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Cairo University Computer Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering First Year
Robotics
Submitted to : Dr.Nessreen M. El Abiad
By :
1 - Asmaa Sayed
2 - Aya Samir
3 - Eman Othman
4 - Ahmed Attia
5 - Mohamed Hassanin
6 - Abdallah Hussien
March 2019
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Table of contents
Table of contents …………………………………………………………………………………….……ii
List of figures ………………………………………………………………………………..……………..iv
Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………………………………….vi
Executive summary ……………………………………………………………………………………..vii
1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………….……..8
1.1. Definition ……………………………………………………………………………….……..8
1.2. History …………………………………………………………………………………………..8
2. Types of Robots …………………………………..……………………………………..…………..9
2.1. Wheeled Mobile Robots ………………………………………………..….…………..9
2.2. Swimming Robots …………………………………………………………………………10
2.2.1. Sentry Deep Sea Robot …………………………………………………………….10
2.2.2. Glider Scarlet Knight …………………………………………………….……..…..10
2.3. Aerial Robots ………………………………………………………………..……………...11
2.3.1. Ambulance Drone …………………………………………………………………….11
2.3.2. Insect Spy Robots ……………………………………………………………………..11
2.4. Humanoid Robots ………………………………………………………………………….12
2.4.1. Robot Chef ……………………………………………………………………………….12
2.4.2. Nao Robot ………………………………………………………………………………..12
3. The main parts of robot …………………………………………………………………………..13
3.1. Control system ………………………………………………………………………………13
3.1.1. Software ………………………………………………………………..…………………13
3.1.2. Hardware ………………………………………………………………………………….13
3.2. Sensors ………………………………………………………………………………………….13
3.2.1. Types of sensors ……………………………………………………………………….14
3.2.1.1. Temperature Sensor ……………………………………………………….14
3.2.1.2. Proximity Sensor ……………………………………………………………..14
3.2.1.2.1. Types of proximity sensors ………………………………………..14
3.2.1.2.1.1. Infrared (IR) Transceivers ………………………………….14
3.2.1.2.1.2. Ultrasonic Sensor ……………………………………………..14
3.2.1.3. Sound Sensor …………………………………………………………………..14
3.2.1.4. Acceleration Sensor………………………………………………………….14
3.2.1.4.1. Kinds of forces ……………………………………………………………15
3.2.1.4.1.1. Static force ………………………………………………………..15
3.2.1.4.1.2. Dynamic force ……………………………………………………15
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3.2.1.5. Light Sensor ……………………………………………………………………15
3.2.1.5.1. Types of light sensors …………….…………………………………15
3.2.1.5.1.1. Photo resistor ………………………………………………….15
3.2.1.5.1.2. Photovoltaic cells …………………………………………….15
3.3. Manipulators …………………………………………………………………………………15
3.3.1. Specialized types ………………………………………………………………………16
3.3.1.1. Balanced manipulator …………………………………………………….16
3.3.1.2. Welding manipulator ………………………………………………………16
3.4. End-Effectors …………………………………………………………………………………16
3.4.1. Types of End Effectors ………………………………………………………………16
3.4.1.1. Permanent Magnet End Effector …………………………………….16
3.4.1.2. Electro Magnet End Effector……………………………………………16
3.4.1.3. Vacuum End Effector ………………………………………………………17
3.5. Actuators ……………………………………………………………………………………….17
3.5.1. Type of Actuators ……………………………………………………………………..17
3.5.1.1. Hydraulic …………………………………………………………………………17
3.5.1.2. Pneumatic ……………………………………………………………….………17
3.5.1.3. Electric …………………………………………………………………………….18
4. Robotics in Industry ………………………………………………………………………………….18
4.1. Connections between robotics and some related subjects ……………18
4.2. When to use industrial robots instead of humans ………………………....18
4.3. Types of industrial robot and their methods of operation ……………..18
4.3.1. Pick and place manipulators ……………………………………………………….19
4.3.2. Point to point robots …………………………………………………………………..19
4.3.3. Continuous Path robots ……………………………………………………………...20
4.4. Programming languages for industrial robots ………………………………….20
4.5. Performance specifications of industrial robots ………………………………20
4.5.1. Positioning accuracy and repeatability ………………………………………..20
4.5.2. Control-related specifications …………………..……………………………..….21
4.6. Applications of industrial robots ……………….……………………………………..22
5. Robotics in Military ……………………………………….……………………………………………23
5.1. Some advantages …………………………….……………………………………………….23
5.2. Countries which use it ………………….…………………………………………………..24
5.3. DRDO Daksh …………………………….……………………………………………………….25
5.4. Elbit Hermes 450 ………………….…………………………………………………………..26
6. Robotics in Medical Field …………….………………………………………………………………26
6.1. History of Medical Robotics ………………………………………………………………27
6.2. Applications of Medical Robotics ………………………………………………………27
6.2.1. Robotic Surgery ……………………………………………………………………………28
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Figure 19:the basic architecture of an industrial robot ……………………………………………19
Figure 20:the difference between repeatability and accuracy ………………………………..21
Figure 21:a robot serving die-casting machines ………………………………………………………22
Figure 22: the basic arrangement for arc welding …………………………………………………..22
Figure 23: DRDO Daksh ROV……………………………………………………………………………………25
Figure 24: Hermes 450 of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection ………………………..26
Figure 25:telepresence …………………………………………………………………………………………..26
Figure 26: A surgery simulation to aid planning ……………………………………..………………29
Figure 27: Telesurgery …………………………………………………………………………………………….30
Figure 28:JHU Steady Hand-Eye Robot………………..…………………………………..……………..33
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to articulate our deep gratitude to our report guide Dr. Ahmed
Haroun who gave us an overview for robotics.
It is our pleasure to refer to Dr. Nessreen M. El Abiad who helped us a lot to write
such a report.
Last but not the least to all of our friends who were patiently extended all sorts of
help for accomplishing this undertaking.
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Executive Summary
This report gives you a big background about the field of robotics when, how, and why it
began.
Robotics can take on any form as the tasks they do require so there are many types of robotics
that differ in shape and properties like swimming robots which work under water ,humanoid
robots which look like human and wheeled robots.
To construct a robot which can do a specific task it's a very complicated thing and there are
many parts that the robot consist of like control system which guides the robot to do a task,
sensors which make the robot to react with the environment, manipulator the body of the
robot which can move and control the movement of the end effector, the end effector is the
part which do the required task and the actuators that provide robot with power.
Nowadays machines are necessary part in our life we can find it in work ,home ,streets even in
our pockets we find a mobile so robots is very useful in many fields in industry ,medicine
,military and many others fields by replacing the human with it in dangerous situations
,making tasks faster than human and more accuracy as well as robots always energetic ,don't
have a real life to make them busy to do their job and have the required skills to do the tasks
simply because they are constructed to do that.
So how can we make use of robotics science and develop it to help us in the future to make
our life easier but at the end think with me if robots will do everything we can do what will be
the difference between us and can robots control humans someday ?!
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1. Introduction
The main purpose of robotics is to develop machines that can substitute for humans and
replicate human actions in necessary situations where humans cannot survive like bomb
detection and deactivation, dangerous manufacturing processes, explore the space and others
or in normal situations to help humans, save time and power and do the task by more
accuracy as we will see in the applications in our report.
1.1. Definition
Robotics is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and
operation of robots. This field overlaps with electronics, computer science, artificial
intelligence, mechatronics, nanotechnology and bioengineering.
1.2. History
As most people dislike doing most work and find a variety of ways to avoid it so the earliest
solution to the problem was to force somebody slaves else to do the work by capture people
imprisoned for crime and the like then slavery ended in the 19th century and was replaced
by hiring people for pay (employment) but human worker are not always energetic, reliable,
docile, smart, easily led , not always cheap, and those with the desired skills are not always
available so people have wanted to make real artificial
people to be their slaves.
In the past there was a job for a human to move a car by
pulling it .Of course it was so tired and unreasonable so
they invented a robot to do that job (figure 1) and it was
the first robot in the history which constructed in 1865 by
John Brainerd. But Humans didn't stop here, they
continued to develop the robots to cover all their needs
as we will see now.
Figure 1- Steam Man Robot
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2.Types of Robots
There are many types of robots. Each robot has its own unique features. Robots vary hugely in
size, shape, design, and capabilities. This Varity enable us to do several functions with robots.
So we have different applications such as (Exploration, Medical, Social, Industrial, Military,
Entertainment, etc.).
2.1 Wheeled Mobile Robots
Wheeled robots are robots which change their positions with the help of their wheels.
Wheeled motion for a robot can be achieved easily in mechanical terms and its cost is pretty
low. Additionally control of wheeled movement is generally easier.
These reasons make wheeled robots one of the most frequently seen robots. Single wheeled
robots, mobile ball robots, two-wheeled robots, three-wheeled robots, four-wheeled robots,
multi-wheeled robots and tracked robots are examples of wheeled robots.
Figure-2 Ball Robot Figure-3 Two wheeled Robot
Roomba Robot Application:
Roomba robot is a series of autonomous robotic
vacuum cleaners. Roomba's sensors can detect the
presence of obstacles; detect dirty spots on the floor.
Roomba uses two independently operating side
wheels that allow 360° turns in place.
Figure-4 Roomba Robot
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2.2. Swimming Robots (Robot Fish):
Swimming robots are robots which move underwater. These robots are generally inspired by
fish. They consist of deep-sea submersibles like Aquanaut, diving humanoids like Ocean One,
and bio-inspired systems like the ACM-R5H snakebot.
Underwater Robots can go underwater longer and deeper than humans. They can take
samples and test water. They can travel waters not suitable for humans. They are used for
research about animals and underwater wildlife. Most fish robots are used for researching.
Some have motors, some are gliders that ride ocean currents and dive.
2.2.1. Sentry Deep Sea Robot
The Sentry is an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) made by the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution. Sentry is designed to go to depths of 4,500 meters (14,800 ft.) and
to carry a range of devices for taking samples, pictures and readings from the deep sea.
Figure -5 Sentry deep sea robot
2.2.2. Glider Scarlet Knight
An ocean glider is an autonomous underwater vehicle used to collect ocean data. It has the
ability to travel far distances over long periods, without
servicing.
Scarlet Knight was the first robot to cross the Atlantic
Ocean underwater, which took it 221 days.
Figure-6 Glider Scarlet Knight
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2.3. Aerial Robots
Flying robots are robots that float on air using their plane-like or bird/insect-like wings,
propellers or balloons. They come in different sizes and have different levels of autonomy.
Flying robots are useful in search and rescue missions as they can be used to survey large
areas of land looking for victims. By using sensors flying robots can be sent into areas where it
is too dangerous to send human.
2.3.1. Ambulance Drone
The Ambulance Drone is a compact flying toolbox containing essential supplies for (lay-person)
advanced life support. The Portability and fold ability help the drone to be used anywhere,
also indoors.
Figure-7 Ambulance Drone Figure-8 Life saving with ambulance drone
2.3.2 Insect Spy Robots
Robot insects are flying--climbing--crawling--jumping at the chance to assist humans in search,
rescue and other dangerous operations. Robotic insects could also be used for spying. It does
not have a processor, camera or a battery because it will be heavy to fly. Now add the
electronics and hardware to remotely control the craft.
Figure-9 Insect spy robot
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2.4. Humanoid Robots
A humanoid robot is a type of robot that replicates the human body. The design of Humanoid
robots is what makes them fairly distinct from the other types of mobile robots. A typical
humanoid robot consists of a head, two arms, a torso and two legs just like a human, but many
of those robots are only based on some part of the human body, like from waist up or
something like that.
Figure-10UBTECH Alpha 1S Humanoid Robot
2.4.1. Robot Chef
The robot chef consists of a pair of fully articulated robotic
hands that can, in theory, reproduce the entire function of
the human hand. It is even capable of providing sufficient
skill to rival human chefs with respect to speed, sensitivity,
and movement.
2.4.2. Nao Robot
Nao is an autonomous, programmable humanoid
robot developed by Aldebaran Robotics. Nao robots have
been used for research and education purposes in
numerous academic institutions worldwide.
Figure-11 Robot Chef
Figure-12 Nao Robot
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3. The Main Parts of Robot
A robot is a machine that functions automatically and can adapt to changes in its environment,
robots are an increasingly important segment of our society, performing many jobs that are
too dangerous or tedious for human beings.
3.1. Control System
Every robot is connected to a computer controller, which regulates the components of the
arm and keeps them working together. The controller also allows the robot to be networked
to other systems, so that it may work together with other machines, processes, or robots.
3.1.1 Software
Robot software is the set of coded commands or instructions that tell a mechanical device and
electronic system, known together as a robot, what tasks to perform. Robot software is used
to perform autonomous tasks. Many software systems and frameworks have been proposed
to make programming robots easier.
Some robot software aims at developing intelligent mechanical devices. Common tasks include
feedback loops, control, path finding, data filtering, locating and sharing data.
Example:
ROBOFORTH, Epson RC+, RAPID, PDL2, Variable Assembly Language (VAL)
3.1.2. Hardware
A robot's control system uses feedback just as the human brain
does. However, instead of a collection of neurons, a robot's brain
consists of a silicon chip called a central processing unit, or CPU, that
is similar to the chip that runs your computer. Our brains decide
what to do and how to react to the world based on feedback from
our five senses. A robot's CPU does the same thing based on data
collected by devices called sensors.
3.2. Sensors
Robots receive feedback from sensors that mimic human senses such as video cameras or
devices called light-dependent resistors that function like eyes or microphones that act as
ears. Some robots even have touch, taste and smell. The robot's CPU interprets signals from
these sensors and adjusts its actions accordingly.
Figure 13- Robot Mechanical structure
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3.2.1 Types of sensors
3.2.1.1 Temperature sensor
A Temperature Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the temperature
i.e. it measures the changes in the temperature. In a Temperature
Sensor, the changes in the Temperature correspond to change in its
physical property like resistance or voltage.
3.2.1.2 Proximity sensor
Proximity sensor can detect the presence of nearby object without any physical contact. The
working of a proximity sensor is simple. In proximity sensor transmitter transmits an
electromagnetic radiation and receiver receives and analyzes the return signal for
interruptions. Therefore the amount of light receiver receives by surrounding can be used for
detecting the presence of nearby object.
3.2.1.2.1 Types of proximity sensors:-
3.2.1.2.1.1Infrared (IR) Transceivers:
In IR sensor LED transmit the beam of IR light and if it find an obstacle
then the light is reflected back which is captured by an IR receiver.
3.2.1.2.1.2 Ultrasonic Sensor:
In ultrasonic sensors high frequency sound waves are generated by
transmitter, the received echo pulse suggests an object interruption. In
general ultrasonic sensors are used for distance measurement in robotic
system.
3.2.1.3 Sound sensor:
Sound sensors are generally a microphone used to detect sound and
return a voltage equivalent to the sound level. Using sound sensor a
simple robot can be designed to navigate based on the sound receives.
Implementation of sound sensors is not easy as light sensors because it
generates a very small voltage difference which will be amplified to
generate measurable voltage change
3.2.1.4. Acceleration sensor
Acceleration sensor is used for measuring acceleration and tilt. An accelerometer is a device
used for measuring acceleration.
Figure-14 Temperature Sensor
Figure-15 Infrared Sensor
Figure-16 Ultrasonic Sensor
Figure-17 Sound Sensor
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3.2.1.4.1. Kinds of forces:
3.2.1.4.1.1. Static Force
It is the frictional force between any two objects. By measuring this gravitational force we can
determine the how much robot is tilting. This measurement is useful in balancing robot, or for
determining whether robot is driving on a flat surface or uphill.
3.2.1.4.1.2. Dynamic Force:
It is the amount of acceleration required to move an object. Measurement of dynamic force
using an accelerometer tells about the velocity/speed at which robot is moving.
3.2.1.5. Light sensor
Light sensor is a transducer used for detecting light and creates a voltage difference equivalent
to the light intensity fall on a light sensor.
3.2.1.5.1 Types of Light sensor:
3.2.1.5.1.1.Photo resistor:
It is a type of resistor used for detecting the light. In photo resistor resistance varies with
change in light intensity. The light falls on photo resistor is inversely proportional to the
resistance of the photo resistor. In general photo resistor is also called as Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR).
3.2.1.5.1.2. Photovoltaic Cells:
Photovoltaic cells are energy conversion device used to convert solar radiation into electrical
electric energy. It is used if we are planning to build a solar robot. Individually photovoltaic
cells are considered as an energy source, an implementation combined with capacitors and
transistors can convert this into a sensor.
3.3 Manipulators
A manipulator is a device used to manipulate materials without
direct contact. The applications were originally for dealing with
radioactive or biohazards materials, using robotic arms, or they
were used in inaccessible places.
In more recent developments they have been used in diverse
range of applications including welding automation, robotically-
assisted surgery and in space. It is an arm-like mechanism that Figure-18 Manipulator
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consists of a series of segments, usually sliding or jointed called cross-slides, which grasp and
move objects with a number of degrees of freedom.
3.3.1 Specialized types:
3.3.1.1 Balanced manipulator:
Controlled by the operator's hand. Such manipulators are used in various industries. Where
there are special requirements to protect against fire and explosion, they may be driven by
compressed air.
3.3.1.2 Welding manipulator
It can be either open arc or submerged arc. A welding manipulator can be used to weld
horizontally and vertically and is ideal for job shops as they are robust, have high production
volume capacity and a greater degree of flexibility in product engineering.
Examples of robotic manipulators are: Canadarm, Terabot-S by Oceaneering Space System,
SCARA
3.4 End-Effectors
In order to interact with the environment and carry out assigned tasks, robots are equipped
with tools called end effectors. These vary according to the tasks the robot has been designed
to carry out. For example, robotic factory workers have interchangeable tools such as paint
sprayers or welding torches. Mobile robots such as the probes sent to other planets or bomb
disposal robots often have universal grippers that mimic the function of the human hand.
3.4.1 Types of End Effectors:
3.4.1.1 Permanent Magnet End Effector:
It consists of a permanent magnet that moves in an aluminum cylinder. When the actuator
drives the magnet towards the front end of the cylinder, it holds ferrous parts. As the magnet
is extracted from the cylinder, the magnetic field fades, and the parts are released. This type
can be used for only ferrous parts, and has the benefit of managing parts with asymmetrical
form as well as holding a number of parts concurrently.
3.4.1.2 Electro Magnet End Effector:
It is easy to operate, and multiple end effectors can be positioned with the robot arm to
perform multiple operations. Even with minor disturbance in the location of parts, or
alterations in configuration and dimensions, these end effectors can function effectively.
These types can be used for parts with uneven exterior shape, such as coarse ferrous castings
or rounded components.
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3.4.1.3 Vacuum End Effector:
It consists of a cup-shaped component, and when it comes into contact with a smooth part,
vacuum is created in the cup which ensures that the part remains attached. Controls are used
to generate or remove vacuum. This type of end effectors is used for delicate parts.
3.5 Actuators
To be considered a robot, a device must have a body that it can move in reaction to feedback
from its sensors. Robot bodies consist of metal, plastic and similar materials. Inside these
bodies are small motors called actuators. Actuators mimic the action of human muscle to
move parts of the robot's body. The simplest robots consist of an arm with a tool attached for
a particular task. More advanced robots may move around on wheels or treads. Humanoid
robots have arms and legs that mimic human movement.
3.5.1 Type of Actuators:
3.5.1.1 Hydraulic:
A hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate
mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives an output in terms of linear, rotatory or
oscillatory motion. As liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator can exert
a large force. The drawback of this approach is its limited acceleration.
The hydraulic cylinder consists of a hollow cylindrical tube along which a piston can slide. The
term single acting is used when the fluid pressure is applied to just one side of the piston. The
piston can move in only one direction, a spring being frequently used to give the piston a
return stroke. The term double acting is used when pressure is applied on each side of the
piston; any difference in pressure between the two sides of the piston moves the piston to one
side or the other
3.5.1.2 Pneumatic:
Pneumatic actuators enable considerable forces to be produced from relatively small pressure
changes. A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high
pressure into either linear or rotary motion. Pneumatic energy is desirable for main engine
controls because it can quickly respond in starting and stopping as the power source does not
need to be stored in reserve for operation. Moreover, pneumatic actuators are safer, cheaper,
and often more reliable and powerful than other actuators. These forces are often used with
valves to move diaphragms to affect the flow of air through the valve.
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3.5.1.3 Electric:
An electric actuator is powered by a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical
torque. The electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves.
Additionally, a brake is typically installed above the motor to prevent the media from opening
valve. If no brake is installed, the actuator will uncover the opened valve and rotate it back to
its closed position. If this continues to happen, the motor and actuator will eventually become
damaged. It is one of the cleanest and most readily available forms of actuator because it does
not directly involve oil or other fossil fuel
4. Robotics In Industry
4.1. Connections between robotics and some related subjects
Indeed, robotics has been regarded by some as a branch of AI, but equally AI could be said to
be a subset of robotics, if robotics is interpreted liberally.
This view of AI as a sort of mechanical psychology is still held and, in my opinion, is where its
greatest importance lies, but as far as its present relevance to robotics and other practical
subjects is concerned AI is just a bag of programming methods. What these methods have in
common is that they search for a satisfactory interpretation of data, or a plan of action, among
a collection of possibilities, usually on the basis of imperfect knowledge.
AI is about search and representation. Representation is the issue typified by questions such
as how a model of an object can be stored in a computer in a way which allows effective
comparison with an image.
4.2. When to use industrial robots instead of humans?
It’s preferable to use robots in applications in 4D (i.e. Dangerous, Dirty, Dull, and Difficult). It’s
used also in 4A: automation, augmentation, assistance, autonomous.
4.3. Types of industrial robot and their methods of operation
An industrial robot is driven through a sequence of movements by a program of some kind.
The program is executed by a controller; the basic relationship between the controller and the
robot is shown in Figure 19. The controller turns on the joint actuators (throughout this
chapter the terms 'joint' and 'axis' are used interchangeably) at the appropriate times, while
signals from the joint sensors are returned to the controller and used for feedback. The types
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of controller, methods of programming and details of joint servo control are discussed in the
following sections. We begin with the classification of industrial robots.
Figure-19the basic architecture of an industrial robot
Industrial robots can be classified by the method of control and by the method of teaching or
programming; although certain control methods and teaching methods are almost always
used together, in principle the two bases of classification are separate. The main classes of
control are as follows:
1) Pick and place.
2) Point to point.
3) Continuous path.
4.3.1. Pick and place manipulators
Pick and place or limited sequence manipulators, which are not always counted as robots at
all, use mechanical stops to set two stopping positions on each axis. The joint must travel
backwards and forwards between these two end stops, whose positions can be adjusted when
the machine is set up; it is not possible to select any intermediate stopping point, although
sometimes extra stops can be inserted for particular parts of the program. This is usually done
by solenoid-operated pins which when extended prevent the arm moving beyond them.
4.3.2. Point to point robots
Point to point robots have servo position control of each axis and can go through a sequence
of specified points. The path between these points is unspecified. There can be any number of
stopping positions in each axis. The program for such a robot consists of a series of points; for
each point all the joint angles (or distances in the case of prismatic joints) must be specified.
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4.3.3. Continuous Path robots
Continuous path robots do not go through a finite list of target points but can, ideally, execute
a smooth path of any shape, with continuous variation of speed as the arm moves along the
path. This requires not only servo control of the velocity of each joint but that several joints
move at once in a coordinated way, whereas for a point to point robot it is possible, although
not compulsory, to move only one joint at a time.
4.4. Programming languages for industrial robots
As explained earlier, most robots can be programmed in some language which is compiled (or
interpreted in the case of some slow robots intended for educational purposes) to yield the
machine code which drives the robot. Many manufacturers provide a language for their own
robots; meanwhile attempts are being made to develop universal robot languages, or to add
robot-control features or subroutine libraries to languages such as Pascal or C.
4.5. Performance specifications of industrial robots
Because of the great variety of shapes and uses of industrial robots, standardization of
specifications over all robots is difficult. However, there are certain characteristics which, all
else being equal, allow robots of similar type to be compared.
4.5.1. Positioning accuracy and repeatability
Accuracy
The accuracy with which a robot can bring the payload to a position and hold it there or the
accuracy with which it passes through a position while moving, can both be important.
Perhaps because of the difficulty of measuring the second of these, accuracy is usually defined
for the static case, when the manipulator has approached a target point and is holding the
payload in a fixed position. Since this is done by servo controls (expect for pick and place
machines) and servos are never perfect, there will be both an offset and a random error. This
is true for each axis, and the size of the error will not be the same for all axes. If a single figure
is quoted for a guaranteed maximum position error for the whole robot it should be the worst
case; the accuracy in certain axes may be much better.
Repeatability
Repeatability is a measure of how closely the achieved position clusters around its mean. The
difference between accuracy and repeatability is illustrated by Figure 20. Repeatability is often
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more important than accuracy since, provided that the accuracy error is constant, it can be
allowed for. (This is only true if the robot keeps repeating the same cycle of actions.)
Figure-20the difference between repeatability and accuracy
4.5.2. Control-related specifications
Memory Capacity
For a limited sequence (pick and place) arm or a point to point robot, memory capacity is
expressed as the number of movements or positions, and may be several hundred. Such a
number might well be needed in, say, spot welding; for many transfer operations less than ten
positions might be used. For a continuous path robot, memory capacity is expressed as the
length of time which can be recorded. The specification should state what kind and capacity of
exchangeable memory device is provided.
Program Structure
These remarks about memory capacity assume that a program consists of a simple sequence
of operations. More complex facilities are useful, such as subroutines, branches, a choice of
programs and so on. The details of these facilities should be stated.
Advanced Features
Some of the properties whose presence or absence, and their type when present, should be
made clear in the specification are as follows:
1) programming languages,
2) ability to generate circles,
3) ability to generate welding patterns (,weaving'),
4) interfaces for sensors (such as vision systems),
5) ability to track a conveyor,
6) ability to control ancillary devices such as positioning tables,
7) communications ports for factory networks,
8) Ability to be down-line loaded with a program by some other system.
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4.6. Applications of industrial robots
There are a lot of applications in industry regarding robots. Some of them will be discussed in
this section.
Machine loading
The first application of industrial robots was in unloading die-casting machines. In die casting
the two halves of a mould or die are held together in a press while molten metal, typically zinc
or aluminum is injected under pressure. The die is cooled by water; when the metal has
solidified the press opens and a robot extracts the casting and dips it in a quench tank to cool
it further. The robot then places the casting in a trim press where the unwanted parts are cut
off. A robot serving two die-casting machines and a trim press is shown in Figure-21.
Figure-21 a robot serving die-casting machines
Spot welding
The spot welding of car bodies is the most well-known use of industrial robots, mainly because
the motor industry is in the public eye more than most; also, a spot welding line with its
showers of sparks and large number of robots is more spectacular than a solitary robot
unloading a die-casting machine.
Arc welding
Arc welding as it applies to robotics
generally uses the metal-inert gas (MIG)
technique shown in Figure 22.
Figure-22 the basic arrangement for arc welding
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Spraying
Because many pigments and solvents are poisonous, the automation of paint and other types
of spraying is desirable for health reasons as well as for reasons of economy and consistency.
Continuous path robots are needed, but need not be very precise. Since the solvent-laden
atmosphere is potentially. Explosive, precautions have to be taken to avoid sparks. The work
pieces often move on a continuous conveyor, so the ability to program or teach on a
stationary work piece and then to reproduce the action while tracking a moving one is
commonly needed.
5. Robotics in Military
Military robots are autonomous robots or remote-controlled mobile robots designed for
military applications, from transport to search & rescue and attack.
They have more advantages and Supporter but also have risks
5.1. Some advantages
Autonomous robotics would save and preserve soldiers' lives by removing serving soldiers,
who might otherwise be killed, from the battlefield. Lt. Gen. Richard Lynch of the United
States Army Installation Management Command and assistant Army chief of staff for
installation stated at a conference:
As I think about what's happening on the battlefield today ... I contend there are things we
could do to improve the survivability of our service members. And you all know that's true.
Major Kenneth Rose of the US Army's Training and Doctrine Command outlined some of the
advantages of robotic technology in warfare:
Machines do not get tired. They do not close their eyes. They do not hide under trees when it
rains and they do not talk to their friends ... A human's attention to detail on guard duty drops
dramatically in the first 30 minutes ... Machines know no fear.
Increasing attention is also paid to how to make the robots more autonomous, with a view of
eventually allowing them to operate on their own for extended periods of time, possibly
behind enemy lines. For such functions, systems like the Energetically Autonomous Tactical
Robot are being tried, which is intended to gain its own energy by foraging for plant matter.
The majority of military robots are tele-operated and not equipped with weapons; they are
used for reconnaissance, surveillance, sniper detection, neutralizing explosive devices, etc.
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Current robots that are equipped with weapons are tele-operated so they are not capable of
taking lives autonomously.
Advantages regarding the lack of emotion and passion in robotic combat are also taken into
consideration as a beneficial factor in significantly reducing instances of unethical behavior in
wartime. Autonomous machines are created not to be "truly 'ethical' robots", yet ones that
comply with the laws of war (LOW) and rules of engagement (ROE). Hence the fatigue, stress,
emotion, adrenaline, etc. that affect a human soldier's rash decisions are removed; there will
be no effect on the battlefield caused by the decisions made by the individual.
5.2. Countries which use it
Many different countries are developing military robots and if there are wars in the future the
battlefield might be completely robotic someday. This doesn’t mean humans won’t be in
danger, because as one side or the other breaks through the next target is us. Some of these
countries are not the ones you would expect.
1. Russia has their military robotic program in high gear. They displayed many of their
military robots at the Army-2015 exhibition. Some of the robots are already in use and
others have just been designed. One of them is named the Uranus-6. It is a mine
sweeper and has already been used in Chechnya. It has the look of a bulldozer.
Some of the other robotic offerings are unmanned boats, drones and submarines. The
Russians have an intense robotic program which calls for robots to be issued to the army
and fleet for ten years. If the Russian aircraft industry is any indication the Russians
should be creating many formidable robots in the future.
2. India has decided military robots are the wave of the future. The country’s military
states there will be a robot army within the next ten years. The army states its robots
will conduct one half of all operations by that time. It is claimed India has sixteen
military robot development programs currently active.
Some of the robots are typical of what other countries are developing, that is a small
tractor base with a weapons platform. One robot is on the small side and was created to
destroy or unarm unexploded devices. It is small enough to enter into planes and
through the doors of a building. It is remotely controlled. India claims it will be on an
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equal standing with the robot forces of the United States by 2020. They expect to have a
full spectrum of robots which will range from micro robots to tank sized robots.
Beside drones they will have robot boats, ships and subs. Daksh is India’s first robot
soldier and it is of a traditional small tracked remote controlled robot. India is also
discussing building robots which will be autonomous and depending on their programs
they will decide who to fight and when to fire.
There are a lot of other countries use military robots like: USA, Israel, and Iran….etc.
5.3. DRDO Daksh
Daksh is a battery-operated remote-controlled robot on wheels that was created with a
primary function of bomb recovery. Developed by defense research and development
organization, it is fully automated. It can navigate staircases, negotiate steep slopes, navigate,
and narrow corridors and two vehicles to reach hazardous materials. Using its robotized arm,
it can lift a suspect object and scan it using its portable X-Ray device. If the object is a bomb,
Daksh can defuse it with its water jet disrupter.
Figure-23 DRDO Daksh ROV
It has a shotgun, which can break open locked doors, and it can scan cars for explosives. With
a master control station (MCS), it can be remotely controlled over a range of 500 m in line of
sight or within buildings. Ninety per cent of the robot’s components are indigenous. The Army
has also placed limited series production orders for 20 Daksh. The first batch of five units was
handed over to General Combat Engineers, on 19 December 2011. The technology has been
transferred for production to three firms, Dynalog, Theta Controls, and Bharat Electronics Ltd.
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5.4.Elbit Hermes 450
The Elbit Hermes 450 is an Israeli medium size multi-payload unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)
designed for tactical long endurance missions. It has an endurance of over 20 hours, with a
primary mission of reconnaissance, surveillance and communications relay.
Figure-24Hermes 450 of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection
6. Robotics in Medical Field
Medical robotics is a stimulating and modern field in medical science that involves numerous
operations and extensive use of telepresence. The discipline of telepresence signifies the
technologies that permit an individual to sense as if they were at another location without
being actually there. Robots are utilized in the discipline of medicine to execute operations
that are normally performed manually by human beings.
Figure-25 telepresence
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These operations may be extremely professional and facilitated to diagnose and treat the
patients. Though medical robotics may still be in its infancy, the use of medical robots for
numerous operations may increase the quality of medical treatment. Utilization of
telepresence in the medical operations has eliminated the barriers of distance, due to which
professional expertise is readily available. Use of robotics in the medical field and telepresence
minimize individual oversight and brings specialized knowledge to inaccessible regions without
the need of physical travel.
6.1. History of Medical Robotics
Medical robotics was introduced in the science of medicine during the early 1980s, first in the
field of urology. Robotic arms were introduced and used for medical operations. Robotics
initially had inferior quality imaging capabilities. During this period, the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration also started exploring utilization of robotics for telemedicine.
Telemedicine comprises the use of robotics by physicians for the observation and treatment of
patients without being actually in the physical presence of the patient. As telemedicine
improved, it started to be used on battlefields. During the close of the last century, medical
robotics was developed for use in surgery and numerous other disciplines. Continued
advancement in medical robotics is still in progress, and improved techniques are being
developed.
6.2. Applications of Medical Robotics
In recent years, robots are moving closer to patient care. What is new is finding them in clinical
laboratories identifying and measuring blood and other specimen for testing, and in
pharmacies counting pills and delivering them to nurses on “med-surg-units” or ICU‟s or
bringing banked blood from the laboratory to the ED, surgery, or ICU for transfusions.
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Robots are being used as very accurate “go-for”! An early active robot, “RoboDoc” was
designed to mill perfectly round lumens in the shafts of fractured bones, to improve the
bonding of metal replacements such as for femur heads, and knee joints. The future of this
system remains uncertain because of questions about the ultimate beneficial outcomes. The
reasons behind the interest in the adoption of medical robots are multitudinous.
Robots provide industry with something that is, to them, more valuable than even the most
dedicated and hard-working employee – namely speed, accuracy, repeatability, reliability, and
cost-efficiency. A robotic aid, for example, one that holds a viewing instrument for a surgeon,
will not become fatigued, for however long it is used. It will position the instrument accurately
with no tremor, and it will be able to perform just as well on the 100th occasion as it did on
the first.
6.2.1. Robotic Surgery
Robotic surgery is the process whereby a robot actually carries out a surgical procedure under
the control of nothing other than its computer program. Although a surgeon almost certainly
will be involved in the planning of the procedure to be performed and will also observe the
implementation of that plan, the execution of the plan will not be accomplished by them - but
by the robot.
In order to look at the different issues involved in the robotic fulfillment of an operation, the
separate sections of a typical robotic surgery (although robotic surgery is far from typical) are
explained below.
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6.2.1.1. Surgical planning
Surgical planning consists of three main parts. These are imaging the patient, creating a
satisfactory three-dimensional (3D) model of the imaging data, and planning/rehearsing the
operation. The imaging of the patient may be accomplished via various means. The main
method is that of computer tomography (CT). CT is the process whereby a stack of cross-
sectional views of the patient are taken using magnetic-resonance-imaging or x-ray methods.
This kind of imaging is necessary for all types of operative procedure and, as such, does not
differ from traditional surgical techniques.
This two-dimensional (2D) data must then be converted into a 3D model of the patient (or,
more usually, of the area of interest). The reasons for this transformation are twofold. Firstly,
the 2D data, by its very nature, is lacking in information. The patient is, obviously, a 3D object
and, as such, occupies a spatial volume. Secondly, it is more accurate and intuitive for a
surgeon, when planning a procedure, to view the data in the form that it actually exists.
It should be noted, however, that the speed of said hardware is increasing all the time and the
price will decrease too, as the technology involved becomes more commonplace. This means
that the process will be more cost-efficient and increasingly routine in the future.
The third phase of the planning is the actual development of the plan itself. This involves
determining the movements and forces of the robot in a process called “path planning” -
literally planning the paths that the robot will follow.
Figure-26 A surgery simulation to aid planning
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It is here that the 3D patient model comes into play, as it is where all the measurements and
paths are taken from. This emphasizes the importance of the accuracy of the model, as any
errors will be interpreted as absolute fact by the surgeons (and hence the robot) in their
determination of the plan.
6.2.1.2. Robots in Telesurgery:
While, in robotic surgery, the robot is given some initial data information and allowed to
proceed on its own, there are some other applications of robotics in surgery where the robot
is actually guided by a human throughout the process. The actions of the robot are not
predetermined, but rather controlled in real-time by the surgeon. The remote location can be
as far away as the other side of the world, or as near as the next room.
Since there is distance separating the surgeon and the patient, it is evident that the surgeon
cannot operate using his own hands. A robot, local to the patient, becomes the surgeon’s
hands, while an intricate interface conveys the robot’s senses to the surgeon (making use of
while an intricate interface conveys the robot’s senses to the surgeon (making use of visual,
aural, force and tactile feedback).
Figure-27 Telesurgery
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6.2.2. Training
How can the skill of a surgeon be measured? A patient's body has no buzzer that alerts the
surgeon when mistakes occur during an operation.
According to a study from the U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, surgical
complications, including postoperative infections, foreign objects left in wounds, surgical
wounds reopening, and post-operative bleeding, resulted in a total of 2.4 million extra days of
hospitalization, $9.3 billion excessive charges, and 32,000 mostly surgery-related deaths in the
United States in 2000.
To what extent training is responsible for those errors is unknown. Some argue that most
surgeons never achieve true expertise. One thing is certain, though: Residents need better,
more effective training. It isn’t sufficient to have residents merely go through the motions;
they must be able to practice deliberately. The problem is that residents already work
inhumanely long hours (recent regulations limit their training to 80-hour work weeks, but they
typically work more than that) and they must learn a growing number of surgical techniques
and technologies, which means new generations of surgeons are having less and less time for
hands-on practice.
Surgical skill can be broken down into theoretical skill (consisting of factual and decision-
making knowledge) and practical skill (the ability to carry out manual tasks such as dissection
and suturing). Theoretical skill is often taught in a classroom and is thought to be accurately
tested with written examinations like the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) and the
United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). Practical skill, on the other hand, is
much more difficult to judge.
Practical skills, such as driving a car, swinging a golf club, or throwing a football, are most
effectively taught "in the field" through demonstration. In 1889, Sir William Halsted at Johns
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Hopkins University revolutionized surgical training by developing an apprentice-style
technique still being used in most modern training programs of surgical residents today.
According to this method, a resident would “see one, do one, teach one,” implying that after
minimum exposure and the completion of a procedure once, a resident will have mastered the
skill and will be capable of teaching the next novice. Although many talented surgeons are
trained this way, the method is time consuming, and evaluating a student's performance is a
subjective task that varies depending on the student/teacher pair. The method also involves a
lot of yelling.
With the advent of technologies such as robotic surgical systems and medical simulators,
researchers now have the tools to analyze surgical motion and evaluate surgical skill. Our
group is studying human-machine interaction for surgical training and assistance in multiple
contexts with increasing levels of complexity. The first level involves a system that
understands what the human and environment are doing. The next level of interaction is for
machines to provide assistance to a human operator through augmentation. The last level is to
have a robot perform a task autonomously.
Super-surgeon performance can be achieved if human intelligence can be combined with
robot accuracy and precision. Computer-integrated surgery can enhance human senses by
providing additional information. For example, the visualization can overlay a reconstructed CT
scan of a tumor on the operating site, or the robot can use force feedback to prevent a
surgeon’s hand from puncturing a beating heart.
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Robots with intelligent sensors can address humans’ physiological limitations such as poor
vision or hand tremor. Force sensing “smart” surgical instruments will allow for safer and more
effective surgeries.
The JHU Steady-Hand Eye Robot is a robot used for retinal microsurgery where the surgeon
and the robotic manipulator share the control of the instrument. This reduces hand tremors
and allows for precise and steady motion.
Figure-28JHU Steady Hand-Eye Robot
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Conclusion
Finally we find most robots working for people in industries, factories, warehouses, and
laboratories. Robots are useful in many ways. For instance, it boosts economy because
businesses need to be efficient to keep up with the industry competition. Therefore, having
robots helps business owners to be competitive, because robots can do jobs better and faster
than humans can, e.g. robot can built, assemble a car. Yet robots cannot perform every job;
today robots roles include assisting research and industry. At the end, as the technology
improves, there will be new ways to use robots which will bring new hopes and new
potentials.
Robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue; researching, designing,
and building new robots serve various practical purposes, whether domestically, commercially,
or militarily. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people such as defusing
bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, and exploring mines and shipwrecks. Robotics is
also used in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) as a teaching aid. The
advent of Nano robots, microscopic robots that can be injected into the human body, could
revolutionize medicine and human health
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References
Bibliography:
- D. J. Todd (auth.) –Fundamentals of Robot Technology _An Introduction to Industrial Robots,
Teleoperators and Robot Vehicles-Springer Netherlands (1986).
- "Robot soldiers". BBC News. 2002-04-12. Archivedfrom the original on 2011-01-25. Retrieved
2010-05-12.
- International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 2, Issue 8, Auguest-2011 1
ISSN 2229-5518
Sources:
- https://robots.ieee.org/learn/types-of-robots/
- http://www.robotpark.com/All-Types-Of-Robots
- https://nccr-robotics.ch/research-areas/mobile-rescue-robots/flying-robots/
- https://www.truthfacts.net/Since082514/ComputerRobots6.html
- http://www.isr.umd.edu/~austin/enes489p/projects2011a/BorderSecurity-Air-Team-
FinalReport.pdf
- https://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/medical-robots/using-robots-to-train-
the-surgeons-of-tomorrow
