Routing is an important operation in ad hoc wireless networks that provides communication between wireless devices. This document discusses the challenges of routing in these networks due to their dynamic topology and lack of infrastructure. It describes several routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks, including proactive protocols like DSDV, reactive protocols like AODV and DSR, and hybrid protocols like ZRP. Secure routing is challenging in ad hoc wireless networks due to their vulnerability to security attacks.
Analyzing the Impact of Eaves on Energy Consumption of AODV Routing Protocol ...ijwmn
In this dynamic world, communication is a sine qua non for development. Communication represents sharing of information which can be local or remote. Though local communications may occur face to face between individuals remote communications take place among people over long distances. Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are becoming an interesting part of research due to the increasing growth of wireless devices (laptops, tablets, mobiles etc.) and as well as wireless internet facilities like 4G/Wi-Fi. A MANET is any infrastructure-less network formed by independent and self-configuring nodes. Each node acts as router. In order to send data, the source node initiates a routing process by using a routing protocol. The nature of the wireless medium is always insecure. So, during routing many attacks can take place. The main objective of an eavesdropper is to grab the confidential information in the network. This secret information is used by a malicious node to perform further attacks. Here, the entire problem lies in identifying the eavesdropper because the eavesdropper acts a normal node in the network. In this paper, we analyzed the impact of eavesdropper while executing an Ad hoc On Demand routing (AODV) protocol in MANETs. All the simulations are done using QualNet 5.1 network simulator. From the results, it is found that the network performance degrades in presence of an eavesdropper.
https://www.ijmst.com/
IJMST Volume 1 Issue 1, Manuscript 4
As the popularity of mobile devices and wireless networks significantly increased over the
past years. The wireless adhoc network has now become one of the most vibrant and active
fields of communication and networking research. These networks are a new generation of
networks offering unrestricted mobility without any underlying infrastructure. As their
principle application is in disastrous environments, security is critical. Various challenges are
faced in the adhoc environment, mostly due to the resource poorness of these networks. One
man confront in the design of these networks is their vulnerability to security attacks. The
solutions for conventional networks are usually not sufficient to provide efficient adhoc
operations. Just because of its wireless nature of communication and lack of any security
infrastructure raise several security problems and threats.
In this paper, we briefly review the threats an adhoc network faces and the security goals to
be achieved. Moreover, it also presents existing security schemes used in wireless adhoc
networks in order to handle security threats.
Black-Hole and Wormhole Attack in Routing Protocol AODV in MANETIJCSEA Journal
Mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a self-configuring network that is formed automatically via wireless links by a collection of mobile nodes without the help of a fixed infrastructure or centralized management. The mobile nodes allow communication among the nodes outside the wireless transmission range by hop to hop and the forward packets to each other. Due to dynamic infrastructure-less nature and lack of centralized monitoring points, the ad hoc networks are vulnerable to attacks. The network performance and reliability is break by attacks on ad hoc network routing protocols. AODV is a important on-demand reactive routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks. There is no any security provision against a “BlackvHole” and “Wormhole” attacks in existing AODV protocol. Black hole nodes are those malicious nodes that conform to forward packet to destination. But they do not forward packet intentionally to the destination node. The black hole nodes degrade the performance of network eventually by participating in the network actively. The propose watchdog mechanism detect the black hole nodes in a MANET. This method first detects a black hole attack in the network and then provide a new route to this node. In this, the performance of original AODV and modified AODV in the presence of multiple black hole nodes is find
out on the basis of throughput and packet delivery ratio. In a wormhole attack, intruders tunnel the data from one end of the network to the other, leading distant network nodes to trust they are neighbors’ and making them communicate through the wormhole link.
Serial Communication Interface with Error Detectioniosrjce
UART is used for serial data communication. UART is a piece of computer hardware that translates
between parallel bits of data and serial bits. UART is usually an integrated circuit used for serial
communications over a computer or peripheral device serial port. Bits have to be moved from one place to
another using wires or some other medium. Over many miles, the expense of the wires becomes large. To reduce
the expense of long communication links carrying several bits in parallel, data bits are sent sequentially. Errors
may occur either internally or externally while we transmit information from source to destination. The errors
generated during the transmission would affect the performance of the overall system. In order to reduce the
errors we should incorporate any error detecting schemes like hamming decoder, check parity systems etc.
Different serial communication devices are available.
An overview of contemporary security problems in wireless mesh networksiosrjce
Wireless mesh network (WMN) is a new wireless networking concept. Unlike traditional
wireless networks, Wireless Mesh Networks do not rely on any fixed communications. As an
alternative, hosts rely on each other to keep the network connected. Wireless Internet service
providers are choosing WMNs to offer Internet connectivity, as it allows a fast, simple and
inexpensive network use. One major challenge in design of these networks is their vulnerability to
security attacks. In this paper, principal contemporary security issues for wireless mesh networks
have been investigated. Identification of the threats a Wireless mesh network faces and the security
goals to be realized are described. The new challenges and opportunities posed by this new
networking environment are dealt with and explored approaches to secure its communication.
Analyzing the Impact of Eaves on Energy Consumption of AODV Routing Protocol ...ijwmn
In this dynamic world, communication is a sine qua non for development. Communication represents sharing of information which can be local or remote. Though local communications may occur face to face between individuals remote communications take place among people over long distances. Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are becoming an interesting part of research due to the increasing growth of wireless devices (laptops, tablets, mobiles etc.) and as well as wireless internet facilities like 4G/Wi-Fi. A MANET is any infrastructure-less network formed by independent and self-configuring nodes. Each node acts as router. In order to send data, the source node initiates a routing process by using a routing protocol. The nature of the wireless medium is always insecure. So, during routing many attacks can take place. The main objective of an eavesdropper is to grab the confidential information in the network. This secret information is used by a malicious node to perform further attacks. Here, the entire problem lies in identifying the eavesdropper because the eavesdropper acts a normal node in the network. In this paper, we analyzed the impact of eavesdropper while executing an Ad hoc On Demand routing (AODV) protocol in MANETs. All the simulations are done using QualNet 5.1 network simulator. From the results, it is found that the network performance degrades in presence of an eavesdropper.
https://www.ijmst.com/
IJMST Volume 1 Issue 1, Manuscript 4
As the popularity of mobile devices and wireless networks significantly increased over the
past years. The wireless adhoc network has now become one of the most vibrant and active
fields of communication and networking research. These networks are a new generation of
networks offering unrestricted mobility without any underlying infrastructure. As their
principle application is in disastrous environments, security is critical. Various challenges are
faced in the adhoc environment, mostly due to the resource poorness of these networks. One
man confront in the design of these networks is their vulnerability to security attacks. The
solutions for conventional networks are usually not sufficient to provide efficient adhoc
operations. Just because of its wireless nature of communication and lack of any security
infrastructure raise several security problems and threats.
In this paper, we briefly review the threats an adhoc network faces and the security goals to
be achieved. Moreover, it also presents existing security schemes used in wireless adhoc
networks in order to handle security threats.
Black-Hole and Wormhole Attack in Routing Protocol AODV in MANETIJCSEA Journal
Mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a self-configuring network that is formed automatically via wireless links by a collection of mobile nodes without the help of a fixed infrastructure or centralized management. The mobile nodes allow communication among the nodes outside the wireless transmission range by hop to hop and the forward packets to each other. Due to dynamic infrastructure-less nature and lack of centralized monitoring points, the ad hoc networks are vulnerable to attacks. The network performance and reliability is break by attacks on ad hoc network routing protocols. AODV is a important on-demand reactive routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks. There is no any security provision against a “BlackvHole” and “Wormhole” attacks in existing AODV protocol. Black hole nodes are those malicious nodes that conform to forward packet to destination. But they do not forward packet intentionally to the destination node. The black hole nodes degrade the performance of network eventually by participating in the network actively. The propose watchdog mechanism detect the black hole nodes in a MANET. This method first detects a black hole attack in the network and then provide a new route to this node. In this, the performance of original AODV and modified AODV in the presence of multiple black hole nodes is find
out on the basis of throughput and packet delivery ratio. In a wormhole attack, intruders tunnel the data from one end of the network to the other, leading distant network nodes to trust they are neighbors’ and making them communicate through the wormhole link.
Serial Communication Interface with Error Detectioniosrjce
UART is used for serial data communication. UART is a piece of computer hardware that translates
between parallel bits of data and serial bits. UART is usually an integrated circuit used for serial
communications over a computer or peripheral device serial port. Bits have to be moved from one place to
another using wires or some other medium. Over many miles, the expense of the wires becomes large. To reduce
the expense of long communication links carrying several bits in parallel, data bits are sent sequentially. Errors
may occur either internally or externally while we transmit information from source to destination. The errors
generated during the transmission would affect the performance of the overall system. In order to reduce the
errors we should incorporate any error detecting schemes like hamming decoder, check parity systems etc.
Different serial communication devices are available.
An overview of contemporary security problems in wireless mesh networksiosrjce
Wireless mesh network (WMN) is a new wireless networking concept. Unlike traditional
wireless networks, Wireless Mesh Networks do not rely on any fixed communications. As an
alternative, hosts rely on each other to keep the network connected. Wireless Internet service
providers are choosing WMNs to offer Internet connectivity, as it allows a fast, simple and
inexpensive network use. One major challenge in design of these networks is their vulnerability to
security attacks. In this paper, principal contemporary security issues for wireless mesh networks
have been investigated. Identification of the threats a Wireless mesh network faces and the security
goals to be realized are described. The new challenges and opportunities posed by this new
networking environment are dealt with and explored approaches to secure its communication.
Mobile ad-hoc network is a relatively new innovation in the field of wireless technology. These types of networks operate in the absence of fixed infrastructure, which makes them easy to deploy at any place and at any time. Mobile ad-hoc networks are highly dynamic; topology changes and link breakage happen quite frequently. Therefore, we need a security solution, which is dynamic, too. Security in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) is an important issue in need of a solution that not only works well with a small network, but also sustains efficiency and scalability. In ad hoc environment, much of the research has been done focusing on the efficiency of the network. Therefore, there are a number of routing protocols that provide good efficiency. Considering security has radically changed the situation, for all of the existing routing protocols are designed with an assumption that the participating players and the network environment do not harm the security. It highly contradicts with the reality. Most of the secure routing protocols have the various disadvantages. In this paper a trusted solution is provided for routing in ad hoc network. The routing protocol is modified by relating the security components. Finally, the simulation results of insecure AODV are studied using simulator.
Interference Revelation in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks and Confrontationirjes
In this paper, we utilize the Several interference revelation techniques proposed for mobile ad hoc
networks rely on each node passively monitoring the data forwarding by its next hop. This paper presents
quantitative evaluations of false positives and their impact on monitoring based interference revelation for ad
hoc networks. Experimental results show that, even for a simple three-node configuration, an actual ad-hoc
network suffers from high false positives; these results are validated by Markov and probabilistic models.
However, this false positive problem cannot be observed by simulating the same network using popular ad hoc
network simulators, such as ns-2, OPNET or Glomosim. To remedy this, a probabilistic noise generator model
is implemented in the Glomosim simulator. With this revised noise model, the simulated network exhibits the
aggregate false positive behavior similar to that of the experimental tested. Simulations of larger (50-node) ad
hoc networks indicate that monitoring-based interference revelation has very high false positives. These false
positives can reduce the network performance or increase the overhead. In a simple monitoring-based system
where no secondary and more accurate methods are used, the false positives impact the network performance in
two ways: reduced throughput in normal networks without attackers and inability to mitigate the effect of
attacks in networks with attackers.
The peer-reviewed International Journal of Engineering Inventions (IJEI) is started with a mission to encourage contribution to research in Science and Technology. Encourage and motivate researchers in challenging areas of Sciences and Technology.
Ad hoc networks are the special networks formed for specific applications. Operating in ad-hoc mode
allows all wireless devices within range of each other to discover and communicate in a peer-to-peer
fashion without involving central access points. Many routing protocols like AODV, DSR etc have been
proposed for these networks to find an end to end path between the nodes. These routing protocols are
prone to attacks by the malicious nodes. There is a need to detect and prevent these attacks in a timely
manner before destruction of network services.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANET UNDER MALICIOUS ATTACKSIJNSA Journal
MANETs routing protocols are vulnerable to various types of security attacks such as selfish nodes, grey-hole and black-hole attacks. These routing protocols are unprotected and subsequently result in various kinds of malicious mobile nodes being injected into the networks. In this paper, three types of attacks such as selfish, grey-hole and black-hole attacks have been applied to two important MANET routing protocols; Ad-hoc On demand Distance Vector (OADV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) in order to analyse and compare the impact of these attacks on the network performance based on throughput, average delay, packet loss and consumption of energy.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Survey on Efficient and Secure Anonymous Communication in ManetsEditor IJCATR
Mobile ad-hoc networks require anonymous communications in order to thwart new wireless passive attacks; and to protect new
assets of information such as nodes locations, motion patterns, network topology and traffic patterns in addition to conventional identity and
message privacy. The transmitted routing messages and cached active routing entries leave plenty of opportunities for eavesdroppers.
Anonymity and location privacy guarantees for the deployed ad hoc networks are critical in military and real time communication systems,
otherwise the entire mission may be compromised. This poses challenging constraints on MANET routing and data forwarding. To address
the new challenges, several anonymous routing schemes have been proposed recently.
An Enhanced Approach to Avoid Black hole Attack in Mobile Ad hoc Networks usi...ijsrd.com
A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is very receptive to security attacks due to its open medium, dynamically changing network topology, lack of centralized monitoring. These vulnerabilities are nature of MANET structure that cannot be removed. As a consequence, attacks with malicious intent have been and will be devised to exploit these vulnerabilities and to cripple MANET operations. One of the well known attack on the MANET is the Black Hole attack which is most common in the ondemand routing protocols such as AODV. A black hole attack refers to an attack by a malicious node, which forcibly gains the route from a source to a destination by the falsification of sequence number and hop count of the routing message. This paper represents an enhanced AOMDV routing protocol for avoiding black hole attack in MANET. This routing protocol uses Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) to form link disjoint multi-path during path discovery to provide better path selection in order to avoid malicious nodes in the path using legitimacy table maintained by each node in the network. Nonmalicious nodes steadily isolate the black hole nodes based on the values collected in their legitimacy table and avoid them while making path between source and destination. The effectiveness of our approach is illustrated by simulations conducted using network simulator ns-2.34.
1- Mobile ad hoc networks are formed dynamically by an
autonomous system of mobile nodes that are connected
via wireless links.
2- Multihop communication- node communicate with the
help of two or more node from source to destination.
3- No existing fixed infrastructure or centralized administration –No base station.
4- Mobile nodes are free to move randomly-Network topology changes frequently
5- May Operate as standalone fashion or also can be connected to the larger internet.
6- Each node work as router
Primary Goals of Security in MANET
To assure a reliable data transfer over the communication networks and to protect the system resources a number of security services are classified in five categories:-
1-Authentication:- The process of identifying an individual , usually based on a username and password.
2- Confidentially:- Confidentiality aims at protecting the data from disclosure to unauthorized person.
Network attacks against confidentiality
* Packet capturing
Password attack
Port scanning
Dumpster Diving
Wiretapping
Phishing and Pharming
2-Non repudiation:- Integrity guarantees that a message being transferred is never corrupted.
3- Integrity:- Integrity guarantees that a message being transferred is never corrupted.
network attack against integrity
Salami attack
trust relationship attacks
Man in the middle attack
Session hijacking attacks
4- Availability:- Its ensure that data ,network resources or network services are available to legitimate user when required.
network attack against availability
Denial of services attacks
Distributed denial of services attack
SYN flood attacks and ICMP flood attacks
Electrical power attacks
Server Room environment attacks
Key management
The security in networking is in many cases dependent on proper key management.
Key management consists of various services, of which each is vital for the security
of the networking systems
* Trust model:-Its must determine how much different element in the network can trust each other.
* Cryptosystem:- Public and symmetric key mechanism can be applied .
* Key creation:- It must determine which parties are allowed to generate key to themselves.
* Key storage :- In adhoc network any network element may have to store its own key and possibly key of other element as well.
* Key distribution:- The key management service must ensure that the generated keys are securely distributed to their owners.
In this thesis firstly we study the effects of Black hole attack in MANET using both Proactive and Reactive routing protocols and then discovering a Secure Path in MANET by Avoiding Black/Gray Holes. The impact of Black Hole attack on the performance of MANET is evaluated finding out which protocol is more vulnerable to the attack and how much is the impact of the attack on both protocols. blackhole route
Performance Evaluation of ad-hoc Network Routing Protocols using ns2 SimulationIDES Editor
Ad-hoc networks are basically peer to peer multihop
mobile wireless networks in which the information packets
are transmitted in a ‘store and forward’ manner from a source
to an arbitrary destination via intermediate nodes. The main
objective of this paper is to evaluate the performance of various
ad-hoc networks routing protocols viz. DSDV (Destination
Sequence Distance Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing)
and AODV (Ad-hoc On Demand Distance Vector). The
comparison of these protocols is based on different
performance metrics, which are throughput, packet delivery
ratio, routing overheads, packet drop and average end to end
delay. The performance evaluation has been done by using
simulation tool NS2 (Network Simulator) which is the main
simulator.
Security Enhancement in AODV Routing Protocol for MANETsidescitation
Adhoc networks are a new wireless networking paradigm for mobile hosts.
Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) are wireless networks with absence of infrastructure
centralized support. Routing in MANETs is challenging task due to mobility of nodes.
Several routing protocols have been developed for Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. This paper
describes concept of security enhancement in AODV routing protocol by detection and
tolerance of attacks using secure message transmission (SMT) protocol. Present AODV
routing protocol is not secure by malicious nodes. One main challenge in design of these
networks is their vulnerability to security attacks. In this paper we study how to make node
malicious and at same we will detect malicious node in AODV protocol using Network
Simulator-2(NS-2) tool.
ANALYZING THE IMPACT OF EAVES ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF AODV ROUTING PROTOCOL ...ijwmn
In this dynamic world, communication is a sine qua non for development. Communication represents
sharing of information which can be local or remote. Though local communications may occur face to face
between individuals remote communications take place among people over long distances. Mobile ad hoc
networks (MANETs) are becoming an interesting part of research due to the increasing growth of wireless
devices (laptops, tablets, mobiles etc.) and as well as wireless internet facilities like 4G/Wi-Fi. A MANET
is any infrastructure-less network formed by independent and self-configuring nodes. Each node acts as
router. In order to send data, the source node initiates a routing process by using a routing protocol. The
nature of the wireless medium is always insecure. So, during routing many attacks can take place. The
main objective of an eavesdropper is to grab the confidential information in the network. This secret
information is used by a malicious node to perform further attacks. Here, the entire problem lies in
identifying the eavesdropper because the eavesdropper acts a normal node in the network. In this paper,
we analyzed the impact of eavesdropper while executing an Ad hoc On Demand routing (AODV) protocol
in MANETs. All the simulations are done using QualNet 5.1 network simulator. From the results, it is found
that the network performance degrades in presence of an eavesdropper.
A Protocol/Scheme to mitigate DDos attacks using AODV Protocolijsrd.com
MANET(Mobile Adhoc Network) is an emerging technology and have great strength to be applied in battlefields and commercial applications such as traffic surveillance, MANET is infrastructure less without any centralized controller. Each node contains routing capability. Each device in a MANET is independent and can move in any direction. One of the major challenges wireless mobile ad-hoc networks face today is security, because no central controller exists. MANETs are a kind of wireless ad hoc networks that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a link layer ad hoc network. There are many security attacks in MANET and DDoS (Distributed denial of service) is one of them. Our main objective is seeing the effect of DDoS in routing, Packet Drop Rate, End to End Delay, no. of Collisions due to attack on network. And with these parameters and many more also we build secure IDS to detect this kind of attack and block it. In this thesis main objective is to study and implement the security against the DDOS attack. DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attacks in the networks are required to be prevented, as early as possible before reaching the victim node. DDos attack causes depletion of the network resources such as network bandwidth, disk space, CPU time, data structures, and network connections. Dealing with DDoS attacks is difficult due to their properties such as dynamic attack rates, big scale of botnets. DDos attack become more difficult to handle if it occurs in wireless network because of the properties of ad hoc network such as dynamic topologies, low battery life, Unicast routing Multicast routing , Frequency of updates or network overhead , scalability , mobile agent based routing ,power aware routing etc. Thus it is better to prevent the distributed denial of service attack rather than allowing it to occur and then taking the necessary steps to handle it. The following quantitative metrics Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), Number of Collisions are to be used to evaluate the performance of DDoS attacks and their prevention techniques under different combinations in the fixed mobile ad hoc network. In our simulation, the effect of DDoS attacks under different number of attackers is studied.
Mobile ad-hoc network is a relatively new innovation in the field of wireless technology. These types of networks operate in the absence of fixed infrastructure, which makes them easy to deploy at any place and at any time. Mobile ad-hoc networks are highly dynamic; topology changes and link breakage happen quite frequently. Therefore, we need a security solution, which is dynamic, too. Security in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) is an important issue in need of a solution that not only works well with a small network, but also sustains efficiency and scalability. In ad hoc environment, much of the research has been done focusing on the efficiency of the network. Therefore, there are a number of routing protocols that provide good efficiency. Considering security has radically changed the situation, for all of the existing routing protocols are designed with an assumption that the participating players and the network environment do not harm the security. It highly contradicts with the reality. Most of the secure routing protocols have the various disadvantages. In this paper a trusted solution is provided for routing in ad hoc network. The routing protocol is modified by relating the security components. Finally, the simulation results of insecure AODV are studied using simulator.
Interference Revelation in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks and Confrontationirjes
In this paper, we utilize the Several interference revelation techniques proposed for mobile ad hoc
networks rely on each node passively monitoring the data forwarding by its next hop. This paper presents
quantitative evaluations of false positives and their impact on monitoring based interference revelation for ad
hoc networks. Experimental results show that, even for a simple three-node configuration, an actual ad-hoc
network suffers from high false positives; these results are validated by Markov and probabilistic models.
However, this false positive problem cannot be observed by simulating the same network using popular ad hoc
network simulators, such as ns-2, OPNET or Glomosim. To remedy this, a probabilistic noise generator model
is implemented in the Glomosim simulator. With this revised noise model, the simulated network exhibits the
aggregate false positive behavior similar to that of the experimental tested. Simulations of larger (50-node) ad
hoc networks indicate that monitoring-based interference revelation has very high false positives. These false
positives can reduce the network performance or increase the overhead. In a simple monitoring-based system
where no secondary and more accurate methods are used, the false positives impact the network performance in
two ways: reduced throughput in normal networks without attackers and inability to mitigate the effect of
attacks in networks with attackers.
The peer-reviewed International Journal of Engineering Inventions (IJEI) is started with a mission to encourage contribution to research in Science and Technology. Encourage and motivate researchers in challenging areas of Sciences and Technology.
Ad hoc networks are the special networks formed for specific applications. Operating in ad-hoc mode
allows all wireless devices within range of each other to discover and communicate in a peer-to-peer
fashion without involving central access points. Many routing protocols like AODV, DSR etc have been
proposed for these networks to find an end to end path between the nodes. These routing protocols are
prone to attacks by the malicious nodes. There is a need to detect and prevent these attacks in a timely
manner before destruction of network services.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANET UNDER MALICIOUS ATTACKSIJNSA Journal
MANETs routing protocols are vulnerable to various types of security attacks such as selfish nodes, grey-hole and black-hole attacks. These routing protocols are unprotected and subsequently result in various kinds of malicious mobile nodes being injected into the networks. In this paper, three types of attacks such as selfish, grey-hole and black-hole attacks have been applied to two important MANET routing protocols; Ad-hoc On demand Distance Vector (OADV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) in order to analyse and compare the impact of these attacks on the network performance based on throughput, average delay, packet loss and consumption of energy.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Survey on Efficient and Secure Anonymous Communication in ManetsEditor IJCATR
Mobile ad-hoc networks require anonymous communications in order to thwart new wireless passive attacks; and to protect new
assets of information such as nodes locations, motion patterns, network topology and traffic patterns in addition to conventional identity and
message privacy. The transmitted routing messages and cached active routing entries leave plenty of opportunities for eavesdroppers.
Anonymity and location privacy guarantees for the deployed ad hoc networks are critical in military and real time communication systems,
otherwise the entire mission may be compromised. This poses challenging constraints on MANET routing and data forwarding. To address
the new challenges, several anonymous routing schemes have been proposed recently.
An Enhanced Approach to Avoid Black hole Attack in Mobile Ad hoc Networks usi...ijsrd.com
A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is very receptive to security attacks due to its open medium, dynamically changing network topology, lack of centralized monitoring. These vulnerabilities are nature of MANET structure that cannot be removed. As a consequence, attacks with malicious intent have been and will be devised to exploit these vulnerabilities and to cripple MANET operations. One of the well known attack on the MANET is the Black Hole attack which is most common in the ondemand routing protocols such as AODV. A black hole attack refers to an attack by a malicious node, which forcibly gains the route from a source to a destination by the falsification of sequence number and hop count of the routing message. This paper represents an enhanced AOMDV routing protocol for avoiding black hole attack in MANET. This routing protocol uses Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) to form link disjoint multi-path during path discovery to provide better path selection in order to avoid malicious nodes in the path using legitimacy table maintained by each node in the network. Nonmalicious nodes steadily isolate the black hole nodes based on the values collected in their legitimacy table and avoid them while making path between source and destination. The effectiveness of our approach is illustrated by simulations conducted using network simulator ns-2.34.
1- Mobile ad hoc networks are formed dynamically by an
autonomous system of mobile nodes that are connected
via wireless links.
2- Multihop communication- node communicate with the
help of two or more node from source to destination.
3- No existing fixed infrastructure or centralized administration –No base station.
4- Mobile nodes are free to move randomly-Network topology changes frequently
5- May Operate as standalone fashion or also can be connected to the larger internet.
6- Each node work as router
Primary Goals of Security in MANET
To assure a reliable data transfer over the communication networks and to protect the system resources a number of security services are classified in five categories:-
1-Authentication:- The process of identifying an individual , usually based on a username and password.
2- Confidentially:- Confidentiality aims at protecting the data from disclosure to unauthorized person.
Network attacks against confidentiality
* Packet capturing
Password attack
Port scanning
Dumpster Diving
Wiretapping
Phishing and Pharming
2-Non repudiation:- Integrity guarantees that a message being transferred is never corrupted.
3- Integrity:- Integrity guarantees that a message being transferred is never corrupted.
network attack against integrity
Salami attack
trust relationship attacks
Man in the middle attack
Session hijacking attacks
4- Availability:- Its ensure that data ,network resources or network services are available to legitimate user when required.
network attack against availability
Denial of services attacks
Distributed denial of services attack
SYN flood attacks and ICMP flood attacks
Electrical power attacks
Server Room environment attacks
Key management
The security in networking is in many cases dependent on proper key management.
Key management consists of various services, of which each is vital for the security
of the networking systems
* Trust model:-Its must determine how much different element in the network can trust each other.
* Cryptosystem:- Public and symmetric key mechanism can be applied .
* Key creation:- It must determine which parties are allowed to generate key to themselves.
* Key storage :- In adhoc network any network element may have to store its own key and possibly key of other element as well.
* Key distribution:- The key management service must ensure that the generated keys are securely distributed to their owners.
In this thesis firstly we study the effects of Black hole attack in MANET using both Proactive and Reactive routing protocols and then discovering a Secure Path in MANET by Avoiding Black/Gray Holes. The impact of Black Hole attack on the performance of MANET is evaluated finding out which protocol is more vulnerable to the attack and how much is the impact of the attack on both protocols. blackhole route
Performance Evaluation of ad-hoc Network Routing Protocols using ns2 SimulationIDES Editor
Ad-hoc networks are basically peer to peer multihop
mobile wireless networks in which the information packets
are transmitted in a ‘store and forward’ manner from a source
to an arbitrary destination via intermediate nodes. The main
objective of this paper is to evaluate the performance of various
ad-hoc networks routing protocols viz. DSDV (Destination
Sequence Distance Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing)
and AODV (Ad-hoc On Demand Distance Vector). The
comparison of these protocols is based on different
performance metrics, which are throughput, packet delivery
ratio, routing overheads, packet drop and average end to end
delay. The performance evaluation has been done by using
simulation tool NS2 (Network Simulator) which is the main
simulator.
Security Enhancement in AODV Routing Protocol for MANETsidescitation
Adhoc networks are a new wireless networking paradigm for mobile hosts.
Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) are wireless networks with absence of infrastructure
centralized support. Routing in MANETs is challenging task due to mobility of nodes.
Several routing protocols have been developed for Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. This paper
describes concept of security enhancement in AODV routing protocol by detection and
tolerance of attacks using secure message transmission (SMT) protocol. Present AODV
routing protocol is not secure by malicious nodes. One main challenge in design of these
networks is their vulnerability to security attacks. In this paper we study how to make node
malicious and at same we will detect malicious node in AODV protocol using Network
Simulator-2(NS-2) tool.
ANALYZING THE IMPACT OF EAVES ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF AODV ROUTING PROTOCOL ...ijwmn
In this dynamic world, communication is a sine qua non for development. Communication represents
sharing of information which can be local or remote. Though local communications may occur face to face
between individuals remote communications take place among people over long distances. Mobile ad hoc
networks (MANETs) are becoming an interesting part of research due to the increasing growth of wireless
devices (laptops, tablets, mobiles etc.) and as well as wireless internet facilities like 4G/Wi-Fi. A MANET
is any infrastructure-less network formed by independent and self-configuring nodes. Each node acts as
router. In order to send data, the source node initiates a routing process by using a routing protocol. The
nature of the wireless medium is always insecure. So, during routing many attacks can take place. The
main objective of an eavesdropper is to grab the confidential information in the network. This secret
information is used by a malicious node to perform further attacks. Here, the entire problem lies in
identifying the eavesdropper because the eavesdropper acts a normal node in the network. In this paper,
we analyzed the impact of eavesdropper while executing an Ad hoc On Demand routing (AODV) protocol
in MANETs. All the simulations are done using QualNet 5.1 network simulator. From the results, it is found
that the network performance degrades in presence of an eavesdropper.
A Protocol/Scheme to mitigate DDos attacks using AODV Protocolijsrd.com
MANET(Mobile Adhoc Network) is an emerging technology and have great strength to be applied in battlefields and commercial applications such as traffic surveillance, MANET is infrastructure less without any centralized controller. Each node contains routing capability. Each device in a MANET is independent and can move in any direction. One of the major challenges wireless mobile ad-hoc networks face today is security, because no central controller exists. MANETs are a kind of wireless ad hoc networks that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a link layer ad hoc network. There are many security attacks in MANET and DDoS (Distributed denial of service) is one of them. Our main objective is seeing the effect of DDoS in routing, Packet Drop Rate, End to End Delay, no. of Collisions due to attack on network. And with these parameters and many more also we build secure IDS to detect this kind of attack and block it. In this thesis main objective is to study and implement the security against the DDOS attack. DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attacks in the networks are required to be prevented, as early as possible before reaching the victim node. DDos attack causes depletion of the network resources such as network bandwidth, disk space, CPU time, data structures, and network connections. Dealing with DDoS attacks is difficult due to their properties such as dynamic attack rates, big scale of botnets. DDos attack become more difficult to handle if it occurs in wireless network because of the properties of ad hoc network such as dynamic topologies, low battery life, Unicast routing Multicast routing , Frequency of updates or network overhead , scalability , mobile agent based routing ,power aware routing etc. Thus it is better to prevent the distributed denial of service attack rather than allowing it to occur and then taking the necessary steps to handle it. The following quantitative metrics Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), Number of Collisions are to be used to evaluate the performance of DDoS attacks and their prevention techniques under different combinations in the fixed mobile ad hoc network. In our simulation, the effect of DDoS attacks under different number of attackers is studied.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF ROUTING ROTOCOLS IN MANET UNDER MALICIOUS ATTACKSIJNSA Journal
MANETs routing protocols are vulnerable to various
hole and black-hole attacks. These routing protocols are unprotected and subsequently result in various
kinds of malicious mobile nodes being injected into the networks. In this paper, three types of a
as selfish, grey-hole and black-hole attacks have been applied to two important MANET routing protocols;
Ad-hoc On demand Distance Vector (OADV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) in order to analyse and
compare the impact of these attacks on the
packet loss and consumption of energy.
Link Reliability based Detection and Predecessor base Route Establishment for...IJERA Editor
Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is consists of mobile hosts or sensor nodes proficient of functioning in
absence of infrastructure. Such networks should be capable of self forming, self organizing, self managing, self
recovering, and able to operate under dynamic conditions. The multi-hop communication phenomenon is used
to sending information to receiver. To attain this, each mobile node depends on its neighbor or range node to
forward the data packet to the destination. In fact, most of previous studies on MANET have implicitly assumed
that nodes are cooperative such as node cooperation becomes a very important issue in MANET. The attacker in
dynamic network are easily affected the routing performance and data receiving ratio is affected as compared to
normal performance of network as well as dropping of data is enhanced. The packets percentage is degrades is
the confirmation of attacker misbehavior. The characteristics of wormhole attack is to making the tunnel and
reply the positive acknowledgement of destination at time of route request and drop all the data deliver through
tunnel. The attacker is identified by the past and current data receiving and forwarding in MANET. The
proposed IPS (Intrusion Detection and Prevention System) provides the security on the basis of link reliability.
In this work, we proposed new link reliability based security through Predecessor based Route Establishment of
detecting routing misbehavior of wormhole attack for prevention in MANET. The attacker is blocked through
the broadcasting scheme used by proposed prevention scheme from their actual identification to neighbors. The
security provider nodes are blocking the communication of attacker and provide the secure communication
among the mobile nodes. The performance of proposed scheme is evaluated through performance metrics like
PDR and throughput.
DSSS with ISAKMP Key Management Protocol to Secure Physical Layer for Mobile ...IJNSA Journal
The wireless and dynamic nature of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) leaves them more vulnerable to security attacks than their wired counterparts. The nodes act both as routers and as communication end points. This makes the physical layer more prone to security attacks. The MANET physical layer is challenging to DoS attack and also some passive attacks. The physical layer protocol in MANETs is responsible for bit-level transmission between network nodes. The proposed model combines spread spectrum technology Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) with key management technique ISAKMP to defend against signal jamming denial-of-service attacks in physical layer of MANET.DSSS with ISAKMP is found to be a good security solution even with its known security problems. The simulation is done using network simulator qualnet 5.0 for different number of mobile nodes. The proposed model has shown improved results in terms of Average throughput, Average end to end delay, Average packet delivery ratio, and Average jitter.
Design and Implementation of TARF: A Trust-Aware Routing Framework for WSNsijsrd.com
The multi-hop routing in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) offers little protection against identity deception through replaying routing information. An adversary can exploit this defect to launch various harmful or even devastating attacks against the routing protocols, including sinkhole attacks, wormhole attacks and Sybil attacks. The situation is further aggravated by mobile and harsh network conditions. Traditional cryptographic techniques or efforts at developing trust-aware routing protocols do not effectively address this severe problem. To secure the WSNs against adversaries misdirecting the multi-hop routing, we have designed and implemented TARF, a robust trust-aware routing framework for dynamic WSNs. Without tight time synchronization or known geographic information, TARF provides trustworthy and energy-efficient route. Most importantly, TARF proves effective against those harmful attacks developed out of identity deception; the resilience of TARF is verified through extensive evaluation with both simulation and empirical experiments on large-scale WSNs under various scenarios including mobile and RF-shielding network conditions. Further, we have implemented a low-overhead TARF module in Tiny OS; as demonstrated, this implementation can be incorporated into existing routing protocols with the least effort. Based on TARF, we also demonstrated a proof-of-concept mobile target detection application that functions well against an anti-detection mechanism.
A MANET is an autonomous group of mobile users that communicate over reasonably slow
wireless links. The network topology may vary rapidly and unpredictably over time, because the nodes
are mobile. The network is decentralized, where all network activity, including discovering the topology
and delivering messages must be executed by the nodes themselves. Hence routing functionality will
have to be incorporated into the mobile nodes. MANET is a kind of wireless ad-hoc network and it is a
self-configuring network of mobile routers (and associated hosts) connected by wireless links – the union
of which forms an arbitrary topology. Such a network may operate in a standalone fashion, or may be
connected to the larger Internet Problems in Ad Hoc Networks.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) is an intentional online Journal in English monthly publishing journal. This Journal publish original research work that contributes significantly to further the scientific knowledge in engineering and Technology.
Quick Routing for Communication in MANET using Zone Routing Protocolijceronline
rnational Journal of Computational Engineering Resaerch 2014, Volume 4 ~ Issue 11 (November 2014)
Abstract
The paper discusses the voltage control of a critical load bus using dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) in a distribution system. The critical load requires a balanced sinusoidal waveform across its terminals preferably at system nominal frequency of 50Hz .It is assumed that the frequency of the supply voltage can be varied and it is different from the system nominal frequency. The DVR is operated such that it holds the voltage across critical load bus terminals constant at system nominal frequency irrespective of the frequency of the source voltage. In case of a frequency mismatch, the total real power requirement of the critical load bus has to be supplied by the DVR. Proposed method used to compensate for frequency variation, the DC link of the DVR is supplied through an uncontrolled rectifier that provides a path for the real power required by the critical load to flow .A simple frequency estimation technique is discussed which are Discrete Fourier transform (DFT), ANN controller. The present work study the compensation principle and different control strategies of DVR used here are based on DFT, and ANN Controller .Through detailed analysis and simulation studies using MATLAB. It is shown that the voltage is completely controlled across the critical load.
Quantative Analysis and Evaluation of Topology Control Schemes for Utilizing ...ijsrd.com
By virtue of their robustness, cost-effectiveness, self-organizing and self-configuring nature, WMNs have emerged as a new network paradigm for a wide range of applications, such as public safety and emergency response communications, intelligent transportation systems, and community networks. It is anticipated that WMNs will not only resolve the limitations of wireless ad hoc networks, local area networks (WLANs), personal area networks (WPANs), and metropolitan area networks (WMANs) but also significantly improve such networks’ performance. One fundamental problem of WMNs with a limited number of radio interfaces and orthogonal channels is that the performance degrades significantly as the network size grows. This results from increased interference between nodes and diminished spatial reuse over the network. In this paper, it is proposed to evaluate the performance of two different channel assignment schemes namely common channel assignment (CCA) and centralized tabu-based search algorithm under WCETT routing protocols for varying traffic load in terms of packet delivery ratio, throughput, average end to end delay and routing overhead using NS2 network simulator. WCETT protocol uses the weighted sum of the cumulative expected transmission time and the maximal value of efficient channels among all channels.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
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Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
1. Routing Security in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
This is triggered by node mobility, nodes leaving or
joining the network, node inoperability due to the lack of
Elanthendral M and Jaffer Basha J#
*
power resources, etc. Nonetheless, the network connectivity
*#
Department of Computer Science andbe maintained in order to allow applications and
should Engineering
*# services to operate undisrupted.
Sree Sowdambika College of Engineering, Aruppukottai
* #
thendral5320@gmail.com, jafferbasha2001@gmail.com
B. Fluctuating Link Capacity
Abstract— we consider routing security in wireless sensor
networks. Many sensor network routing protocols have been
proposed, but none of them have been designed with The effects of high bit error rate are more profound in
security as a goal. We propose security goals for routing in wireless communication. More than one end-to-end path can
sensor networks show how attacks against ad-hoc and peer- use a given link in ad hoc wireless networks, and if the link
to-peer networks can be adapted into powerful attacks were to break, could disrupt several sessions during period
against sensor networks and analyze the security of the of high bit transmission rate.
entire major sensor network routing protocols.
In this paper we are concerned with security of routing B. Distributed Operations
protocols in ad hoc wireless networks. Routing is an The protocols and algorithms designed for an ad hoc
important operation, providing the communication protocol wireless network should be distributed in order to
for data delivery between wireless devices. Assuring a accommodate a dynamic topology and an infrastructure less
secure routing protocol is a challenging task since ad hoc architecture.
wireless networks are highly vulnerable to security attacks
due to their unique characteristics. Traditional routing C. Limited Energy Resources
protocols designs do not address security, and are based on Wireless devices are battery powered, therefore there is a
a mutual trust relationship between nodes. limited time they can operate without changing or replenish
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. We their energy resources. Designing energy efficient
continue with an overview of the routing protocols in ad hoc mechanisms are thus an important feature in designing
wireless networks in section II. Security services and algorithms and protocols. Mechanisms used to reduce
challenges in an ad hoc network environment are presented energy consumption include (a) having nodes enter sleep
in section III. We continue with a classification and state when they cannot send or receive data,(b) choose
description of the main attacks on routing in section IV, routing paths that minimize energy consumption, (c)
followed by a description of the state-of-the-art security selectively use nodes based on their energy status, (d)
mechanisms for routing protocols in section V. Our paper construct communication and data delivery structures that
ends in section VI with conclusions. minimize energy consumption, and (e) reduce networking
overhead.
Designing communication protocols in the ad hoc
Keywords— Wireless sensor networks, Routing Protocols,
wireless networks is challenging because of the limited
Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Wireless Network Security wireless transmission range, broadcast nature of the wireless
medium (hidden terminal and exposed terminal problems
I. INTRODUCTION [15]), node mobility, limited power resources, and limited
Wireless networks provide rapid, untethered access to physical security. Advantages of using an ad hoc wireless
information and computing, liminating the barriers of
distance, time, and location for many applications ranging networks include easy and speedy deployment, robustness
from collaborative, distributed mobile computing to disaster (no infrastructure required), adaptive and self-organizing
recovery (such as fire, flood, earthquake), law enforcement network.
(crowd control, search and rescue) and military In this chapter we are concerned with security of routing
communications (command, control, surveillance, and protocols in ad hoc wireless networks. Routing is an
reconnaissance). An ad hoc network is a collection of important operation, providing the communication protocol
wireless mobile hosts forming a temporary network without for data delivery between wireless devices. Assuring a
the aid of any established infrastructure or centralized secure routing protocol is a challenging task since ad hoc
administration [12]. In ad hoc wireless networks, every wireless networks are highly vulnerable to security attacks
device has the role of router and actively participates in data due to their unique characteristics. Traditional routing
forwarding. Communication between two nodes can be protocols designs do not address security, and are based on a
performed directly if the destination is within the sender’s mutual trust relationship between nodes.
transmission range, or through intermediate nodes acting as The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. We
routers (multi-hoptransmission) if the destination is outside continue with an overview of the routing protocols in ad hoc
sender’s transmission range. Some of the characteristics wireless networks in section 2. Security services and
which differentiate ad hoc wireless networks from other challenges in an ad hoc network environment are presented
networks are: in section 3. We continue with a classification and
description of the main attacks on routing in section 4,
A. Dynamic Network Topology followed by a description of the state-of-the-art security
2. mechanisms for routing protocols in section 5. Our article distance vector protocols, DSDV finds shortest paths
ends in section 6 with conclusions. between nodes using a distributed version of the Bellman-
Ford algorithm. Each node maintains a routing table, with an
entry for each possible destination in the network. For each
entry, the following fields are maintained: the destination
II. ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS address, next hop on the shortest path to that destination,
Routing is an important operation, being the foundation shortest known distance to this destination, and a destination
of data exchanging between wireless devices. Each wireless sequence number that is created by the destination itself. To
node acts as a router and participate in the routing protocol. maintain an updated view of the network topology, each
Routing relies therefore on an implicit trust relationship node sends periodically to each of its neighbors its routing
among participating devices. Main routing responsibilities table information. Based on the routing information received
are exchanging the routing information, finding a feasible from its neighbors, each node updates its routing table to
path between source and destination based on various reflect current status of the network.
metrics, and path maintenance. Sequence numbers play an important role in DSDV and
The major requirements [15] of a routing protocol are (1) are used for preventing loop formation. Each entry in the
minimum route acquisition delay, (2) quick route routing table has a sequence number. This is the most recent
reconfiguration in the case of path breaks, (3) loop-free sequence number known for that destination, and is included
routing, (3) distributed routing protocol, (4) low control in the periodic routing updates. If a node receives an update
overhead, (5) scalability with network size, (6) QoS support with a smaller sequence number, then that update is ignored.
as demanded by the application, (7) support of time A newly advertised path is adopted if it has a greater
sensitive traffic, and (8) security and privacy. sequence number, or if it has the same sequence number but
There are a number of challenges [15] triggered by the a lower metric.
unique characteristics of ad hoc wireless networks. Node Besides the periodic updates, there are triggered updates,
mobility affects network topology and may incur packet issued when important routing updates should be
lost, path disconnection, network partition and difficulty in transmitted. When a broken link is detected, the node creates
resource allocation. Wireless nodes are in general resource a routing update with next odd sequence number and metric
constrained, in terms of battery power, memory and value of infinity. Routing update messages can be full dump,
computing power. Wireless channel has a high bit error rate when information for all destination is sent, or incremental
(10−5 to 10−3) compared with wired counterparts (10−12 to when only information changed from the last full dump is
10−9). Wireless channel is shared by the nodes in the same sent.
broadcast area, thus the link bandwidth available per node is Main advantage of using DSDV is that routes to all
limited, and varies with the number of nodes present in that destinations are always available, without requiring a route
area. The design of routing protocols should take these discovery process. Main disadvantage of DSDV is high
factors into consideration. overhead due to the periodic routing updates.
Based on the routing information update mechanism,
routing protocols in ad hoc wireless networks can be B. Reactive Routing Protocols
classified as proactive (or table-driven) protocols, reactive In the reactive routing protocols, a route discovery
(or on-demand) protocols, and hybrid routing protocols. In mechanism is initiated only when a node does not know a
the next three subsections we present important features of path to a destination it wants to communicate with. In the
each category and short descriptions of several case of mobile ad hoc network, reactive routing protocols
representative routing protocols. have been demonstrated to perform better with significantly
lower overheads than proactive routing protocols since they
A. Proactive Routing Protocols are able to react quickly to the many changes that may occur
In proactive routing protocols, nodes exchange routing in node connectivity, and yet are able to reduce (or
information periodically in order to maintain consistent and eliminate) routing overhead in periods or areas of the
accurate routing information. When a node has to transmit network in which changes are less frequent.
data to a destination, the path can be computed rapidly based A reactive routing protocol has two main operations,
on the updated information available in the routing table. route discovery(usually broadcasting using a form of
The disadvantage of using a proactive protocol is high controlled flooding) and route maintenance. Various
overhead needed to maintain an up to date routing reactive protocols have been proposed in literature such as
information. In ad hoc wireless networks, node mobility Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) [20],
triggers a dynamic topology that might require a large Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) [12], Temporally Ordered
number of routing updates. This has a negative impact on Routing Algorithm (TORA) [18], etc. We present next the
resource constrained wireless devices, bandwidth utilization, main features of DSR and AODV. Security supporting
and throughput. mechanisms for these protocols are presented later in section
The protocols in this category are typically extensions of 5.
the wired network routing protocols. Examples include DSR [12] is a source routing protocol, and thus as the
Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV) [19], property that each data packet carries the source-destination
Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) [14], Optimized Links path in its header. Using this information, intermediate
State Routing (OLSR) [3], etc. nodes can determine who is the next hop this packet should
Next we present the main features of DSDV [19]. A be forwarded to. Each node maintains a routing cache that
security enhancement mechanism (SEAD [7]) for DSDV contains routing information that the node learned from
will be detailed later in section 5.1. Similar with other routing information forwarded or overheard. Every entry has
3. an expiration time after which the entry is deleted in order to When a source node broadcasts a Route Request to
avoid stale information. discover a path to a destination, intermediate nodes that
DSR performs route discovery by having the sender forward the message set up a reverse path, pointing toward
broadcasts by flooding a Route Request packet. Each Route the node from which the request was received. In this way
Request contains a sequence number generated by the Route Reply travels along the reverse paths set-up when
source node, in order to prevent loop formation and to avoid Route Request was forwarded, without carrying the full path
multiple retransmissions by a node of the same Route in the header. When Route Reply travels along the reverse
Request packet. An intermediate node checks the sequence path, each node sets up forward links that will be used later
number, and appends its own identifier and forwards the to forward data packets between the source and destination.
Route Request only if this message is not a duplicate. The When a source node sends a Route Request, it assigns a
receiver, upon receiving the Route Request, sends back a higher sequence number for that destination. Intermediate
Route Reply packet along the reverse route recorded in nodes are allowed to reply with Route Reply only if they
Route Request. Upon receiving the Route Reply, the sender know a recent path to the destination (with the same or
starts sending data to the receiver. higher sequence number). The reverse and forward paths are
As part of the route maintenance, if a node detects a purged from the routing tables if they are not used within a
failure (e.g. broken link), it sends a Route Error message to specific time interval.
the source. All intermediate nodes hearing the Route Error The advantages of AODV can be summarized as follows:
update their routing cache and all routes that contain this (1) paths are not included and carried in the packet headers,
hop are truncated. If the source does not have an alternative (2) nodes maintain routing tables with entries only for the
path to the destination, it has to re-initiate the path discovery active routes (if not used for specific time interval they are
mechanism. purged), and (3) AODV uses a destination sequence number
DSR has several optimization techniques. First, it allows mechanism to limit the chances of an intermediate node
intermediate nodes that know a path to the destination to replying with stale information to a Route Request packet.
reply to the Route Request message instead of forwarding
the request. This speeds up the route discovery. Secondly, C. Hybrid Routing Protocols
path discovery can use an expanding ring search mechanism Some ad hoc network routing protocols are hybrid of
when sending the Route Request messages. This is proactive and reactive mechanisms. Examples of hybrid
especially useful for close destinations, thus avoiding routing protocols are Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) [6], Core
broadcasting in the whole network. Extraction Distributed Ad Hoc Routing Protocol (CEDAR)
Advantages of DSR include (1) route maintenance apply [23], etc.
only to active routes, (2) route caching can speed up and ZRP [6] is a hybrid of proactive and reactive routing
reduce overhead of route discovery, and (3) a single route protocols. The network is divided in zones, where every
discovery might yield more routes to the destination when zone is a r-hop neighborhood of a node. The intra-zone
intermediate nodes reply from local caches. Disadvantages routing protocol is a proactive routing protocol, while the
of DSR are: (1) adding the source-destination path in each inter-zone routing protocol is a reactive routing protocol. By
packet incurs overhead, especially for long paths and small varying r, we can control the routing update control traffic.
data, (2) the flooding used in route discovery is unreliable, When a node wants to transmit data to a destination within
redundant, may introduce collisions, contentions, and (3) the same zone, then this is done directly using the proactive
intermediate nodes might send Route Reply from stale routing protocol, and the information already available in
routing caches, thus polluting other caches as well. routing tables.
AODV [20] implements the same main operations as If the destination is in another zone, then the source node
DSR. It discovers a path to a destination using a Route border casts the Route Request (e.g. this message is
Request and Route Reply sequence, and performs route forwarded by the border routers) until it reaches the
maintenance for link failures by propagating a Route Error destination zone. The border node of the destination zone
message to the source. AODV tries to improve on DSR by sends then back a Route Reply message. Any node
maintaining routing tables at the nodes, such that data forwarding the Route Request appends its address to it. This
packets do not contain the source destination path. Each information is used when sending Route Reply back to the
node maintains a routing table for each destination of source.
interest, including the following fields: destination, next If a broken link is detected, the path reconstruction can be
hop, number of hops, destination sequence number, and done locally, and then a path update is sent to the source, or
expiration time. can be done globally, by having the source re-initiate the
path discovery.
ZRP efficiently explores the features of proactive and
reactive protocols. It reduces the control overhead by
maintaining the proactive protocols within zones, and
reduces the flooding drawbacks by deploying the reactive
protocol and border cast mechanism only between the zones.
Particular attention should be considered when selecting the
zone radius r, since this can significantly impact the routing
performance.
4. D. Broadcasting In Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Broadcasting refers to the operation of sending a message A. Availability
to all other hosts in the network. Broadcasting is used for the Availability implies that the requested services (e.g.
route discovery in reactive routing protocols. In a mobile bandwidth and connectivity) are available in a timely
environment, broadcasting is expected to be used more manner even though there is a potential problem in the
frequently since nodes mobility might trigger path system. Availability of a network can be tempered for
disconnecting and thus route discovery is invoked as part of example by dropping off packets and by resource depletion
the path maintenance procedure. attacks.
Broadcasting operation has the following characteristics
[26]: (1) the broadcast is spontaneous, that means that each B. Confidentiality
node can start broadcasting at any time, and (2) broadcasting Confidentiality ensures that classified information in the
is unreliable. No acknowledgment packet is sent for network is never disclosed to unauthorized entities.
example in IEEE 802.11 by a node upon receiving a Confidentiality can be achieved by using different
broadcast message. encryption techniques so that only the legitimate
One straightforward method used to implement communicating nodes can analyze and understand the
broadcasting is through a form of controlled flooding. In this transmission. The content disclosure attack and location
method, each node retransmits a broadcast message when it disclosure attack reveals the contents of the message being
receives it first time. Transmitting a broadcast through transmitted and physical information about a particular node
flooding in a CSMA/CA network triggers a numbers of respectively.
issues, commonly referred to as the broadcast storm problem C. Authenticity
[26]: Authenticity is a network service to determine a user’s
• Redundant rebroadcast: A node resends a broadcast identity. Without authentication, an attacker can
message even if all its neighbors have already received impersonate any node, and in this way, one by one node, it
the message from some other neighbors. can gain control over the entire network.
• Contention: The neighbors of a transmitting node
receive the message at approximately the same time, D. Integrity
and when re-sending the message, they contend for the Integrity guarantees that information passed on between
wireless communication medium. nodes has not been tempered in the transmission. Data can
be altered both intentionally and accidentally (for example
• Collision: Collisions are more likely to occur because of
through hardware glitches, or in case of ad hoc wireless
the lack of back-off mechanism and the lack of
connections through interference).
RTS/CTS dialogue. Such an example is when more
neighbors retransmit at the same time a message
E. Non-Repudiation
recently received.
Non-repudiation ensures that the information originator
The work of [26] proposes several schemes to alleviate
can not deny having sent the information. This service is
the broadcast storm problem, by limiting the cases when a
useful for detection and isolation of compromised nodes in
node rebroadcasts a message: (1) probabilistic scheme,
the network. Many authentication and secure routing
when each node rebroadcasts a message with a specific
algorithms implemented in ad hoc networks rely on trust
probability, (2) counter-based scheme, when a node
based concepts. The fact that a message can be attributed to
retransmits a message if it was received less than a threshold
a specific node helps making these algorithms more secure.
number of times over a fixed interval, (3) distance-based
Designing a secure ad hoc wireless networks
scheme, when a message is resent only if it is received from
communication is a challenging task due to (1) insecure
neighbors farther away than a specific threshold distance,
wireless communication links, (2) absence of a fixed
and (4) location based scheme, when a node retransmits a
infrastructure, (3) resource constraints (e.g. battery power,
message only if the additional area covered is larger than a
bandwidth, memory, CPU processing capacity), and (4)
specific threshold area.
node mobility that triggers a dynamic network topology.
The work proposes several local and deterministic
The majority of traditional routing protocols design fail to
schemes where a subset of nodes, called forward nodes, is
provide security. The main requirements [15] of a secure
selected locally while ensuring broadcast coverage. In one
routing protocol are: (1) detection of malicious nodes; such
scheme, each node decides its own forwarding status,
nodes should be avoided in the routing process, (2)
whereas in another scheme, the status of each node is
guarantee of correct route discovery, (3) confidentiality of
determined by neighbors jointly.
network topology; if an attacker learns the network
In section 5.11, we discuss few mechanisms proposed
topology, he can attack the bottleneck nodes, detected by
recently in literature to secure the broadcast operation.
studying the traffic patters. This will result in disturbing the
III. SECURE SERVICES AND CHALLENGES IN AD HOC WIRELESS routing process and DoS, and (4) stability against attacks;
NETWORKS the routing protocol must be able to resume the normal
operation within a finite amount of time after an attack.
In order to assure a reliable data transfer over the
communication network sand to protect the system IV. SECURITY ATTACKS ON ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN AD
resources, a number of security services are required. Based HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
on their objectives, the security services are classified in five
Providing a secure system can be achieved by preventing
categories [24]: availability, confidentiality, authentication,
attacks or by detecting them and providing a mechanism to
integrity and non repudiation.
recover for those attacks. Attacks on ad hoc wireless
5. networks can be classified as active and passive attacks, claiming false identities. Sybil attacks are classified into
depending on whether the normal operation of the network three categories: direct/indirect communication,
is disrupted or not. fabricated/stolen identity, and simultaneity. In the direct
communication, Sybil nodes communicate directly with
A. Passive Attacks legitimate nodes, whereas in the indirect
In passive attacks, an intruder snoops the data exchanged communication messages sent to Sybil nodes are routed
without altering it. The attacker does not actively initiate through malicious nodes. An attacker can fabricate a
malicious actions to cheat other hosts. The goal of the new identity or it can simply steal it after destroying or
attacker is to obtain information that is being transmitted, temporarily disabling the impersonated node. All Sybil
thus violating the message confidentiality. Since the activity identities can participate simultaneously in the network
of the network is not disrupted, these attackers are difficult or they may be cycled through.
to detect. Powerful encryption mechanism can alleviate
these attackers by making difficult to read overheard D. Attacks using Modification
packets. This attack disrupts the routing function by having the
attacker illegally modifying the content of the messages.
B. Active Attack Examples of such attacks include redirection by changing
In active attacks, an attacker actively participates in the route sequence number and redirection with modified
disrupting the normal operation of the network services. A hop count that can trigger the black hole attack. Some other
malicious host can create an active attack by modifying modification based attacks are presented next.
packets or by introducing false information in the ad hoc
network. It confuses routing procedures and degrades • Misrouting Attack: In the misrouting attack, a non-
network performance. Active attacks can be divided into legitimate node sends data packet to the wrong
internal and external attacks. destination. This type of attack is carried out by
• External Attacks are carried by nodes that are not modifying the final destination address of the data
legitimate part of the network. Such attacks can be packet or by forwarding a data packet to the wrong next
defended by using encryption, firewalls and source hop in the route to the destination.
authentication. In external attacks, it is possible to • Detour Attack: In this type of attack, the attacker adds a
disrupt the communication of an organization from the number of virtual nodes in to a route during the route
parking lot in front of the company office. discovery phase. As a consequence, the traffic is
• Internal Attacks are from compromised nodes that were diverted to other routes that appear to be shorter and
once legitimate part of the network. Since the might contain malicious nodes which could create other
adversaries are already part of the ad hoc wireless attacks. The attacking node can save energy in a detour
network as authorized nodes, they are much more attack because it does not have to forward packets to
severe and difficult to detect when compared to external that destination itself. This attack is specific to source
attacks. routing protocols.
A large number of attacks have been identified in • Blackmail Attack: Blackmail attack causes false
literature that affects the routing in ad hoc wireless identification of a good node as malicious node. In ad
networks. Solutions and mechanism that defense against hoc wireless networks, nodes usually keep information
various attacks are presented later in section 5. Next, we of perceived malicious nodes in a blacklist. An attacker
classify routing attacks into five categories: attacks using may blackmail a good node and tell other nodes in the
impersonation, modification, fabrication, replay, and denial network to add that node to their blacklists as well, thus
of service (DoS). avoiding the victim node in future routes.
C. Attacks using Impersonation E. Attacks using Fabrication
In impersonation attacks, an intruder assumes the identity In fabrication attacks, an intruder generates false routing
and privileges of another node in order to consume its messages, such as routing updates and route error messages,
resources or to disturb normal network operation. An in order to disturb network operation or to consume other
attacker node achieves impersonation by misrepresenting its node resources. A number of fabrication messages are
identity. This can be done by changing its own IP or MAC presented next.
address to that of some other legitimate node. Some strong
• Resource Consumption Attack: In this attack, a malicious
authentication procedures can be used to stop attacks by
node deliberately tries to consume the resources (e.g.
impersonation.
battery power, bandwidth, etc.) of other nodes in the
• Man-in-the-Middle Attack: In this attack, a malicious node network. The attack can be in the form of unnecessary
reads and possibly modifies the messages between two route requests, route discovery, control messages, or by
parties. The attacker can impersonate the receiver with sending stale information. For example, in routing table
respect to the sender, and the sender with respect to the overflow attack, a malicious node advertises routes to
receiver, without having either of them realize that they non-existent nodes, thus causing routing table overflow.
have been attacked. By using packet replication attack, an adversary
• Sybil Attack: In the Sybil attack [16], an attacker consumes bandwidth and battery power of other nodes.
pretends to have multiple identities. A malicious node • Routing Table Poisoning: In this attack, a malicious
can behaves as if it were a larger number of nodes node sends false routing updates, resulting in sub-
either by impersonating other nodes or simply by
6. optimal routing, network congestion, or network • Destruction or Alteration of Configuration Information:
partition. In this DoS attack, an attacker attempts to alter or
• Rushing Attack: A malicious node in rushing attack destroy configuration information, thus preventing
attempts to tamper Route Request packets, modifying legitimate users from using the network. An improperly
the node list, and hurrying its packet to the next node. configured network may not perform well or may not
Since in on demand routing protocol only one Route operate at all.
Request packet is forwarded, if the route requests
forwarded by the attacker are first to reach target V. SECURITY MECHANISMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR ROUTING
(destination), then any route found by the route PROTOCOLS IN AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
discovery mechanism will include a path through the Message encryption and digital signatures are two
attacker. important mechanisms for data integrity and user
• Black Hole: In this type of attack, a malicious node authentication.
advertise itself as having the shortest path to all nodes There are two types of data encryption mechanisms,
in the network (e.g. the attacker claims that it is a level symmetric and asymmetric (or public key) mechanisms.
one node). The attacker can cause DoS by dropping all Symmetric cryptosystems use the same key (the secret key)
the received packets. Alternately, the attacker can for encryption and decryption of a message, and asymmetric
monitor and analyze the traffic to find activity patterns cryptosystems use one key (the public key) to encrypt a
of each node. Sometimes the black hole becomes the message and another key (the private key) to decrypt it.
first step of a man-in-the-middle attack. Public and private keys are related in such a way that only
• Gray Hole: Under this attack, an attacker drops all data the public key can be used to encrypt messages and only the
packets but it lets control messages to route through it. corresponding private key can be used for decryption
This selective dropping makes gray hole attacks much purpose. Even if attacker comprises a public key, it is
more difficult to detect then blackhole attack. virtually impossible to deduce the private key.
Any code attached to an electronically transmitted
F. Replay Attacks message that uniquely identifies the sender is known as
In the replay attack, an attacker retransmits data to digital code. Digital signatures are key component of most
produce an unauthorized effect. Examples of replay attacks authentication schemes. To be effective, digital signatures
are wormhole attack and tunneling attack. must be non-forgeable. Hash functions are used in creation
and verification of a digital signature. It is an algorithm
• Wormhole Attack: In the wormhole attack [11], two which creates a digital representation or fingerprint in the
compromised nodes can communicate with each other
form of a hash value (or hash result) of a standard length
by a private network connection. The attacker can which is usually much smaller than the message and unique
create a vertex cut of nodes in the network by recording
to it. Any change to the message will produce a different
a packet at one location in network, tunneling the hash result even when the same hash function is used. In the
packet to another location, and replaying it there. The
case of a secure hash function, also known as a one-way
attacker does not require key material as it only needs hash function, it is computationally infeasible to derive the
two transceivers and one high quality out-of-band
original message from knowledge of its hash value.
channel. The wormhole can drop packets or it can In ad hoc wireless networks, the secrecy of the key does
selectively forward packets to avoid detection. It is
not ensure the integrity of the message. For this purpose,
particularly dangerous against different network routing
Message Authentication Code (MAC) [1] is used. It is a
protocols in which the nodes consider themselves
hashed representation of a message and even if MAC is
neighbor after hearing a packet transmission directly known, it is impractical to compute the message that
from some node.
generated it. A MAC, which is a cryptographic checksum, is
• Tunneling Attack: In a tunneling attack [22], two or computed by the message initiator as a function of the secret
more nodes collaborate and exchange encapsulated key and the message being transmitted and it is appended to
messages along existing data routes. For example, if a the message. The recipient re-computes the MAC in the
Route Request packet is encapsulated and sent between similar fashion upon receiving the message. If the MAC
two attackers, the packet will not contain the path computed by the receiver matches the MAC received with
traveled between the two attackers. This would falsely the message then the recipient is assured that the message
make the receiver conclude that the path containing the was not modified.
attackers is the shortest path available. Next, we present security mechanisms specifically
tailored for specific
G. Denial of Service (DoS) routing mechanisms.
In the DoS attack [15], an attacker explicitly attempts to
prevent legitimate users from using system services. This A. Secure Efficient Ad hoc Distance Vector (SEAD)
type of attack impacts the availability of the system. An ad Secure Efficient Ad hoc Distance Vector (SEAD) [7] is a
hoc wireless network is vulnerable to DoS attacks because proactive routing protocol, based on the design of DSDV
of its dynamic changing topology and distributed protocols. [19]. Besides the fields common with DSDV, such as
Examples of DoS attacks include: destination, metric, next hop and sequence number, SEAD
• Consumption of Scarce Resources: Attacker can routing tables maintain a hash value for each entry, as
consume valuable network resources (e.g. bandwidth, described below. This paper is concerned with protecting
memory and access points) so that the entire network routing updates, both periodic and triggered, by preventing
becomes unavailable to users.
7. an attacker to forge better metrics or sequence numbers in complicated, making ARIADNE infeasible in the current ad
such update packets. hoc environments.
The key feature of the proposed security protocol is the
use one-way hash chains, using an one way hash function H. C. Security Aware Routing (SAR)
Each node computes a list of hash values h0, h1, ・ ・ ・ , Security Aware Routing (SAR) [13] is an on demand
routing protocol based on AODV (see section 2.2). It
hn, where hi = H(hi−1) and 0 < i ≤ n, based on an initial integrates the trust level of a node and the security attributes
random value h0. The paper assumes the existence of a of a route to provide an integrated security metric for the
mechanism for distributing hn to all intended receivers. If a requested route. By incorporating a Quality of Protection
node knows H and a trusted value hn, then it can (QoP) as a routing metric, the route discovery can return
authenticate any other value hi, 0 < i ≤ n by successively quantifiable secure routes. The QoP vector used is a
applying the hash function H and then comparing the result combination of security level and available cryptographic
with hn. techniques
To authenticate a route update, a node adds a hash value SAR introduces the notion of a trust hierarchy, where
to each routing table entry. For a metric j and a sequence nodes of the ad hoc wireless network are divided into
number i, the hash value hn−mi+j is used to authenticate the different trust levels such that an initiator can impose a
routing update entry for that sequence number, where m − 1 minimum trust level for all the nodes participating in the
is the maximum network diameter. Since an attacker cannot source-destination communication. Note that a path with the
compute a hash value with a smaller index than the required trust level might not exist even if the network is
advertised value, he is not able to advertise a route to the connected. Even if SAR discovers fewer routes than AODV,
same destination with a greater sequence number, or with a they are always secured.
better metric. The initiator of the route in SAR includes a security
SEAD provides a robust protocol against attackers trying metric in the route request. This security metric is the
to create incorrect routing state in other node by modifying minimum trust level of the nodes that can participate in the
the sequence number or the routing metric. SEAD does not route discovery. Consequently, only those nodes that have
provide a way to prevent an attacker from tampering next this minimum security level can participate in the route
hop or destination field in a routing update. Also, it cannot discovery. All other nodes that are below that trust level will
prevent an attacker to use the same metric and sequence drop the request packets. If an end-to-end path with the
number learned from some recent update message, for required security is found, the intermediate node or
sending a new routing update to a different destination. destination sends a suitably modified Route Reply. In the
case of multiple paths satisfying the required security
B. ARIADNE attributes, SAR selects the shortest such route. If route
ARIADNE [8], an efficient on-demand secure routing discovery fails, then a message can be sent to the initiator so
protocol, provides security against arbitrary active attackers that it can lower the trust level.
and relies only on efficient symmetric cryptography. It In the case of a successful path search, SAR always finds
prevents attackers from tampering uncompromised routes a route with quantifiable guarantee of security. This can be
consisting of uncompromised nodes. done by having nodes of a trust level share a key. Thus, a
ARIADNE ensures point-to-point authentication of a node that does not have a particular trust level will not
routing message by combining a shared key between the two possess the key for that level, and as a result it will not be
parties and MAC. However, for secure authentication of a able to decrypt the packets using the key of that level.
routing message, it relies on the TESLA [21] (see section Therefore, it will not have any other option but to drop the
5.11) broadcast authentication protocol. packet.
Design of ARIADNE is based on DSR (see section 2.1). SAR uses sequence numbers and timestamps to stop
Similar with DSR, it consists of two basic operations, route replay attacks. Threats like interception and subversion can
discovery and route maintenance. ARIADNE makes use of be prevented by trust level key authentication. Modification
efficient combination of one way hash function and shared and fabrication attacks can be stopped by verifying the
keys. It assumes that sender and receiver share secret (non- digital signatures of the transmitted packets.
TESLA) keys for message authentication. The initiator (or One of the main drawbacks of using SAR is the excessive
sender) includes a MAC computed with an end-to-end key encrypting and decrypting required at each hop during the
and the target (or destination) verifies the authenticity and path discovery. In a mobile environment, the extra
freshness of the request using the shared key. Pre-hop processing leads to an increased power consumption. A
hashing mechanism, a one-way hash function that verifies route discovered by SAR may not be the shortest route in
that no hop is omitted, is also used in Ariadne. In the case of terms of hop-count, but it is secure. Such a path ensures that
any dead link, a Route Error message is sent back to the only the nodes having the required trust level will read and
initiator. Errors are generated just as regular data packets re-route the packets, but at the same time malicious node
and intermediate nodes remove routes that use dead links in can steal the required key, a case in which the protocol is
the selected path. still open for all kinds of attacks.
ARIADNE provides a strong defense against attacks that
modify and fabricate routing information. When it is used D. Secure Routing Protocol (SRP)
with an advanced version of TESLA called TIK (see section Secure Routing Protocol (SRP) [17], is another protocol
5.9), it is immune to wormhole attacks. However, it is still extension that can be applied to many of the on demand
vulnerable to selfish node attack. General security routing protocols used today. SRP defends against attacks
mechanisms are very reliable but key exchanges are
8. that disrupt the route discovery process and guarantees to destination node). All the fields are concatenated and signed
identify the correct topological information. with source node I’s private key. A combination of the
The basic idea of SRP is to set up a security association nonce number (NI ) and timestamp (t) is used to obtain data
(SA) between a source and a destination node without the freshness and timeliness property. Each time I performs a
need of cryptographic validation of the communication data route discovery, it monotonically increases the nonce. The
by the intermediate nodes. SRP assumes that this SA can be signature prevents spoofing attacks that may alter the route
achieved through a shared key KST between the source S or form loops. Source node I broadcasts a Route Discovery
and target T. Such a security association should exist priori Packet (RDP) for a destination D as I → brdcst :[RDP, IPD,
to the route initiation phase. certI , NI ,t]KI−.
The source S initiates the route discovery by sending a Each node that receives the RDP for the first time
route request packet to the destination T. The SRP uses an removes any other intermediate node’s signature, signs the
additional header called SRP header to the underlying RDP using its own key, and broadcasts it to all its
routing protocol (e.g. AODV) packet. SRP header contains neighboring nodes. This continues until destination node D
the following fields: the query sequence number QSEC, eventually receives the packet.
query identifier number QID, and a 96 bit MAC field. After receiving the RDP, the destination node D sends a
Intermediate nodes discard a route request message if Reply (REP) packet back along the reverse path to the
SRP header is missing. Otherwise, they forward the request source node I. If J is the first node on the reverse path, REP
towards destination after extracting QID, source, and packet is sent as D → J :[ REP, IPI , certD, NI , t] KD−.
destination address. Highest priority is given to nodes that When the source node I receives the REP packet, it
generate requests at the lowest rates and vice versa. verifies the destination’s signature KD− and nonce NI .
When the target T receives this request packet, it verifies When there is no traffic on an existing route for some
if the packet has originated from the node with which it has specific time, then that route is deactivated in the routing
SA. If QSEC is greater or equal to QMAX, the request is table. Nodes use an ERR message to report links in active
dropped as it is considered to be replayed. Otherwise it routes broken due to node movement.
calculates the keyed hash of the request fields and if the Using pre-determined cryptographic certificates, ARAN
output matches SRP MAC then authenticity of the sender provides network services like authentication and non-
and integrity of the request are verified. repudiation. Simulations show that ARAN is efficient in
On the reception of a route reply, S checks the source discovering and maintaining routes but routing packets are
address, destination addresses, QID, and QSEC. It discards larger in size and overall routing load is high. Due to heavy
the route reply if it does not match the currently pending asymmetric cryptographic computation, ARAN has higher
query. In case of a match, it compares reply IP source route cost for route discovery. It is not immune to wormhole
with the exact reverse of the route carried in reply packet. If attack and if nodes do not have time synchronization, then it
the two routes match then S calculates the MAC by using is prone to replay attacks as well.
the replied route, the SRP header fields, and the secure key
between source and destination. If the two MAC match then F. Security Protocols for Sensor Network (SPINS)
the validation is successful and it confirms that the reply did Security Protocols for Sensor Network (SPINS) [25] is a
came from the destination T. suite of two security building blocks which are optimized
SRP suffers from the lack of validation mechanism for for ad hoc wireless networks. It provides important network
route maintenance messages as it does not stop a malicious services like data confidentiality, two party data
node from harming routes to which that node already authentication, and data freshness through Secure Network
belongs to. SRP is immune to IP spoofing because it secures Encryption Protocol (SNEP) and secure broadcast through
the binding of the MAC and IP address of the nodes but it is Micro Timed Efficient Stream Loss-tolerant Authentication
prone to wormhole attacks and invisible node attacks. (μTESLA).
Most of the current protocols are not practical for secure
E. Secure Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Networks (ARAN) broadcast as they use asymmetric digital signatures. These
A Secure Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Networks signatures have high cost of creation and verification.
(ARAN) [22] is an on demand protocol designed to provide SPINS introduces μTESLA (see section 5.11), an enhanced
secure communications in managed open environments. version of TESLA which uses symmetric cryptographic
Nodes in a managed-open environment exchange techniques for authentications and asymmetry cryptography
initialization parameters before the start of communication. only for the delayed disclosure of keys. Tight lower bound
Session keys are exchanged or distributed through a trusted on the key disclosure delay and robustness against DoS
third party like a certification authority. attacks makes μTESLA a very efficient and secure protocol
Each node in ARAN receives a certificate after securely for data broadcast.
authenticating its identity to a trusted certificate server T. SNEP provides point to point communication in the
Nodes use these certificates to authenticate themselves to wireless network. It relies on a shared counter between a
other nodes during the exchange of routing messages. The sender and a receiver in order to ensure semantic security.
certificate contains the node’s IP address, its public key, as Thus it protects message contents of encrypted messages
well as the time of issuing and expiration. These fields are from eavesdroppers. Since both nodes share the counter and
concatenated and signed by the server T. A node A receives increment it after each block, the counter does not need to
a certificate as: T → A : certA =[IPA, KA+, t, e] KT−. be sent with the message. In this way, the same message is
In the authentication phase, ARAN ensures the existence encrypted differently each time. A receiver node is assured
of a secure path to the destination. Each intermediate node that the message originated from the legitimate node if the
in the network stores the route pair (previous node, the
9. MAC verifies successfully. The counter value in the MAC In Secure Neighbor Detection, a three round mutual
eliminates replaying of old messages in the network. authentication procedure is used between a sender and a
SPINS is the first secure and lightweight broadcast receiver to check if they are within normal communication
authentication protocol. The computation costs of symmetric range of each other. First, a node forwards a Neighbor
cryptography are low and the communication overhead of 8 Solicitation packet to the neighboring node which replies
bytes per message is almost negligible when compared to with a Neighbor Reply packet and finally, the initial node
the size of a message. SNEP ensures semantic security, data sends Neighbor Verification packet to confirm that both
authentication, replay protection, and message freshness nodes are neighbors.
whereas μTESLA provides authentication for secure data Secure Route Delegation verifies that all the steps in
broadcast. Secure Neighbor Detection phase were carried out. Before
sending a route update to its neighbor, it signs a route
G. Cooperation Of Nodes Fairness In Dynamic Ad-hoc attestation, delegating the rights to the neighbor to further
NeT-works (CONFIDANT) propagate the update.
Cooperation Of Nodes Fairness In Dynamic Ad-hoc In Randomize Message Forwarding, a node buffers k
NeTworks (CONFIDANT) [2] protocol is designed as an route requests and then it randomly forwards only one of
extension to reactive source-routing protocol such as DSR. these k requests. By limiting the total number of requests
It is a collection of components which interact with each sent by a node, it prevents flood attacks in the network. Each
other for monitoring, reporting, and establishing routes by request carries the list of all the nodes traversed by that
avoiding misbehaving nodes. CONFIDANT components in request. Furthermore, bi-directional verification is also used
each node include a network monitor, reputation system, to authenticate the neighbors.
trust manager, and a path manager. By using efficiently combining these three mechanisms,
Each node in this protocol monitors their neighbors and RAP can find usable routes when other protocols cannot.
updates the reputation accordingly. If they detect any When it is enabled, it has higher overhead than other
misbehaving or malicious node, they can inform other friend protocols, but currently it is the only protocol that can
nodes by sending an ALARM message. When a node defend against rushing attacks. However, network is still
receives such an ALARM either directly from another node prone to rushing attacks if an attacker can compromise k
or by listening to the ad hoc network, it calculates how nodes.
trustworthy the ALARM is based on the source of the
ALARM and the total number of ALARM messages about I. Defense Mechanisms Against Wormhole Attacks
the misbehaving node. In order to prevent the wormwhole attacks (see section
Trust manager sends alarm messages to other nodes to 4.4), the packet leashes mechanism [11] proposes to add
warn them of malicious nodes. Incoming alarms are checked additional information (referred as leashes) to the packets in
for trustworthiness. Trust manager contains an alarm table, order to restrict packet’s maximum allowed transmission
trust level table and a friend list of all trust worthy nodes to distance.
which a node will send alarms. Geographical leash and temporal leash can be used to
Local rating lists and black lists are maintained in the detect and stop wormhole attacks. Geographical leash
reputation system. These lists are exchanged with friend insures that the recipient of the packet is within a certain
nodes and timeouts are used to avoid old lists. A node gives distance from the sender while temporal leash is used to
more importance to its own experience than to those events enforce an upper bound on the packet’s life time, thus
which are observed and reported by others. Whenever the restricting packet’s maximum travel distance. Temporal
threshold for certain behavior is crossed, path manager does leash uses packet’s expiration time to detect a wormhole.
the re-ranking by deleting the paths containing malicious The expiration time is computed based on the allowed
nodes and ignoring any request from misbehaving nodes. At maximum transmission distance and the speed of light. A
the same time, it sends an alert to the source of the path so node will not accept any packet if this expiration time has
that it can discover some other route. passed.
When DSR is fortified with the CONFIDANT protocol TIK (TESLA with Instant Key Disclosure) protocol is an
extensions, it is very scalable in terms of the total number of extension of TESLA (see section 5.11) and it is
nodes in the network and it performs well even if more than implemented with temporal leashes to detect wormholes. It
60% of the nodes are misbehaving. The overhead for requires each communicating node to know one public key
incorporating different security components is manageable for each other node in the network. The TIK protocol uses
for ad hoc environment. However, detection based an efficient mechanism Merkle Hash tree [10] for key
reputation system has few limitations and routes are still authentication. The root value m of the resulting hash tree
vulnerable to spoofing and Sybil attacks. commits to all the keys and is used to authenticate any leaf
key efficiently. Hash trees are generally large so only the
H. Defense Mechanisms Against Rushing Attacks upper layers are stored while lower layers can be computed
Rushing attacks [9] (see section 4.3) are mostly directed on demand.
against on demand routing protocols such as DSR. To The TIK packet is transmitted by sender S as S → R :
counter such attacks, a generic secure route discovery HMACKi(M), M, T, Ki, where M is the message payload, T
component called Rushing Attack Prevention (RAP) is used. are the tree authentication values, and Ki is the key used to
RAP combines the following mechanisms: Secure Neighbor generate the HMAC. After the receiver R receives the
Detection, Secure Route Delegation, and Randomized Route HMAC value, it uses the hash tree root m and the hash tree
Request Forwarding. Any on demand routing protocol such values T to verify that the key Ki at the end of the packet is
as ARIADNE can be used as underlying protocol to RAP. authentic, and then uses the key Ki to verify the HMAC
10. value in the packet. The receiver R only accepts the packet space in common, then they can compute their pairwise
as authentic if all these verifications are successful. secret key using the corresponding single space scheme.
A receiver can verify the TESLA security condition as it This is the first work that proposes various defense
receives the packet, thereby eliminating the authentication mechanisms against the Sybil attacks, such as radio resource
delay of TESLA. Packet leashes are effective mechanisms, testing and random key predistribution. Random key
but TIK is not feasible in resource constraint networks due predistribution is already required in many applications to
to the expensive cryptographic mechanisms implemented. secure radio communication. The most effective against
The lack of accurate time synchronization in today’s Sybil attacks is the multi-space pairwise key distribution
systems prevent TIK from providing a usable wormhole mechanism.
detection mechanism. Another potential problem with
leashes using a timestamp in a packet is that the sender may K. Security Mechanisms for Broadcast Operation
not know the precise time at which it will transmit the Timed Efficient Stream Loss-tolerant Authentication
packet and generating a digital signature in that time may (TESLA) [21] is an efficient broadcast authentication
not be possible. protocol with low communication and computation
overhead. It can scale to large numbers of receivers, can
J. Defense Mechanisms Against Sybil Attacks tolerate packet loss, and uses loose time synchronization
In a Sybil attack [16] (see section 4.1), a malicious node between sender and receivers.
acts on behalf of a larger number of nodes either by TESLA mainly uses purely symmetric cryptographic
impersonating other nodes or simply by claiming false functions, however, it achieves asymmetric properties from
identities. Most of the secure protocols are prone to this type clock synchronization and delayed key disclosure. In this
of attack. However, there are various key distribution way, it does not require to compute expensive one- way
mechanisms which can be used efficiently to defend against functions. For this purpose, it needs sender and receivers to
Sybil attacks. be loosely time-synchronized and for a secure
Sybil nodes can carry out a variety of attacks. For authentication, either the receiver or the sender must buffer
example, network nodes use voting for many purposes. With some messages.
enough Sybil nodes, an attacker may be able to determine For secure broadcasting, a sender chooses a random
the outcome of every vote. Sybil nodes, due to their larger initial key KN and generates a one-way key chain by
number, are allocated more resources and they can create repeatedly computing the one-way hash function H on the
DoS for legitimate nodes. Ad hoc wireless networks can use starting value KN−1 = H[KN] , KN−2 = H[KN−1], . . .,K0 =
misbehavior detection property to detect any malfunctioning H[K1] . In general, Ki = H[Ki+1] = HN−i[KN] where Hi[x]
node. An attacker with many Sybil nodes can spread the is the result of applying the function H to x, for i times.
blame and pass unnoticed, having only small misbehavior The sender node predetermines a schedule at which it
actions associated with each identity. discloses each key of its one-way key chain. Keys are
There are a number of ways to detect Sybil attacks. In disclosed in the reverse order from generation, i.e.
radio resource testing, it is assumed that nodes have only K0,K1,K2, . . . ,KN then the MAC computed using the key
one radio and are not capable of sending or receiving on Ki is added to the packet. When the packet reaches the
more than one channel. If a node wants to verify whether its receiver, it checks the security condition of the key
neighbors are Sybil nodes, then it assigns to each of its disclosure. If the key Ki used to authenticate the packet was
neighbors a different channel to broadcast messages. Then not disclosed, then it buffers the packet and waits for the
the node listens to one of the channels. If a message is sender to disclose Ki, while using an already disclosed key
received, this is an indication of a legitimate neighbor, to authenticate the buffered packets. However, if the key is
whereas an idle transmission is an indication of a Sybil already disclosed, then receiver will discard the packet.
node. Even though TESLA is efficient, it still has few
A more authentic way of defending against Sybil attacks drawbacks. It authenticates the initial packet with a digital
is random key predistribution. A random set of keys are signature which is too expensive for wireless nodes and
assigned to each node and then every node can compute the disclosing a key in each packet requires too much energy for
common keys it shares with its neighbors. If two nodes sending and receiving. TESLA is vulnerable to DoS attacks
share q common keys, they can establish a secure link. An as malicious nodes can create buffer overflow state in the
one-way Pseudo Random hash Function (PRF) is used for receiver while it waits for the sender to disclose its keys.
validation. Thus, an attacker can not just gather a bunch of SPINS [25] introduces Micro Timed Efficient Stream
keys and claim an identity since PRF is an one way hash Loss-tolerant Authentication (μTESLA), a modified version
function. of TESLA which only uses symmetric mechanisms for
There are two types of key distribution mechanisms [5] to packet authentication and it discloses the key once per
counter Sybil attacks. In single-space pairwise key epoch. μTESLA is different from TESLA as it allows a
distribution, each pair of nodes is assigned a unique key. A receiver to authenticate the packets as soon as they arrive
node i stores unique public information Ui and private and it replaces receiver buffering with sender buffering.
information Vi. The node i computes its key from f(Vi,Uj) Immediate authentication as well as buffering only at the
where Uj is the public key of neighboring node j. Validation sender makes it a secure protocol against DoS. It has very
is successful if a node has the pairwise key between itself low security overhead. The computation, memory, and
and the verifier. In multi-space pairwise key distribution, communication costs are also small. Since the data
each node is assigned, by the network, k out of m random authentication, freshness, and confidentiality properties
key spaces. If two neighboring nodes have at least one key require transmitting only 8 bytes per message, μTESLA is
11. considered a very effective and robust protocol for secure [12].P. Papadimitratos and Z. J. Haas, Secure Routing for Mobile Ad hoc
data broadcasting. Networks, In Proc. of the SCS Communication Networks and
TESLA with Instant Key Disclosure (TIK)[11] is another Distributed Systems Modeling and Simulation Conference (CNDS
2002), Jan. 2002.
protocol for secure broadcasting implemented with temporal
leashes in order to detect wormholes (see section 5.9). TIK [13].C. E. Perkins and P. Bhagwat, Highly Dynamic Destination-
Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computers,
requires accurate time synchronization between all SIGCOMM’94 Conf. on Communications Architectures, Protocols
communicating parties. It works almost in the same manner and Applications, Aug. 1994, pp. 234-244.
as the base protocol TESLA, but in TIK the receiver can [14].C. E. Perkins and E. M. Royer, Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
verify TESLA security condition as it receives the packet. Routing, IEEE Workshop on Mobile Computing Systems and
By eliminating the authentication delay of TESLA, it allows Applications 1999, Feb. 1999, pp. 90-100.
sender to disclose the key in the same packet. TIK is [15].Perrig, R. Canetti, D. Tygar, and D. Song, The TESLA Broadcast
therefore a more robust protocol than TESLA since it Authentication Protocol, RSA Cryptobytes (RSA Laboratories), Vol
eliminates the waiting time imposed by disclosing the keys 5,No 2, Summer/Fall 2002, pp. 2-13.
only after the packet was received. [16].K. Sanzgiri, B. Dahill, B. N. Levine, C. Shields, and E. M. Belding-
Royer, A Secure Routing Protocol for Ad hoc Networks, The 10th
IEEE Intl. Conf. on Network Protocol (ICNP), Nov. 2002.
VI. CONCLUSIONS [17].R. Szewczyk, V. Wen, D. Culler, J. D. Tygar, and A. Perrig, SPINS:
Security Protocols for Sensor Networks, In Seventh Annual ACM Intl.
Achieving a secure routing protocol is an important task Conf. on Mobile Computing and Networks (Mobicom 2001), 2001.
that is being challenged by the unique characteristics of an
ad hoc wireless network. Traditional routing protocols fail to
provide security, and rely on an implicit trust between
communicating nodes.
In this chapter we discuss security services and
challenges in an ad hoc wireless network environment. We
examine and classify major routing attacks and present a
comprehensive survey on the state-of-the-art mechanisms
and solutions designed to defeat such attacks. The current
security mechanisms, each defeats one or few routing
attacks. Designing routing protocols resistant to multiple
attacks remains a challenging task.
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