypothesis that test positivity may guide epidemiologic policy-making, provided that policy-related factors are considered and high-resolution geographical data are utilized.
Farmers’ Preferences for Farming Enclaves in Forest Reserves of South-West, N...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
Aims: Acquiring suitable land for agricultural purposes is a challenge for most prospective farmers in South-West, Nigeria. This makes them acquire lands in government-owned forest reserves with special contractual agreements. Therefore, we evaluate farmers’ preferences for selected attributes
of farming enclaves in four hypothetical forest reserves in South-West, Nigeria.
Study Design: An orthogonal main effects design was used to construct the choice sets used for
preference elicitation.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in December, 2017 in randomly selected communities of Oluyole Local government area of Oyo State, South-West, Nigeria.
Methodology: Focus group discussions and relevant literature search were conducted to identify
the relevant attributes. Four hypothetical forest reserves were considered and the selected attributes were size of the farmland, type of cropping system and land rent fee per hectare.
Multistage sampling techniques were used to select 100 farmers and data were collected via faceto-interview. Multinomial logit model was used to analyse the data and willingness to pay for each of the selected attributes was also calculated. Results and Conclusion: We find that farmers value intercropping system the most. The coefficient of land rent fee (per hectare) is negative and significant implying that farmers obtain higher utility from very low land rent fees. They are willing to pay an extra 12.50 US Dollars land
rent fees (per hectare) to have intercropping on a particular farming enclave while avoiding other enclaves with other cropping systems. Farm size and taungya do not contribute significantly to the farmers’ choice of farming enclave. These results will help forest reserve managers in formulating policies that will benefit farmers without jeopardising efficient management of forest resources.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
2. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
1 Introduction
The number of hungry people have increased globally from 653.2million (8.7%) in
2017 to 687.8million (8.9%) in 2019. Meanwhile, the prevalence of undernourish-
ment remained relatively unchanged since 2015, but moved up from 8.0% to 2019
to about 9.3% in 2020 and the increase continued in 2021 reaching 9.8% (FAO et
al., ). While it is quite alarming that the number has continued to rise in Africa since
2015 and reached 250.3million (19.1%) in 2019 and this was projected by Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) to reach 433.2million (25.7%) by 2030 (FAO et al.,
2020). It is quite alarming that Africa bears the most devastating burden of hunger
where 20.2% (278million) of the population (1 in 5 persons) was affected by hunger
in 2021 (FAO et al., 2022). In recent time, malnutrition has remained a global phe-
nomenon impeding developmental agendas with unsatisfactory human reverberations
(Global Nutrition Report, 2018, 2020; Otekunrin et al., 2021a). The health and well-
being of young children and adolescents are of paramount importance to every coun-
try as they are regarded as one of the crucial drivers of future economic and societal
development (WHO, , Otekunrin & Otekunrin 2022). However, in 2019, under-five
children malnutrition surged with 21.3% (144.0million) stunted, 6.9% (47.0million)
wasted and 5.6% (38.3million) overweight. Meanwhile, empirical evidence revealed
that 20million babies are born with low birth weight annually while overweight and
obesity adults are at critical level of about 40% (Global Nutrition Report, 2018, 2020;
UNICEF et al. 2020; Otekunrin & Otekunrin 2021a). Meanwhile, in 2020, the num-
ber of under-five children that are stunted climbed to 149.2million, 45.4million are
wasted while 38.9million are overweight (Global Nutrition Report, 2021; UNICEF
et al., ).
In Nigeria, according to National Nutrition and Health Survey 2018, children per-
centage stunting, wasting and underweight stood at 32.0, 7.0 and 19.9 respectively
(National Nutrition and Health Survey, 2018). However, the proportion of under-
nourished population in Nigeria increased from 9.3% to 2000 to 14.3% in 2018
(Grebmer et al., 2019; Otekunrin et al., 2020a;Ayinde et al., 2020; Otekunrin, 2021a).
However, increasing incidence of food insecurity and hunger especially in Sub-
Saharan Africa (SSA) is related to the rising unaffordability of high-quality diets and
prevalence of malnutrition (Otekunrin et al., 2019a; FAO et al., ; FAO et al.,2022;
Otekunrin & Otekunrin 2022) Also, the emergence of COVID-19 has heightened
hunger and food insecurity in all parts of the world (Otekunrin & Otekunrin, 2021a;
FAO et al., ; Otekunrin et al., 2021a). According to FAO et al. (2022) recent esti-
mates, hunger affected 46million more people globally in 2021 compared to 2020
and a total of 150million more people since 2019 before the emergence of COVID-
19 pandemic. The report projected about 670million people still be undernourished
in 2030 (FAO et al., 2022). With 282million malnourished population (1/3 of global
population) found in Africa in 2020 and 25million more people were unable to afford
healthy diets in 2020, revealing that malnutrition remained a serious challenge in the
region (FAO et al., ; Otekunrin et al., 2020a, b; FAO et al., 2022).
However, a study revealed that many of the malnourished population are high
among smallholder farm households in poor nations who depend mostly on agri-
culture as main of livelihood (IFPRI, 2017; Otekunrin et al., 2022a; Otekunrin &
1 3
3. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
Otekunrin, 2022). Good health of members of farm households, mostly young chil-
dren and adolescent members (future head of households) are crucial to their agricul-
tural productivity, produce marketing and that of the nation’s food security strategy.
Agricultural commercialization is regarded as when agricultural operations
depend mainly on the market for the sale of produce and for the purchase of produc-
tion inputs (APRA, ). More so, agricultural commercialization refers to increased
market transactions in a position of enjoying the gains from specialization (Carletto
et al., 2017; Opondo et al., 2017; Otekunrin et al., 2019b, 2022a). The estimation of
the extent of commercialization of smallholder agriculture from the output side of
production offers us the opportunity to take advantage of marketing behaviour from
(real small-scale to full commercialization) of individual households (Carletto et al.,
2017; Opondo et al., 2017; Otekunrin et al., 2019a, 2022b; Otekunrin,2022 ).
In SSA, previous studies argued that smallholder farmers accounted for most of
the people and they partake actively in agricultural production. Furthermore, about
75% of SSA’s land are being utilized by them (Martey et al., 2012; Lowder et al.,
2016; Otekunrin et al., 2019b; Ayinde et al., 2020). Due to the importance of the
smallholder farmers in transformation process of nation’s agricultural sector mostly
the developing economies, effort is geared towards revitalizing the sector through
entrepreneurial drives such as commercialization. This was a welcome idea among
smallholder farmers and a step towards reorienting them on subsistence agriculture
(Braun, 1995; Barrett, 2007; Wright, 2009; Jaleta et al., 2009).
However, previous studies reported less diverse diets, poor healthcare access,
unimproved toilet facilities, and epileptic power supply (and near zero access to
electricity) as part of the factors influencing the prevalence of malnutrition (poor
nutritional status) among young children in Nigeria and most Sub-Saharan African
countries (UNICEF, 2021; Omotayo et al., 2021; Adeyonu et al., 2022a; Otekunrin &
Otekunrin,; Otekunrin et al., 2022a; Otekunrin,2021a ).
Furthermore, studies from Greece also opined the importance of these factors such
as; access to improved toilet and access to electricity in understanding and measuring
child well-being in Attica, Greece (Leriou, 2019; Leriou et al., 2021; 2022).
However, previous works argued that children in highly commercialized house-
holds recorded a higher incidence of stunting and underweight and likewise level of
market participation among smallholder farmers in developing countries also found
negative correlation between children nutritional outcomes and commercialization
(Okezie & Nwosu, 2007; Carletto et al., 2017). Also, recent study on malnutrition
status of under-five children of farm households in Nigeria was determined through
the use of Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) and found 44% prevalence of
malnutrition among girls (Adeyonu et al., 2022b). However, this study is the first that
focuses on the influence of CCI levels on nutrition outcomes of under 5-year chil-
dren among rural farm households using primary survey data and employing WHO
Anthro software to analyze nutrition outcomes.
1 3
4. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
2 Methods and Materials
2.1 Study Area
The study was carried out in Ogun and Oyo states (South-West) of Nigeria. However,
Nigeria is located in West Africa within the land mass of 923,768 square kilometer
with latitude 10° 00ˡ N and 8° and 00ˡ E (Maps of World, 2021). It is a multi-eth-
nic nation where Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba are regarded as the most common ethnic
groups. South-West is one of the six geo-political zones in Nigeria. There are 6 states
in South-West. Agriculture is regarded as the major occupation of about 70% of the
rural population (Lawal & Samuel, 2010; Otekunrin et al., 2021b).
2.2 Sampling and Data Collection Procedure
This study utilized primary data which was collected through multi-stage sampling
procedure. Firstly, two (2) from six (6) cassava producing States in the Southwestern
Nigeria was randomly selected. Secondly, the selection of five (5) Local Government
area (LGAs) from Oyo State and three LGAs from Ogun state giving a total of eight
(8) LGAs in the two states. In stage 3, 24 villages from the 8 LGAs was selected
while the fourth stage included the selection of 16 cassava farming households result-
ing in 384 farm households. The data were gathered using structured questionnaire
which include; the household socioeconomic factors, nutrition, child-centred factors,
expenditure on food and other salient household and child-centred issues. Thirty-two
of the questionnaires were unusable after data cleaning. In the 352 farm households,
there were 140 under 5-year members. However, anthropometric measurements such
as age of child, gender, height and weight were measured and recorded. These mea-
surement details were used in obtaining malnutrition indices such WAZ, HAZ and
WHZ.
2.3 Data Analysis
2.3.1 Evaluating the Levels of Agricultural Commercialization
The CCI levels of cassava farm households in the study areas were estimated, while
making use of Crop Commercialization Index (CCI) by Strasberg et al., 1999; Car-
letto et al., 2017 and Otekunrin et al., 2019b; Otekunrin et al., 2022a, b which is
expressed as:
CCIi =
Grossvalueofcropsalehhi,yearj
Grossvalueofallcropproductionhhi,yearj
× 100 (1)
We have hhi as the ith household in year j.
Using this method, agricultural commercialization can be expressed as a continuum
spanning complete subsistence (CCIi = 0) to full commercialization (CCIi = 100
). Using this this method, cassava farm households were grouped on the basis of
their cassava commercialization levels. From non-participant farm household which
1 3
5. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
are grouped as (i) zero commercialization households (CCI = 0%) to participating
households which are classified into; (ii) low commercialization (CCI=1–49%) (iii)
medium-high commercialization (CCI = 50–75%) and (iv) very-high commercializa-
tion (CCI = 75%) levels (Otekunrin, 2021b; Otekunrin Otekunrin, 2021b).
2.3.2 Anthropometric Measurements of Under-Five Children
Anthropometry is a human body measurements that are mainly used to obtain impor-
tant nutrition details concerning a sample or population (Babatunde et al., 2011). Past
farm household studies have applied anthropometric data to under 5-year children in
Nigeria (Babatunde et al., 2011; Ogunnaike et al., 2020; Adeyonu et al., 2022; Asha-
gidigbi et al., 2022). The anthropometric measurements are used in obtaining indices
such as HAZ, WAZ and WHZ (Babatunde et al., 2011; Slavchevska, 2015; Fadare
et al., 2019; Bhargava et al., 2020; Otekunrin,2021b ). Empirical studies on anthro-
pometric measurements (using WHO Anthro software) of under 5-year members of
rural farm households are scarce. The anthropometric measurements for under-five
were measured using stunting (HAZ), wasting (WHZ) and underweight (WAZ). The
anthropometric indices of under-five members of cassava farm households were
obtained for this study using WHO Anthro software. These are stunting, wasting
and underweight. However, children ( 5years) having HAZ -2 Standard Devia-
tion (SD) and -3SD compared to 2007 WHO reference were classified as stunted
and severe stunting, WAZ -2SD and -3SD referred to as underweight and severe
underweight while WHZ -2SD and -3SD referred to as wasting and severe wast-
ing respectively (WHO, 1995, 1997; de Onis et al., 2007; Babatunde et al., 2011;
Slavchevska, 2015; Bhargava et al., 2020).
2.3.3 Modelling the Drivers of Under-Five Malnutrition
The drivers of under 5-year children’s malnutrition (stunting, wasting and under-
weight) of farm households were analyzed using LRM as expressed in Eq.(2) below.
However, the regressand (dependent variables) are the malnutrition status of the
children members of the farm households and are presented in separate regression
models. In each case, one (1) is for malnourished child and zero (0) otherwise (i.e.
stunted = 1, 0 otherwise; wasted = 1, 0 otherwise; and underweight = 1 and 0 other-
wise) as expressed as a function of a vector of explanatory variables assumed to
affect the malnutrition of farm under 5-year children. This indicated that in each
case, the parameter estimate indicates the likelihood that a child will be malnour-
ished. However, the positive sign on the parameters shows high-level of malnutrition
while the negative sign reveals low-level of malnutrition (Babatunde et al., 2011).
The explanatory variables included in the model are; child age, child gender, age of
mother, education level of mothers, household size, farm size, household head edu-
cational level, farm income, non-farm income, food expenditure, mothers’ access to
nutrition training, healthcare access, toilet access, access to electricity, piped water
access and crop sold ratio.
Following Gujarati Porter 2009 and Otekunrin et al., 2022a, b, the logit regres-
sion model is expressed as:
1 3
6. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
Logit (p) = ln
p
1 − p
= β0 + βiXi + Ui (2)
Where p denotes the probability of a child being stunted, wasted and/or under-
weight, βi’s are the parameter estimates of the explanatory variables, the Xi’s
represent the explanatory variables and Ui’s are the stochastic error terms.
3 Results
3.1 Representation of Farm Household and Under-Five Children-Centred Factors
The results of study in Table1 reveals the description of farm households and under-5
children factors. The results show that 46% were male (boys). The average age was
33 months. 73% of the household head (HH) were men. The average age of HH stood
at 49 years, indicating larger percent of household heads were above 40 years.
The average household size was 6 persons while HH education was about 7 years
while average year of schooling of mother was below 6 (4.9 years). Likewise, the
average farm income and non-farm income stood at 139, 250Naira (431 US $) and
66, 250Naira (205 US $) per year respectively. The average household expenditure
on food stood at 21, 892Naira (68 US$). The body mass index (BMI) of the mother
Variables Description Mean ± SD
Child’s age Age of child (months) 32.8 ± 17.5
Size of household Persons in the household 5.8 ± 2.3
Age of HH Household head’s age
(years)
49.6 ± 10.9
Mother’s age Age of child’s mother
(years)
39.5 ± 9.6
Education of HH Years of schooling of
household head
7.0 ± 4.0
Education of
moher
Years of schooling of
child’s mother
4.9 ± 3.8
Mother’s BMI Mother of child’s body
mass index (Kg/m2
)
24.1 ± 14.3
Farm size Household cassava farm-
land (hectare)
1.4 ± 1.0
Farm income Annual household farm
income (Naira)
139,250 ± 120,669
Nonfarm income Household nonfarm
income (Naira)
66,250 ± 64,641
Expenditure on
food
Under-five Ht
Under-five Wt
Under-five HAZ
Under-five WAZ
Under-five WHZ
Household food expendi-
ture (monthly)
Under-five height (Cm)
Under-five weight (Kg)
Under-five HAZ
Under-five WAZ
Under-five WHZ
21,892 ± 8,824
86.9 ± 14.2
13.4 ± 3.6
-1.59 ± 2.20
-0.21 ± 1.33
1.04 ± 1.71
Table 1 Description of house-
hold and child-related factors
Source: Underlying survey
data, 2020. Note: Exchange
rate (ER) in 2019–2020: 1 US
$ = 323Naira; SD is standard
deviation
1 3
7. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
which symbolizes overall nutritional standard of the mother and it is of great impor-
tance to the child nutrition. Their mean BMI was 24.1 which falls within the normal
weight of 18.5-24.9kg/m2
.
3.2 The Commercialization Levels
The commercialization levels of farm households showed the extent of cassava com-
mercialization of individual arm household. The commercialization level is estimated
using the CCI of the individual cassava farmers as specified earlier (Eq.1). The find-
ings indicated 9.2% and 16.1% of households are non-participants in the sales of the
produce in the market (zero level) in the two states. However, close to half (49.7%) of
the farm households recorded CCI 75% in Ogun state and about 34% in Oyo state.
Likewise, 40.1% of the households were categorized as very-high CCI.
3.3 Nutrition Outcomes of Under-Five Children of Farm Households
The results of the study in Table2 shows the nutrition outcomes of the young chil-
dren of farm households. It revealed that only 6 children were in the age of 5 months
while highest was 41 children under the age group 48–59 months. It also shows the
mean and standard deviation of under-five WAZ, HAZ and WHZ were − 0.21 ± 1.33,
-1.59 ± 2.20 and 1.04 ± 1.71 respectively. Table2 also showed the nutrition outcomes
of farm households’ under-five children which shows that the prevalence (severe
level in parenthesis) of stunting, underweight and wasting were 42.9% (25.0%), 7.9%
(2.1%) and 3.6% (0.7%) respectively. However, Figs.1, 2 and 3 show the distribu-
tion of the cassava farm households’under-five children’s nutrition outcomes in rural
Ogun and Oyo States.
3.3.1 Gender-based Nutrition Outcomes of Under-Five Children of Farm Households
The findings indicated that there were 65 male (boys) under-five children in the sam-
pled cassava farm households in six age groups (Table3) with children between age
group 36–49 and 48–59 months having the highest number, 35 (53.8%). The aver-
age and SD of WAZ, HAZ and WHZ were − 0.46 ± 1.31, -2.08 ± 2.32 and 1.10 ± 1.83
respectively. Meanwhile, nutrition outcomes of the male (boys) under-five children
which indicated that the prevalence (severe level in parenthesis) of stunting, under-
weight and wasting were 49.2% (35.4%), 10.8% (4.6%) and 4.6% (0%) respec-
tively. About 67 and 60% of male under-five children in the age groups 36–47 and
6–11 months were stunted respectively while lowest stunting prevalence (23.5%)
was found in the age group 48–59 months. Table3 also revealed that highest under-
weight prevalence (40%) was found in male (boys) under-five (6–11 months) while
24–35 months of age (boys) recorded zero underweight prevalence. About 7% of
male under-five children of age group 12–23 months were wasted while zero wast-
ing prevalence was found in age groups 0–5, 24–35 and 36–47 months respectively.
Moreover, Table4 indicated that there were 75 female (girls) under-five children in
the cassava farm households in six age groups as mentioned earlier with 10 (13.3%)
children falling in age group 0–5 and 6–19 months while the highest number (46,
1 3
8. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
Table
2
Nutrition
outcomes
of
under
under-five
children
of
farm
households
Age
Group
(Months)
WAZ
(%)
HAZ
(%)
WHZ
(%)
n
%-3SD
%-2SD
Mean
SD
%
-3SD
%-2SD
Mean
SD
%-3SD
%
-2SD
Mean
SD
0–5
6
0
25
-0.7
2.18
25
75
-2.08
2.73
0
0
1.53
2.41
6–11
14
0
16.7
-0.88
1.36
33.3
58.3
-2.27
2.2
0
8.3
0.84
1.81
12–23
30
0
3.6
0.38
1.34
21.4
46.4
-1.15
2.49
0
3.6
1.27
1.51
24–35
14
0
0
0.4
1.17
13.3
40
-1.29
2.19
0
6.7
1.52
1.88
36–47
35
2.7
5.4
-0.19
1.2
37.8
48.6
-1.88
2.35
0
0
1.34
1.62
48–59
41
4.5
11.4
-0.6
1.2
18.2
29.5
-1.51
1.85
2.3
4.5
0.49
1.71
Total
(0–59)
140
2.1
7.9
-0.21
1.33
25
42.9
-1.59
2.2
0.7
3.6
1.04
1.71
Source:
underlying
survey
data
2020
Note:
Underweight
and
severe
underweight
in
under-five
children
is
WAZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively
Stunting
and
severe
stunting
under-five
children
is
HAZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively
Wasting
and
severe
wasting
under-five
children
is
WHZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively;
SD
means
Standard
Deviation
1 3
9. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
61.3%) of female children were found in age group 36–49 and 48–59 months. The
average and SD of WAZ, HAZ and WHZ were 0 ± 1.31, -1.17 ± 2.01 and 0.99 ± 1.61
respectively. Furthermore, the nutritional status of the girls indicated that the preva-
lence (severe level in parenthesis) of stunting, underweight and wasting were 37.3%
(16.0%), 5.3% (0%) and 2.7% (1.3%) respectively.
However, about 57 and 32% of female under-five children in age groups 6–11 and
36–47 months were stunted respectively while highest stunting prevalence was found
in 0–5 months.About 11% of female under-five children (48–59 months) were under-
weight while zero underweight prevalence was found in age groups 6–11, 12–23,
24–35 and 36–47 months respectively. Also, 16.7 and 3.7% of girls aged 24–35 and
48–59 months were wasted respectively while the rest of the age groups recorded
zero wasting prevalence among girls belonging to the farm households in the study
areas. Figures4, 5 and 6 show the distribution of three nutrition outcomes (HAZ,
WAZ and WHZ) of the sexes (boys, n = 65, girls, n = 75) of young children of farm
households in two states. The z-scores were compared with the WHO child growth
reference population. The graphs were generated from WHO Anthro software using
the children anthropometric measurements.
3.4 The Prevalence of Under-five Children’s Malnutrition Across Farm
Households’CCI Levels
This section explored the link between of cassava commercialization and nutritional
status of children members of farm households. It further showed the relationship
between cassava commercialization and nutrition indices of under-five members
of the farm households. Anthropometric indices were used to measure under-five
nutritional status. The results in Table5 showed that all farm household CCI lev-
els had very low prevalence ( 8%) of wasted children but considering the category
with highest prevalence of wasting, very-high CCI level (very-high level) recorded
the highest (7%). However, highest stunting prevalence (64%) was recorded in zero
level households while those regarded as high-level commercialization households
(medium-high and very-high levels) also recorded very high stunting ( medium-high
level = 44%; very-high level = 38%) prevalence among under-five of cassava farm
households. The findings indicated that belonging to high-level commercialization
household may not translate to better nutrition among young children of farm house-
holds. Interestingly, low level households recorded zero (0%) underweight preva-
lence while about 8% underweight was found in all the under 5-year children used
for this study (Table5).
Furthermore, results from the scatter plots (Figs.7, 8 and 9) showed the relation-
ships between under-five nutrition outcomes (HAZ, WAZ, and WHZ) and CCI. The
scatter plot in Fig.7 showed a weak positive relationship between HAZ and CCI with
Correlation Coefficient (r) = 0.1450. Also, there existed a weak negative relationship
between WHZ and CCI with (r) = -0.2091 while we found very weak negative asso-
ciation between WAZ and CCI with (r) = -0.0623.
1 3
10. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
3.5 Determinants of Under-five Nutritional Status of Cassava Farm Households
This section presents results logit regression of drivers of under-five nutritional status
(stunting, wasting and underweight) of farm households (Table6).As specified above,
logit regression was used to regress nutritional status against some sets of household
and child-centred variables (as regressors). The regressand in each case is a dummy, 1
if child is malnourished and zero if not (i.e. stunted, underweight or wasted = 1 and 0
if otherwise). The resulting parameter estimates from the logit regression indicate the
possibility of the child being malnourished. However, noting that a positive sign on
the coefficient indicates increased malnutrition, while a negative sign shows reduc-
tion in incidence of under-five malnutrition.
However, first section of the table reveals the results of the factors influencing
stunting in cassava farm households. The results reveal that child’s age is positively
related to the likelihood of stunting, indicating the likelihood that older children will
be stunted. The results also reveal that farm size are positively related to the like-
lihood of under-five stunting and being underweight but negatively related to the
probability of wasting. Access to electricity, healthcare and crop sold ratio (com-
mercialization) were positively related to the probability of stunting, underweight
and stunting respectively. Consequently, access to electricity, crop sold ratio (com-
mercialization level) and toilet access were negatively related to the likelihood of
under-five’s underweight, wasting and underweight respectively.
Fig. 1 Height-for-age z-score (HAZ) of all cassava farm households’ under-five children (n = 140) in
rural Ogun and Oyo States. Note: The red line is all children (n = 140) and the green line is the WHO
2007 child growth standards. HAZ are compared with the WHO child growth reference population.
Source: Authors’ graph generated from WHO Anthro software
1 3
11. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
4 Discussion
This nutritional status of the under-5 children members of farm households in the
study areas revealed that the percentage of stunted under-5 children is however
higher than the national average of 32.0% estimated from the National Nutrition
and Health Survey (NNHS) 2018. This result is higher than the report of 23.6% by
(Babatunde et al., 2011) in rural Kwara State while it was lower than that of Brhane
Regassa (2014) and Ogunnaike et al., (2020) who found 55.9% and 70% stunting
among under-five children in rural Kwara and Ogun States respectively. About 8% of
the under-five of cassava farming households were underweight while about 4% were
wasted. Both percentage incidences of underweight and wasted of under-five chil-
dren in this study were lower than the national average of 19.9% and 7.0% respec-
tively (NNHS 2018). The result was consistent with Ukegbu Ogu (2017) who
recorded less than 5% (2.7%) underweight. Carletto et al., (2017) also found wasting
prevalence of below 10% in under-five children in three African countries study.
Moreover, the result also revealed that the highest stunted under-five children
(64.7%) were found in zero commercialization households (CCI 1) but highly com-
mercialized households (medium-high (CCI 3 and very high (CCI 4) also recorded
higher percent stunted children (44.2% and 37.7% respectively). Carletto et al.,
(2017) equally found high prevalence of under-five stunting in three African coun-
tries (Tanzania, 42%; Uganda, 36%; and Malawi, 31%) while findings by Okezie
Nwosu (2007) reported that children in cocoa growing households that were more
Fig. 2 Weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) of all cassava farm households’ under-five children (n = 140) in
rural Ogun and Oyo States. Note: The red line is all children (n = 140) and the green line is the WHO
2007 child growth standards. WAZ are compared with the WHO child growth reference population.
Source: Authors’ graph generated from WHO Anthro software
1 3
12. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
commercialized recorded a higher prevalence of stunting and underweight. The
Table6 also revealed that all commercialization household categories recorded very
low prevalence of underweight ( 10%).
However, findings from the scatter plot (Fig.7) between HAZ and CCI indicated
the existence of a weak positive association (r = 0.1450) between HAZ and CCI and
revealing that as CCI increases, children HAZ (prevalence of stunting) may also
go up. Also, scatter plot (Fig.8) between WHZ and CCI indicated the existence of
negative relationship (r = -0.2091) between WHZ and CCI and indicating that as
CCI increases, children WHZ (wasting) may go down. However, scatter plot in Fig.9
showed similar negative association between WAZ (underweight) and CCI but was
abysmally weak (r = -0.0623). This equally indicated that as CCI increases, WAZ
(wasting prevalence) among children under-5 may likely go down. These results was
corroborated by the findings in Table5 which revealed that belonging to low level or
high-level cassava commercialization households does not translate to better nutri-
tional status of under-five children of rural farm households. For example, high stunt-
ing prevalence was found in both zero level (CCI 1) and very-high commercialization
households. This revealed that both farm households of zero (CCI 1) and high-level
(CCI 3 4) commercialization recorded very high stunting prevalence (38–65%)
among under-five children. However, belonging to zero/low level commercialization
farm households or highly commercialized households does not translate to better
nutritional status of members of the farm households especially the under-five chil-
dren. Consequently, there is a need for the farm households (especially the household
Fig. 3 Weight-for-height z-score (WHZ) of all cassava farm households’ under-five children (n = 140)
in rural Ogun and Oyo States. Note: The red line is all children (n = 140) and the green line is the WHO
2007 child growth standards. WHZ are compared with the WHO child growth reference population.
Source: Authors’ graph generated from WHO Anthro software
1 3
13. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
Table
3
Under-five
children
(boys)
nutrition
outcomes
among
farm
households
Age
Group
(Months)
WAZ
(%)
HAZ
(%)
WHZ
(%)
No
%-3SD
%
-2SD
Mean
SD
%-3SD
%-2SD
Mean
SD
%-3SD
%-2SD
Mean
SD
0–5
6–11
12–23
24–35
36–47
48–59
1
0
0
-1.35
0
100
100
-5.24
0
0
0
4.54
0
5
0
40
-1.52
1.11
60
60
-3.06
1.42
0
20
0.48
1.99
15
0
6.7
-0.19
1.27
20
53.3
-1.29
2.6
0
6.7
0.6
1.48
9
0
0
0.5
1.05
22.2
44.4
-1.26
2.79
0
0
1.69
1.67
18
5.6
11.1
-0.59
1.2
55.6
66.7
-3.1
1.92
0
0
1.81
1.58
17
11.8
11.8
-0.71
1.42
23.5
23.5
-1.67
2.03
0
5.9
0.46
2.05
Total
(0–59)
65
4.6
10.8
-0.46
1.31
35.4
49.2
-2.08
2.32
0
4.6
1.1
1.83
Source:
underlying
survey
data
2020.
Note:
Underweight
and
severe
underweight
in
under-five
children
is
WAZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively.
Stunting
and
severe
stunting
under-five
children
is
HAZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively.
Wasting
and
severe
wasting
under-five
children
is
WHZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively;
SD
means
Standard
Deviation.
1 3
14. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
Table
4
Under-five
children
(girls)
nutrition
outcomes
among
farm
households
Age
Group
(Months)
WAZ
(%)
HAZ
(%)
WHZ
(%)
No
%
-3SD
%
-2SD
Mean
SD
%
-3SD
%
-2SD
Mean
SD
%
-3SD
%
-2SD
Mean
SD
0–5
6–11
12–23
24–35
36–47
48–59
3
0
33.3
-0.48
2.61
0
66.7
-1.03
2.13
0
0
0.53
1.64
7
0
0
-0.42
1.41
14.3
57.1
-1.7
2.57
0
0
1.1
1.78
13
0
0
1.03
1.14
23.1
38.5
-0.98
2.46
0
0
2.05
1.14
6
0
0
0.24
1.42
0
33.3
-1.34
1
0
16.7
1.27
2.31
19
0
0
0.2
1.1
21.1
31.6
-0.72
2.16
0
0
0.9
1.57
27
0
11.1
-0.53
1.07
14.8
33.3
-1.41
1.76
3.7
3.7
0.51
1.51
Total
(0–59)
75
0
5.3
0
1.31
16
37.3
-1.17
2.01
1.3
2.7
0.99
1.61
Source:
underlying
survey
data
2020.
Note:
Underweight
and
severe
underweight
in
under-five
children
is
WAZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively.
Stunting
and
severe
stunting
under-five
children
is
HAZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively.
Wasting
and
severe
wasting
under-five
children
is
WHZ
-2SD;
-3SD
respectively;
SD
means
Standard
Deviation.
1 3
15. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
heads) to make concerted effort in providing high-quality food items for household
members in order to improve their nutritional status especially the young children.
All the revenue from the cassava production/marketing should not be completely
ploughed back to the cassava enterprise but part should be spent on making high-
quality foods available in the households which is capable of improving the diet
quality of the households (Otekunrin, 2022).
However, this result was different from the findings of Carletto et al., (2017) who
found no clear trends between HAZ and CCI using under-five children data from
three African countries.
The results of the determinants of under-five malnutrition of cassava farming
households (Table7) can be compared with previous studies such as that of Smith et
al., (2005) who employed child z-scores as the dependent variable and used ordinary
least square (OLS) regression model while Babatunde et al., (2011) and Ogunnaike
et al., (2020) used the malnutrition category as the regressand and employed Logit
regression model. The first section of the table reveals the results of the factors influ-
encing stunting in cassava farm households. The results reveal that child’s age is
positively related to the probability of stunting, indicating the likelihood that older
children will be stunted when all other factors are held constant. This finding is sup-
ported by Sarmistha (1999), Kabubo-Mariara et al., (2006) and Babatunde et al.,
(2011). This is not unconnected to the fact that many younger children are still on
breast milk and may not be experiencing chronic malnutrition but until after weaning
(Babatunde Qaim, 2010, Otekunrin,).
The marginal effects of commercialization indicates that a unit increase in com-
mercialization (crop sold ratio) increases the probability of stunted under-five chil-
dren by 41.1% while a unit increase in commercialization reduces the probability of
having wasted under-five children by 2.5% giving that that all other factors are held
constant.
Also, the higher the farm income, the lower the probability of having household
under-five stunting. Furthermore, a unit increase in farm size (Ha) increases the prob-
ability of under-five being stunted and underweight by 17.7 and 1.8% respectively
giving that other factors are held constant. Meanwhile, a unit increase in farm size
(Ha) reduces the probability of wasted under-five children by 0.05%. When access to
electricity go up by 1% point, the probability of experiencing stunting in under-five
children increases by 24.3% but the probability of experiencing underweight (-2
SD) reduces by 14.1%. Similarly, household access to toilet reduces the probability
of underweight in under-five children giving that other factors are held constant.
5 Conclusions
Previous studies that analyzed factors influencing under-five malnutrition but works
on links between cassava commercialization households and malnutrition in under-
five children are limited in Nigeria. In our study, we investigated the nutrition out-
comes of under 5 year’s children among cassava farm households in Nigeria. The
CCI categorized farm households into four levels, WHO Anthro software was used to
obtain anthropometric indices while logit regression model was employed to analyze
1 3
16. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
the drivers of under-five malnutrition on cassava commercialization farm households
in the study areas.
Crop commercialization index was estimated for each cassava farming households
and the incidence of malnutrition in under-five children was also assessed across all
the four commercialization household levels. Logit regression analysis was based on
three nutritional status (stunting, underweight and wasting).
Logit regression analysis revealed that child’s age, farm size, access to electricity,
toilet, healthcare and crop commercialization variable (crop sold ratio) were among
the significant determinants of child malnutrition. The study found somewhat weak
association between the under-five children’s nutritional outcomes (HAZ, WAZ and
WHZ) and degree of crop commercialization in the sampled smallholder cassava
farming households.
Therefore, to contribute to the mapping out of policies aimed at reducing the prev-
alence of malnutrition among children in rural settings. This study recommended
maternal nutrition-sensitive education interventions and provision of rural infrastruc-
tures such as potable water, healthcare, toilet and electricity which are crucial to
increased farm production and quality of life of the rural households especially the
young children.
Fig. 4 Height-for-age z-score (HAZ) of gender (boys and girls) of cassava farm households’under-five
children in rural Ogun and Oyo States. Note: The pink line is the female children (n = 75), the blue line
is the male children (n = 65), while the green line is the WHO 2007 child growth standards. HAZ are
compared with the WHO child growth reference population. Source: Authors’ graph generated from
WHO Anthro software
1 3
17. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
Fig. 5 Weight-for-height z-score (WHZ) of gender (boys and girls) of cassava farm households’ under-
five children in rural Ogun and Oyo States. Note: The pink line is the female children (n = 75), the blue
line is the male children (n = 65), while the green line is the WHO 2007 child growth standards. WHZ
are compared with the WHO child growth reference population. Source: Authors’ graph generated
from WHO Anthro software
1 3
18. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
Fig. 6 Weight-for-age z-score (WHZ) of gender (boys and girls) of cassava farm households’ under-
five children in rural Ogun and Oyo States. Note: The pink line is the female children (n = 75), the blue
line is the male children (n = 65), while the green line is the WHO 2007 child growth standards. WAZ
are compared with the WHO child growth reference population. Source: Authors’ graph generated
from WHO Anthro software
1 3
19. Nutrition Outcomes of Under-five Children of Smallholder Farm…
Fig. 9 Association between
WHZ and CCI
Fig. 8 Association between
WAZ and CCI
Crop Commercialization Index (CCI) Levels
Zero
Level
Low
Level
Medi-
um-
High
Level
Very
High
Level
Pooled
Nutritional
Status
n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%)
Wasted − 2 SD 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (1.9) 4 (6.6) 5 (3.6)
Not wasted
-2 SD
17 (0.0) 10 (0.0) 51
(98.1)
57
(93.4)
135
(93.4)
Total 17
(100)
10
(100)
52
(100)
61
(100)
140
(100)
Stunted − 2 SD 11
(64.7)
3 (30.0) 23
(44.2)
23
(37.7)
60
(42.9)
Not stunted
-2 SD
6 (35.3) 7 (70.0) 29
(55.8)
38
(62.6)
80
(57.1)
Total 17
(100)
10
(100)
52
(100)
61
(100)
140
(100)
Under-
weight − 2 SD
1 (5.9) 0 (0.0) 5 (9.6) 5 (8.2) 11
(7.9)
Not underweight
-2 SD
16
(94.1)
10
(100)
47
(90.4)
56
(91.8)
129
(92.1)
Total 17
(100)
10
(100)
52
(100)
61
(100)
140
(100)
Table 5 Under-five nutritional
status across farm households’
CCI levels
Source: Underlying survey
data, 2020 Note: SD = Standard
Deviation
1 3
20. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
Fig. 7 Association between
HAZ and CCI
1 3
22. O. A. Otekunrin, O. A. Otekunrin
Acknowledgements Authors deeply appreciate the cassava farmers and households that participated in
the survey.
Author contribution Conceptualization, Olutosin A. Otekunrin; Methodology, writing-original draft
preparation, Olutosin A. Otekunrin; Oluwaseun A. Otekunrin; Writing- reviewing and editing, Olutosin
A. Otekunrin; Oluwaseun A. Otekunrin. The authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding This research received no external funding.
Data Availability The study utilized primary data and are available upon request from the authors.
Declarations
Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate The study was approved by the Department of Agricul-
tural Economics and Farm Management Review Board of Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
(FUNAAB), Nigeria. Additionally, this study was approved by the Oyo State Ethics Review Committee
of the Ministry of Health Ref No: AD13/479/4420A
. Informed consent was obtained from the respondents
before the survey was carried out.
Consent for Publication Not applicable.
Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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Authors and Affiliations
Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin1
· Oluwaseun Aramide Otekunrin2
Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
otekunrin.olutosina@pg.funaab.edu.ng; otekunrinolutosin@yahoo.com
1
Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB), Abeokuta, Nigeria
2
Department of Statistics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
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