Running head: Background and Significance 2 Background and Significance 2 Effects of ADHD and Executive Functioning on Brain Development #7 PSY625: Biological Bases of Behavior Jennifer Weniger July 30, 2018 Background Techniques for maintaining and enhancing executive function in children with ADHD is great potential benefit to children and to society. Improved executive function improves daily performance in children and adults suffering from ADHD. There is more and more research for brain deficits associated with ADHD. ADHD symptoms can include inattention and/or hyperactivity and acting impulsively. This disorder affects more than one in 20 under the age of 18, and two-thirds of those diagnosed continue to deal with symptoms as adults. Further research on the effects of ADHD and executive functioning would be beneficial for those suffering from the disorder. Symptoms of ADHD create significate impairment in social, academic, occupational functioning, and relationships (Bressert, 2018). Higher executive functioning would lead to the ability to perform task of daily living and the improvement of quality of life. There are more and more studies of normal and abnormal brain development in children and adolescents. Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to study ADHD. The ones who will be helped by further studies and an increased understanding of ADHD and executive function deficit are the children and their families. Students who have these challenges need coaching from professionals who specialize in executive functioning problems. Students need to be taught the skills necessary to overcome their deficits. Executive function skills are not a guarantee to school success but without these skills the child will have difficulty at a certain point, which can be followed by a loss of self-esteem. Further knowledge will help children suffering from ADHD and executive disorder succeed in school and in life (Eckerd, Ruden, 2011). There are seven skills associated with executive function, 1) self-awareness, 2) inhibition, 3) non-verbal working memory, 4) verbal working memory, 5) emotional self- regulation, 6) self-motivation, 7) planning and problem solving. Anyone exhibiting ADHD symptoms will have problems with all or most of these seven executive functions. These seven functions develop over time in chronological order. Starting with self-awareness at age 2 and ending with planning and problem-solving at age 30 in a neurotypical individual. An individual with ADHD id generally 30 to 40 percent behind in transitioning from one executive function to the next (Barkley, 2018). There is need for more research in the significance of executive functioning deficits on ADHD. In the article, Interventions to improve executive functioning and working memory in school-aged children with AD(HD): a randomized controlled trail and stepped-care approach, the researchers investigated one executive function, working memory which pl ...

1. Running head: Background and Significance 2
Background and Significance 2
Effects of ADHD and Executive Functioning on Brain
Development
#7
PSY625: Biological Bases of Behavior
Jennifer Weniger
July 30, 2018
Background

2. Techniques for maintaining and enhancing executive function in
children with ADHD is great potential benefit to children and to
society. Improved executive function improves daily
performance in children and adults suffering from ADHD. There
is more and more research for brain deficits associated with
ADHD. ADHD symptoms can include inattention and/or
hyperactivity and acting impulsively. This disorder affects more
than one in 20 under the age of 18, and two-thirds of those
diagnosed continue to deal with symptoms as adults. Further
research on the effects of ADHD and executive functioning
would be beneficial for those suffering from the disorder.
Symptoms of ADHD create significate impairment in social,
academic, occupational functioning, and relationships (Bressert,
2018). Higher executive functioning would lead to the ability to
perform task of daily living and the improvement of quality of
life.
There are more and more studies of normal and abnormal
brain development in children and adolescents. Using magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) to study ADHD. The ones who will be
helped by further studies and an increased understanding of
ADHD and executive function deficit are the children and their
families. Students who have these challenges need coaching
from professionals who specialize in executive functioning
problems. Students need to be taught the skills necessary to
overcome their deficits. Executive function skills are not a
guarantee to school success but without these skills the child
will have difficulty at a certain point, which can be followed by
a loss of self-esteem. Further knowledge will help children
suffering from ADHD and executive disorder succeed in school
and in life (Eckerd, Ruden, 2011).
There are seven skills associated with executive function,
1) self-awareness, 2) inhibition, 3) non-verbal working memory,
4) verbal working memory, 5) emotional self- regulation, 6)
self-motivation, 7) planning and problem solving. Anyone
exhibiting ADHD symptoms will have problems with all or most

3. of these seven executive functions. These seven functions
develop over time in chronological order. Starting with self-
awareness at age 2 and ending with planning and problem-
solving at age 30 in a neurotypical individual. An individual
with ADHD id generally 30 to 40 percent behind in
transitioning from one executive function to the next (Barkley,
2018).
There is need for more research in the significance of
executive functioning deficits on ADHD. In the article,
Interventions to improve executive functioning and working
memory in school-aged children with AD(HD): a randomized
controlled trail and stepped-care approach, the researchers
investigated one executive function, working memory which
plays an important part in academic performance. School-
oriented interventions possibly help working memory problems
and academic performance, but according to the authors, van
der Dork, et al. (2013) that this hypothesis has not been studied
systematically.
The study in this article was conducted in two parts, the
first part used randomized controlled trail with school-aged
children (8-12 yrs.) with ADHD. Using two groups that were
randomly assigned. One part was a computerized working
memory training or to a paying attention in class intervention.
The second part of study determined specific characteristics that
are related to non-response of the paying attention class
intervention. The academic performance and neurocognitive
functioning assessed before and after training. Then they are
assessed 6 months after training (van der Donk, et al., 2013).
The article states that there is limited research but very
promising results on working memory and executive function.
This study has helped to expand our knowledge, especially
when it comes to the effects of intervention in a classroom
setting. This study shows promise and the need for further
research around executive functioning and its effects on ADHD.
It also showed that there is possible intervention to help
children’s academic performance through working memory

4. training.
Significance
The purpose of this research is to understand the effects of
executive functioning deficit on a child with ADHD. Research
done by Karl Pribram in the 1970’s showed that executive
functions originates primarily from the prefrontal cortex. With
more research in this area can help expand this research into
broader fields such as general psychology and even education.
In the prefrontal cortex there are four known circuits that relate
to executive functioning and by studying these circuits to see
how they work or do not work in children with ADHD. These
circuits can tell us in what area a child need smore help in.
These circuits regulate memory, time management, emotion,
self-awareness. Looking at ADHD in relation to the function of
these circuits we can understand where symptoms originate. To
understand how impaired a circuit is we can start to explain
ADHD symptoms. Some children may have only a deficit in
working memory, or emotion or regulation problems. While
some children may only have difficulties in one area but less in
other areas. By researching executive functioning deficit can
help in the development treatment plans tailored to a child’s
specific needs (Barkley, 2018). Using MRI to measure brain
size in this research can contribute important information and
evidence to support the fact that ADHD is a brain disorder. The
MRIs can also help show if cognitive therapy and/or
medications effect the brains development. Understanding the
brain activity of ADHD patients can help develop appropriate
treatment for each individual patient. This research will be done
with the assistance of Chesapeake Regional Neuroscience
Institute. Through the institute our participants will be selected,
and their facility also will provide MRI studies for our research.
References
Barkley, R. (2018). 7 Executive Function Deficits Tied to
ADHD. ADDITUDE Inside the ADHD Mind. Retrieved from:
https://www.additudemag.com/7-executive-function-deficits-
linked-to-adhd/

5. Bressert, S. (2018). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) Symptoms. PsychCentral. Retrieved from:
https://psychcentral.com/disorders/adhd/attention-deficit-
hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-symptoms/
Eckerd, M., Rudin, S. (2018). The Testing Ground for Executive
Functions? ADDITUDE Inside the ADHD Mind. Retrieved
from: https://www.additudemag.com/executive-function-skills-
adhd-symptoms-middle-school/
van der Donk, M. A., Hiemstra-Beernink, A., Tjeenk-Kalff, A.
C., van der Leij, A. V., & Lindauer, R. L. (2013). Interventions
to improve executive functioning and working memory in
school-aged children with AD(H)D: a randomised controlled
trial and stepped-care approach. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1), 1-7.
doi:10.1186/1471-244X-13-23
Running Head: IMPACT OF TRAUMA ON CHILDHOOD
NEURODEVELOPMENT
6
IMPACT OF TRAUMA
Impact of Trauma on Childhood Neurodevelopment
#8

6. PSY625: Biological Bases of Behavior
Dr. Jennifer Weniger
July 23, 2018
Impact of Trauma on Childhood Neurodevelopment
Specific Aims
Neurological development is the process in which the brain
assembles important patterns surrounding behavioral and
emotional functioning. This developmental process is the
blueprint for continued development throughout adulthood.
There are many factors which can influence brain development
during childhood. Specifically, early life trauma or stressors
such as, Child Protective Services involvement, emotional or
physical abuse/neglect, prenatal drug use (maternal/paternal
drug use during pregnancy), death, and/or toxic environments
can be detrimental to early neurodevelopment. Although stress
is a common aspect of life; early and prolonged exposure to
severe stressors may negatively affect psychosocial and
neuropsychological development. Cognitive development can be
stunted as a result of early traumatic experiences as explained
by Nooner, Hooper, and De Bellis (2018). Their research proves
that the performance of maltreated boys and girls was poorer in
areas of cognitive functioning than their non-maltreated
counterparts. Similarly, Researchers Kindsvatter and Geroski
(2014) explore the influence of early life stress on one’s stress
response system, explaining how one’s neurodevelopment can
be altered as a result.
De Bellis (2018) understood the critical influence that trauma
and traumatic experiences alike held on the neurological
development of a child. However, there is limited research on
the specific relationship between childhood trauma and brain
development. Therefore, the specific aim of this proposal is to
compile and produce reliable research surrounding the impact

7. trauma and traumatic experiences during childhood has on
neurological development. In understanding the link between
trauma and neurological development, strides for preventative
care through education and mental health screening will assist
clinicians in providing appropriate diagnosis and aftercare.
Background
Brain development is at its most vulnerable state during
childhood. During this time, the brain begins to arrange
essential networks to facilitate emotional and behavioral
responses. Research shows that majority of these neurological
networks are built during childhood years which can allow
external influences to impair normal brain functioning.
Specifically, exposure to trauma at a young age can cause mild
to severe impairment to the brain and the systems that control
both emotional and behavioral responses. As such, research
should prove that children who experience trauma at an early
age are at more of a risk for neurological impairments.
For the purposes of this study, trauma will be researched from
both a psychological and medical point of view. Trauma can be
defined as (1) a deeply distressing or disturbing experience or
(2) pertaining to a physical injury. Both definitions fit safely
into the research surrounding how neurological development is
impacted by various forms of trauma and stress. As such, many
researchers including Kindsvatter and Geroski (2014), Clarkson
Freeman (2014), and Augusti and Melinder (2013) categorize
trauma within the framework of physical or emotional abuse or
neglect, maltreatment, or prolonged exposure to any negative
event.
Stress can be useful if received in episodic pattern. This assists
in preparing one’s self-regulation skills. It elicits the stress
response in which fight-or-flight is initiated and activated
(Carlson, 2017). These physiological responses energize our
bodies to react to a stressful situation, thus staying to fight or
retreating (flight). As Carlson (2017) explains, stress is

8. beneficial when received in episodes rather than on a continual
basis. This will create a constant stress response, which can be
seen in children who have been abused, neglected or exposed to
a traumatic event. Clarkson freeman (2014) report that children
who experience three or more adverse childhood experiences
(ACEs) are likelier to have long-term behavioral issues,
explaining how trauma alters normal brain functioning and
development in children and later adults.
By the time a child is born, the brain should have grown to 25
percent of its adult size and by age three (3) 80 percent of its
adult size (Adam & Mila, 2018). However, neurological
development begins prior to natural birth, actually occurring
upon conception. A network of cells is communicating to
produce vital organs such as the brain, heart and lungs to name
a few. The brain is by far one of the most powerful organs
within the body. It is composed of five (5) specific parts which
work together to interpret information and produce a response.
The frontal lobe deals with executive functioning such as
thinking, reasoning, organizing, and problem solving. The
parietal lobe interprets sensory information such as taste, touch
and smell. The occipital lobe processes visual information. The
temporal lobe controls behaviors such as speech, emotions,
working memory, stress responses and auditory processes.
Lastly, the cerebellum is the control center for both fine and
gross motor skills. All of these skills which are beginning to
develop during childhood years.
Brian development is at a crucial stage during childhood given
new neurons are being formed and communicating essential
information via many new synapses. Myelination is the coating
covering the axon to allow neurons to travel quickly
transmitting important information quickly. This process of
myelination is at a peak during childhood to allow children to
receive and transmit information faster. As discussed earlier,
specific physiological stress responses are produced during
stressful situations. Neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine
and epinephrine and hormones such as cortisol are released

9. during stressful or dangerous situations. These chemicals are
responsible for releasing adrenaline in the body during those
stressful times.
Neurologically, children who are continuously in toxic, high
stress, traumatic situations experience excessive production of
stress response chemicals within the brain. As a result, these
children are likelier to disorders associated with anxiety,
depression, hyper-vigilance, migraines, and sleeplessness
(Augusti & Melinder, 2013). Also, these children are likelier to
perform poorer educationally than peers who have not
experienced toxic stress. Through this research proposal,
reliable research will be conducted surrounding the impact of
trauma and stress on the neurological development of children.
In such, the research will provide a baseline for multi
disciplined approach to understanding childhood behavior issues
from the framework of underlying trauma and stress, and illicit
effective and appropriate treatment options.
Significance
As discussed, this importance of this research is based in child
welfare. Specifically, understanding the ways in which toxic
stress and trauma can influence and alter neurological
development. The focus of this project is to promote
preventative measures surrounding childhood neurological
development. Understanding the connection between toxic
stress, trauma and development will help close the disparity and
disproportionality gap of minority children within many
agencies. Areas surrounding child welfare, medical practice,
education, clinical psychology, etc. can be improved on local,
state and federal levels if the aims of this proposal project are
met. All of the mentioned areas encounter the effects of
treatment, specifically medicinal treatment resulting from
misdiagnosis of underprivileged and traumatized youth.
Commonly, youth who are exposed to traumatic and high toxic
stress are often diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and/or

10. Conduct Disorder. They may exhibit symptoms attributed to
exposure to trauma which are very similar (Bricker, Davis, &
Squires, 2004). Shared symptoms include anger, defiance,
hyperactivity, restlessness, outbursts, hypervigilance, excessive
worrying, fidgety, and difficulty focusing. Understanding the
impact of trauma on development will help clinicians,
educational professionals, child welfare staff and medical
professionals appropriately help children and their families
shifting from a reactionary approach to a preventative one.
References
Adam and Mila. (2018). How the Brain Learns. Adam & Mila.
Retrieved from
https://www.adam-mila.com/brain-development-children-0-6-
years/
Amat, T., Grienenberger, J., Kaminer, T., & Schechter, D.
(2003). Fits and starts: A mother
infant case-study involving intergenerational violent trauma
and pseudoseizures across three
generations. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(5), 510.
Augusti, E., & Melinder, A. (2013). Maltreatment Is Associated
With Specific Impairments in
Executive Functions: A Pilot Study. Journal Of Traumatic
Stress, 26(6), 780.
doi:10.1002/jts.21860.
Bernard, K., Kuzava, S., Simons, R., & Dozier, M. (2018). CPS-
referred mothers’
psychophysiological responses to own versus other child
predict sensitivity to child distress.
Developmental Psychology, 54(7), 1255-1264.
doi:10.1037/dev0000508.
Bricker, D., Davis, M. S., & Squires, J. (2004). Mental Health
Screening in Young Children.
Infants & Young Children: An Interdisciplinary Journal Of

11. Early Childhood Intervention,
17(2), 129.
Carlson, N. R. (2017). Physiology of behavior (12th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson.
Clarkson Freeman, P. A. (2014). PREVALENCE AND
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AND CHILD
BEHAVIOR AMONG YOUNG
CHILDREN. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(6), 544.
doi:10.1002/imhj.21460.
Doretto, V., & Scivoletto, S. (2018). Effects of Early Neglect
Experience on Recognition and
Processing of Facial Expressions: A Systematic Review.
Brain Sciences (2076-3425), 8(1), 1.
doi:10.3390/brainsci8010010.
Fine, J. G., & Sung, C. (2014). Neuroscience of child and
adolescent health development.
Journal Of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 521-527.
doi:10.1037/cou0000033.
Forkey, H. C. (2018). Children Exposed to Abuse and Neglect:
The Effects of Trauma on the
Body and Brain. Journal Of The American Academy Of
Matrimonial Lawyers, 30(2), 307.
Kindsvatter, A., & Geroski, A. (2014). The Impact of Early Life
Stress on the Neurodevelopment
of the Stress Response System. Journal Of Counseling &
Development, 92(4), 472-480.
doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00173.x.
Nooner, K. B., Hooper, S. R., & De Bellis, M. D. (2018). An
examination of sex differences on
neurocognitive functioning and behavior problems in
maltreated youth. Psychological
Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy, 10(4), 435-
443. doi:10.1037/tra0000356.

12. PSY625: Biological Bases of Behavior Ashford
University