RIT Lectures 1 and 2 - Studying Effectively

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Research in Information
Technology
Lectures 1 and 2
Studying Effectively

Studying Effectively Lectures 1 and 2 - 2
Managing Time – 1
Agenda
• Introduction
• Three-stage approach to managing time
• Deciding what you want to do
• Analysing what you are doing
• Improving the way you do things
• Dealing with the unexpected

Managing Time – 2
“It is very easy to be overwhelmed by the demands of
home life and study to the point when study becomes
a burden. To avoid this situation, it is important that
prospective students work out in advance what their
home commitments and relaxation needs are, so that
they can work out a good balance between home
leisure and future study”.
Neville, Colin (2002) Part-time Study in Higher
Education, West Yorkshire Higher Education
Collaborative Guidance Project.

Managing Time – 3
There are only 24 hours in a day and 7 days in
a week no matter who or where you are!!
• This time can be divided into two categories:
− essential time: eating, sleeping, dressing, food shopping,
etc.
− serviceable time: the remaining time
• Making efficient and effective use of serviceable
time is the essence of time management
• Time management should be approached from a
fundamental analysis, a process involving three
stages…..

Managing Time – 4
A three-stage approach to managing serviceable time:
Adapt the
way you do
things
2
Analyse what
you are
doing
1
Decide
what you
want to do
3
Improve your efficiency Delegate
Dump
Delay
Do
Adapted from: Dawson, Christian W. (2005), “Projects in Computing and Information Systems: A Students Guide”, Harlow, Prentice-Hall

Managing Time – 5
Deciding what you want to do
• Identify and prioritise goals (here we focus on
short-term goals, i.e., the duration of this course)
• Categorise goals (Ferner 1980):
− work goals; for part-time students, this includes both
job and study-related goals
− family goals; family and home commitments
− community goals; commitments to the community in
which you take an active role
− self goals; personal leisure time achievements
• Be specific and identify how your goals will be
achieved.
Ferner J.D. (1980) Successful Time Management, New York, Wiley

Managing Time – 6
Analysing what you are doing
Identifying what you are currently doing and determining whether
you are spending your time efficiently.
• Achieved through two activities:
− identify how you spend your time
− categorise the time identified according to Ferner’s list
• Time logs are a popular technique for identifying time usage.
They record:
− activities performed during the day
− how long is spent on each activity
− how efficient you were at performing the activity
− how this time usage may be improved

Managing Time – 7
Time logs
• Range from a simple hand-drawn table to dedicated software
packages such as ‘RescueTime’, see; http://www.rescuetime.com/
• At the very least the log should include headings such as: Start
Time; Finish Time; Activity; Activity Category; Effectiveness;
Improvements
• Make daily entries for at least one week before analysing the log
• Compare your log with the goals previously identified
• Identify at what time of day and week you work best
• Categorise your use of serviceable time into two components;
− important/unimportant
− urgent/non-urgent

Managing Time – 8
Time logs (contd)
Categories of serviceable time:
• Important activities – personally important, based
upon your own goals
• Unimportant activities – those that will not affect
your goals
• Urgent activities – those that must be done
immediately
• Non-urgent activities – those that can be delayed
without serious consequence

Managing Time – 9
Improving the way you do things
What you can’t dump, delay. What you can’t delay, delegate. What you
can’t dump or delay or delegate, do. (Turla and Hawkins, 1985)
Two approaches to improving your efficiency (Covey, Merrill et al. 1994):
1. Use this table to take appropriate action:
2. Plan on both a daily and weekly basis how to best use your time and deal
effectively with any problems that arise.
Activity
Categories
Important Unimportant
Urgent Do Delegate
Non-urgent Delay Dump

Managing Time – 10
Planning: first set your priorities according to the categories of
serviceable time.
• High Priority: must do - urgent and important
• Medium priority: should do – important but non-urgent (yet)
• Low priority: nice to do – unimportant and non-urgent
• Scheduled: low/medium/high priority scheduled activities –
e.g., meetings
Source: Covey, S., R., R. Merrill, A., et al. (1994). First Things First: Coping with
the ever-decreasing demands of the workplace.

Weekly Planning:
• Try to do last thing on a Friday or first thing on
Monday
• Focus on those high priority activities that need to
be completed by the end of the week
• Then, and only then, schedule in medium priority
work
• Also, allow time to deal with high or medium priority
scheduled activities

Having finalised the weekly plan, turn your attention to
planning your daily activities:
• List all the things you must do including
scheduled activities
• Identify activities that may be factored in if
time allows
• Allow some free time for relaxation
• Be prepared to deal with unexpected events

Dealing with the unexpected
Gaining time – small periods of time gained because of some
unexpected event, e.g., transport delays. Have a task that you
can do easily and quickly.
Incomplete tasks – don’t start something unless you are sure of
finishing it.
Interruptions – try to work where you will not be interrupted, and
learn to say no!
Perfectionism – perfectionists always have a backlog of work.
Aim to do a good, competent piece of work, not a perfect one.
The law of diminishing returns applies here!

Dealing with the unexpected (contd)
• Procrastination: putting off until tomorrow what you can or should
do today. May be due to:
− loss of motivation
− task appears insurmountable
− need to obtain advice but don’t want to trouble someone or
nervous of the response
• Overcoming procrastination: perform at least one task a day that
you don’t like.
• Losing things: develop a system of managing paperwork and
keeping everything up-to-date.

Assessment – 1
Agenda
• Introduction
• Written Coursework
− essays
− report
− planning
− writing up
• Sustained Revision
− exam preparation
− revision techniques
− coping with anxiety

Assessment – 2
Individual modules are usually assessed through
examinations and coursework.
Coursework assignments and examination questions may take
the form of an essay or report.
• An academic essay demonstrates both your knowledge of a
topic and your skills related to academic writing
• A report is a structured document written for a particular
purpose and aimed at a specific audience. It should provide
clear and concise information written in a formal, academic
style

Written Coursework – 1
Essay Structure
The objective is to produce a structure to your work that conveys the
main points in your argument.
• Title: A statement of the problem/issue and process
• Introduction: should be brief and direct and contain a
general idea of your understanding of the question
• Main body: development of your argument and line of
reasoning
• Conclusion: sum up the main ideas and state any
conclusions you have come to and recommendations for
further investigation
• Bibliography: a list of books and other sources used

Essay Types
There are two types, each having two categories:
1. Descriptive
• Description: provide information on a topic without commenting on
it. This category is unlikely to be required in higher education.
− Instruction words: define, describe, outline, explain, list, delineate,
trace, state, summarise, present.
• Discussion: give the main points on the topic, examine them and
consider the implications.
− Instruction words: analyse, explore, discuss, comment, illustrate,
account for, interpret, review, explain, consider, debate, show how and
examine.

Essay Types (contd)
2. Judgemental
• Evaluation: choose material to develop a line of thought or
argument. Both sides of the argument are usually required.
− Instruction words: criticise, evaluate, critically evaluate, justify,
comment on, interpret.
• Comparison: find similarities or/and differences between
different viewpoints, evidence or facts. Comparative essays
can require description, discussion or evaluation.
− Instruction words: compare, contrast, differentiate, distinguish,
debate.

Report Structure
Reports usually have a standardised format based on the
following model:
• Title Page - the title or subject of the report, who the report is
for, the writer’s name and date of submission
• Table of Contents - details all sections and sub-sections of
the report with page numbers
• Executive Summary - summarises the main points and
findings
• Introduction - the scope and background to the work

Report Structure (contd)
• Main Body of the Report - information is presented,
explanations provided and questions answered
• Conclusion - draw together key points made in the report;
nothing new should appear here
• Recommendations - one or more practical proposals and
may offer solutions to problems investigated in the report
• Bibliography - list of sources you consulted when writing the
report
• Appendices- relevant information which is too lengthy or
detailed to include in the report itself

Before you start
Regardless of the module or lecturer, you should aim to develop
two basic habits when doing assignments:
• Read the assignment carefully and start
working on it reasonably early
• Ask the lecturer questions if you are unclear
about anything relating to the assignment

Planning – 1
Planning Your Assignment
The process of writing an assignment can be broken down into
three phases:
• Analysis of the question asked. Reflection on the
issues raised and gathering raw material.
• Draw up a plan of the assignment (this may well
include writing out in advance a provisional
conclusion).
• Writing the assignment. This should, as far as
possible, follow a coherent plan established
beforehand.

Planning – 2
Phase 1a - Analysis of the question asked and reflections on the
issues
• Initially, aim to understand the question and identify key
phrases
• Identify the various issues raised - whether explicitly or
implicitly
• Think about your overall answer - this will become the
conclusion to your assignment
• Be sure that you are answering the question asked, rather
than a question which you would have liked to be asked
The results of your reflections and brainstorming in this phase should ultimately
form the introduction to your assignment.

Planning – 3
Phase 1b - Gathering raw material
• Think about the types of evidence required to
support any arguments you make, such as quotes,
tables, paraphrasing of other people's work
• Indulge in a certain amount of free association,
allowing anything concerning the subject to rise up
from the depths of your memory:
− firstly, it is much better to have too much material and
reject what you do not need
− secondly, one thing can suggest or recall another which
may turn out to be more useful

Planning – 4
Phase 2 - Sketching out a plan; the purpose
• Enables you to write more quickly, and to
concentrate on developing a more fluent style
• Assists in focusing your thoughts on the
assignment question
• Provides an opportunity to think through and
develop your arguments
• Helps in avoiding repetition and confusion
• Indicates when you are ready to begin writing up

Planning – 5
Phase 2 - Sketching out a plan (contd)
• Start with the conclusion so that you know
what you are aiming at
• Arguments: list all the aspects of the
question which support your conclusion
• Consider counter-arguments to show why
your reasoning is more relevant than other
possible ways of thinking

Planning – 6
Phase 2 - Sketching out a plan (contd)
• Structure: develop a logical structure to your work
such that each section deals with a different aspect
of the question
• Each section of the essay, each paragraph of your
text, should make the argument move forward
• Add ‘flesh’: by adding to each section some of the
raw material mentioned in Phase 1b

Writing Up – 1
Phase 3 - Writing the assignment
Produce an initial draft and carefully read it through asking yourself the
following questions:
• The question – have I answered it?
• Have I read the work critically?
• Have I written in an objective style?
• Is there a good balance between discussion and factual detail?
• Does my evidence support the general arguments?
• Are the references correct, and is the bibliography accurate?
• Could the writing style be improved?
• Has anything important been left out?
• Does the conclusion show how I have answered the question?

Writing Up – 2
Phase 3 - Writing the assignment (contd)
• Continue to edit your draft until you are satisfied that it meets
the requirements
• Proof read the final draft looking for spelling errors and, if
using a spell checker, incorrect words that are spelt correctly,
e.g., ‘their’ and ‘there’
• It is a good idea to work backwards word by word to avoid
skim-reading
• Be aware of mistakes that you make regularly and check for
them

Sustained Revision – 1
Preparation for exams
• The best way to increase confidence and reduce anxiety
is to be well prepared, so start your revision in good time
• Reflect on the ideas in the ‘Time-Management’ unit
• Your aim is to get to grips with important aspects of your
subject:
− divide the material into topics, themes or ideas that you can
learn separately
− link them together
− look out for particular techniques or processes that you need to
know

Preparation for exams (contd)
• Active revision is better than passive revision:
− Make notes during your reading
− Summarise your notes
− Attempt questions
• remember course material
• plan your answer
• write your answer
• check your answer
• Try to develop a positive frame of mind about
exams, they offer an opportunity to show what you
can do!

Revision Techniques
• Index cards, mind maps and notes
− Use to record key points
− Incorporate pictures, colour, highlighting
• Learning posters and visual material
− Use pattern, colour, symbols and drawings
− Cover key points and topics
− Develop diagrams for your course if relevant
− Pin them up where you’ll see them often
• Key words, phrases, themes or concepts
− Use the course introductions, summaries, key questions to
discover what’s key in each block
− Use two or three sentences to define, add course examples and
diagram if relevant

Revision Techniques (contd)
• Summary tables or grids
− Compare or evaluate competing theories or key people
• Teach someone
− Teach a topic to a fellow student or a friend
− Thinking it through is effective revision
− Fill in the gaps in your knowledge as you identify them
• Reinforce your memory
− As you end a revision session, review key points
− Review again regularly
Source: The Open University,
http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/documents/revision-techniques.rtf

Coping with anxiety
Anxiety is normal and inevitable at exam time. If you become very
anxious, try one of the following:
• Relaxation: anything that helps you to relax
• Distraction: anything which takes your mind off your
anxieties, for example, TV, cinema, a good novel, sport or
exercise
• Think positively: concentrate on what you have learned
rather than how little you know, how you will fail, etc.

Effective Presentations – 1
Agenda
• Introduction
− Oral communication
− The presentation process
• Aims and objectives
• The audience
• Structure
• The script
• Visual aids
• Rehearsing
• The venue
• Delivery

“Clarity of oral communication and well-
developed interpersonal skills, when
interacting in a group or one-to-one, are
attributes that make us more successful
students, professionals and all round
communicators”.
LearnHigher: Oral Communication Homepage, Brunel University
http://www.brunel.ac.uk/learnhigher/oral-com-index.shtml

Oral Communication
• The objective of oral communication is:
− not the transmission but the reception;
− to make the message understood and remembered.
• The presentation must be geared to the audience, not the speaker
• The main challenge with this objective is the people to whom you are
talking
• The average human being has a very short attention span and many
other things to think about
• Your job is to reach through this mental fog and to hold their
attention long enough to make your point

The Presentation Process
• Setting your aims and objectives
• Researching your audience
• Choosing a presentation structure
• Preparing the scripts
• Preparing visual aids
• Rehearsing
• Preparing the venue
• Delivering the presentation

Aims and Objectives:
• Be clear about the purpose of your presentation to
help you decide what to include or omit, and what
approach to use:
− if to inform or explain, have a logical order and use
examples and analogies
− if to persuade, be convincing, use evidence and show
enthusiasm
• Consider also your audience's objectives:
− why do they want to listen to your presentation?
− what are they hoping to gain from listening to you?

The Audience:
Knowing your audience helps you to correctly pitch your presentation.
Ask yourself the following questions:
• Who are they?
• What are their reasons for attending?
• How many are likely to be present?
• What sort of people – age, education, status?
• What do they already know about the subject?
• What are their likely attitudes/biases?
With answers to these questions you can now decide on the content of
your presentation knowing that it will be of interest to the audience.

The Structure:
To be truly effective, a presentation must be more than the sum of
its parts. Achieving that means having the right parts in the right
order.
A clear structure will:
• allow the audience to understand your main themes
• give the feeling that it has been a worthwhile experience
However, the structure must not obstruct the main message. A too
complex structure will distract the audience.
The simplest structure is the ‘beginning-middle-end’ format.

The Beginning:
• Arguably, the most important part of the
presentation
• A poor start will adversely impact on the
presenter’s credibility
• Once this happens it is difficult to recover
• It is therefore essential to plan your beginning
carefully
• There are five main elements ….

• Get the attention of the audience
− You only have a limited time and every minute is precious to
you so, from the beginning, make sure they pay attention.
• Establish a theme
− State your main objective to start the audience thinking about
the subject matter of your presentation.
• Present a structure
− Explain briefly how the presentation will proceed so the
audience will know what to expect.
• Create a rapport
− If you can win the audience over in the first minute, you will
keep them for the remainder.
• Administration
− Announce any administrative details so the audience is
prepared for subsequent activities (lunch!).

The Middle:
• This section should add detail to the objectives stated at the
start
• Here you will clarify your subject and develop your arguments
in a logical fashion
• Use anecdotes and real examples to highlight your points
• Use visual aids to help clarify difficult points
• This also breaks up the presentation and allows the audience
to concentrate on something other than the speaker

The End:
• The final impression you make is the one the audience will
remember
• Don’t tell the audience that it is going to be a summary - they will
simply switch off
• As with the beginning, it is necessary first to get their attention,
which may have wandered. Do this by either:
− changing the pace of your delivery, or
− displaying a new visual aid, or
− introducing a concluding idea. But do not introduce new
information
• Plan your last few sentences with extreme care
• Conclude with a review of the main points of your presentation
• Thank the audience and, if appropriate, invite questions

Visual Aids
Visual aids significantly improve the interest of a presentation. However,
it is important not to overwhelm your audience. Points to bear in mind
include:
• Use visuals for:
− complex interrelated ideas
− persuasive communication
− points you want the audience to remember
• Words can be given visual impact by means of:
− Underlining, boxes and circles
− bullets
− careful layout
− use of space
• Don't overcomplicate - the audience must understand every aid you use by
the time you have finished with it

The Script:
If preparing for your first presentation it may be helpful to write out the
whole script. This has the following benefits:
• It helps judge whether the presentation matches the time you have
been given;
• It is a good way to get your creative thinking going;
• It enables you to experiment with the types of spoken word you
plan to use;
• It is a useful way of interacting with the presentation content and
committing it to memory.

The Script (contd):
• A script which is read aloud loses the conversational tone of
natural speech
• Use your script to rehearse, and for reassurance
• Learn what you are going to say by exploring various different
ways of saying it
• Practice presenting to yourself or to friends or family
• Create brief notes or cards, to remind yourself of the main
headings

Rehearsing
• Rehearsals are important for the following reasons:
− help you to overcome nerves and boost your confidence
− you improve your knowledge of the subject matter
− help you to decide on appropriate words and phrases
− enable you to adjust the presentation to fit the time allowed
• Rehearse before an audience if possible - one person is often enough
• Ask for feedback on:
− clarity of your voice
− legibility of your visual aids
− technical terms and jargon which may need further explanation
• Think about questions that may be asked and prepare your answers

The Venue
Your presentation can be influenced by the location and seating
arrangement. Familiarise yourself with the room in advance and check
the following:
• the audience can sit together and will clearly see and hear you
• sit in the audience space to get an idea of the lines of sight
• adjust the lighting so that your visual aids will be seen
• make sure you are able to communicate effectively from your position
• listen for external noises that may disrupt your presentation
• ensure you have all the equipment you need
• practice using any unfamiliar equipment or get help from a technician
• adjust the room temperature if necessary

Mehrabian's communications model:
• statistic for the effectiveness of spoken communications:
Words that
are spoken
7%
The way that the
words are said
38%Facial expression
55%
Adapted from Mehrabian, Albert, and Ferris, Susan R. “Inference of Attitudes from Nonverbal Communication in Two Channels,”
Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 3, June 1967, pp. 248-258

Body Language
• Mehrabian’s theory is particularly useful in explaining the
importance of meaning, as distinct from words, i.e.:
• A significant amount of information is transmitted by non-
verbal communication.
• Without seeing and hearing non-verbals, it is easier to
misunderstand the words.
• When we are unsure about words and when we trust the
other person less, we pay more attention to what we hear and
see.

Body Language Dos and Don’ts
Do:
• Stand up straight and face the audience head-on
• Use your hands to emphasise and reinforce your points
• Vary your gestures and positioning
• Nod your head occasionally and smile to emphasise what you are saying
• Aim to make eye contact with all members of the audience
Don’t:
• Put your hand or your notes over your mouth
• Stand stationary or hide behind equipment/furniture
• Constantly rub your nose, ear, chin etc.
• Play with jewellery, your hair, and /or coins and keys in your pockets
• Cross your arms or legs
• Speak to your notes or to the screen or flip chart, with your head turned away from
the audience

Vocal
Here are three important aspects of your voice to be aware of and to develop:
Volume
• It is essential that everyone can hear what you are saying
• Do a sound check before you start
• Ask the audience if they can hear you once you begin
• Arrange to use a microphone if necessary
Pace
• Aim to speak at an even pace that is comfortable to listen to
• Emphasise the importance of key points by deliberately pausing at
them
Tone
• Modulate your tone to emphasise key words
• Use tone to convey enthusiasm for your topic
• Do not deliver in a monotone!

Interacting with the audience
Research has shown that people make up their minds what they think
about you within the first minute, so if you give the wrong impression at
first it will be hard to overcome this.
• At the start, greet the audience and tell them who you are
• Try asking them a question at the beginning of your presentation and get a
show of hands. This has three main benefits:
− It allows you to gauge the audience's opinion and/or understanding of
the topic
− It encourages the audience to actively engage with your topic rather
than remain passive
− It shows the audience that you are interested in their opinion

Interacting with the audience (contd)
• Maintain eye contact with the audience but don't fix on an individual
– it can be intimidating.
• In larger rooms, pitch your presentation towards the back of the
audience.
• Check if the audience is still with you by asking:
− “Does that make sense?” or
− “Is that clear?”
• Keep an eye on the audience's body language. Know when to stop.
• Even if the time available to you is brief, leave a few minutes for
people to ask questions.
• Prepare some points for discussion to use in case there are no
questions.

Listening Skills – 1
Agenda
• Introduction
• Hearing
• Listening
• Active Listening
• Effective Listening

“Learn how to listen and you will prosper even from those who talk
badly”.
Plutarch (A.D. 46 - 120). Greek biographer and philosopher
“ The reason history repeats itself is because no-one was listening
the first time”.
Anonymous
“Listening involves being ‘on the lookout for signals and willing to
spend time needed to listen and build understanding, deliberately
holding back our own thoughts, which would divert or compete with
the other’s”.(Torrington 1991)
Torrington, D. (1991) Management Face to Face, London: Prentice Hall

Parker and Weathers (1985) report the following
breakdown of communication activities in a learning
situation:
• Listening: 45%
• Talking: 30%
• Reading: 16%
• Writing: 9%
Weathers, Janet L. and John R Parker (1985). The Student Success
Workbook. La Crescenta CA: Student Success

Much of the material of this course will
be imparted by verbal communication –
by your lecturer, colleagues, and those
you contact for information to complete
assignments.
NOTE: hearing what is said is not the
same as listening to what is said

Hearing: To perceive or apprehend by the ear
Contextually:
• Simply receiving the words which can become only
‘sounds’.
• Not trying to understand or get below the surface.
• Giving only peremptory attention.
• Not absorbing feelings or taking in any new
information.

Listening: to hear something with thoughtful attention.
Contextually:
• To really key in to what the person is saying and
not saying.
• To look for the meaning and the feelings behind
what is being said.
• To go beyond the words.
• To give all your attention.

Listening:
• Is a cognitive act;
• Requires you to pay attention and …
• Think about and mentally process what
you hear.
To benefit from your investment in this course it is necessary to
engage in active and effective listening.

What is Active Listening?
It ensures that you not only listen to the other person but also that the
other person knows that you are listening to what he/she is saying.
Generally, there are five elements:
• Pay attention
− The speaker should have your undivided attention
• Show that you are listening
− Use body language, verbal encouragers and gestures to
convey your attention

What is Active Listening? (contd)
• Provide feedback
− Reflect on what is being said and ask questions
• Defer judgment
− Set aside your own views or opinions until after
the speaker has finished
• Respond appropriately
− You add nothing by attacking the speaker or
otherwise putting him/her down

What is Effective Listening? (classroom)
Technique Poor listeners Effective listeners
1
Choose to find the subject
useful
Dismiss lectures as dull and
irrelevant
Choose to listen to discover new
knowledge
2
Concentrate on the words and
message
Notice faults in a lecturer’s
appearance or delivery
Endeavour to pick every
professor’s brain for self-gain
3
React slowly and thoughtfully to
things you may not agree with
Stop listening to the lecturer and
start listening to themselves
Keep conclusions tentative whilst
getting more information
4
Identify the fundamental
concepts on which the lecture
is based
Listen only for facts
Grab key ideas and use them as
anchor points for the entire
lecture
5
Adopt an appropriate note-
taking system
Attempt to outline everything and
become frustrated when they
cannot see the major points
Adjust their note-taking to the
lecturer's organisational pattern

What is Effective Listening? (classroom contd)
6 Stay attentive Let their minds wander
Remain focused and
actively try to absorb
material
7
Aggressively tackle
new material
When encountering a
tough topic, they stop
absorbing and let
things bounce off them
Despite the difficulty,
they find a challenge
in grasping the
meaning of what is
being said
8
Dot get put off by
emotionally
charged ‘buzz’
words that trigger
negative responses
Reject what is being said
on the basis of a few
words
Disregard to the
emotional aspects in
order to get to the
substance of a
lecture
9
Get to know the
professor
personally
See professors as talking
heads
Like to pick up
interesting facts
about professors

What is Effective Listening? (classroom contd)
10
Be aware of and use
the differential*
between the speed
of speaking and
that of thinking
Drift back and forth
between a lecture and
thoughts about other
things
Use thinking/speaking
differential in three ways:
1. Try to anticipate the next
point
2. Evaluate the lecturer’s
evidence
3. Periodically summarise
the lecture to themselves
Source: Howard Culbertson, Southern Nazarene University, Bethany, OK. http://home.snu.edu/~HCULBERT/listen.htm
* Thoughts are about four times as fast as speech. With practice, while you
are listening you will also be able to think about what you are hearing,
really understand it, and give feedback.

Taking Notes – 1
Agenda
• Introduction
• Pre-lecture preparation
• Taking notes during lectures
• Post-lecture revision and additions

Taking Notes – 2
Few people realise how quickly memory fades.
A University of Texas study on memory has
shown that, without review, 47% of what a
person has just learned is forgotten in the first
twenty minutes and 62% is forgotten after the
first day. Therefore, having good lecture notes
to review can determine how well you are able
to perform in your studies.

Taking Notes – 3
Why is note-taking important?
Good lecture notes record the meaning of the lecture, its general
direction and points for further study. In particular they will:
• guide your study and review for assessments
• assist comprehension and later recall of content
• act as a check for understanding
• improve your ability to organise
• improve your active listening skills
• give you the confidence to feel more in control of your studies

Taking Notes – 4
Making effective use of pre-lecture notes
You have been issued with copies of these visuals as lecture
notes. Make use of them in the following way:
• Go through them carefully before the lecture and highlight
important information – use supporting textbooks as your
guide.
• Ask yourself questions:
− What is the topic mainly about?
− How does this fit into the previous work?
− What do I think the focus of the lecture will be about?

Taking Notes – 5
Making effective use of pre-lecture notes
• Annotate them with your own comments or
questions
• Highlight key terminology (put a definition
alongside if necessary)
• Scan them into your computer and
customise the layout so that you can add
your own notes during the lecture

Taking Notes – 6
How to take notes in lectures
• Sit where you will maintain attention throughout the lecture
• Watch and listen for verbal and non-verbal cues from the lecturer
• Use a suitable form of organising your notes. See:
http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/notetaking3.html
• Use effective note-taking techniques:
− Listen and note key points and supporting details
− Become familiar with the organisational pattern of the lecture
− Focus on understanding key ideas
− Do not try to take down every word

Taking Notes – 7
Recording lectures
IMPORTANT: First attain the lecturer’s permission
• Recording can be useful because it achieves two things at
once:
− you have a record of the lecture if memory overload and
keeping up is a problem;
− you can use it at a later date for revision purposes.
• You can always record and take down notes as a back-up.
• A disadvantage with recording is the time involved in
transcribing the lecture into your own notes.

Taking Notes – 8
Identifying what is important
Lecturers usually give clues to what is important to take down.
The more common clues are:
• Material written on the board
• Repetition
• Emphasis, which can be judged by:
− the tone of voice and gesture
− the amount of time spent on points and the number of examples
he or she uses

Taking Notes – 9
Identifying what is important (contd)
• Word signals, for example:
− "There are two points of view on . . . “
− "The third reason is . . . “
− " In conclusion . . . "
• Summaries given at the end of the lecture.
• Reviews given at the beginning of the lecture.

Taking Notes – 10
Using notes after the lecture
• Revise your lecture notes
• Read through the suggested reading material for the topic
• Make additional notes and summaries of important ideas
• Prepare tutorial material
• Ask questions in tutorials on information not understood from the
lectures
• Find opportunities to talk about the subject with other students
• Meet with the tutor during consultation times for clarification

Working in Teams – 1
Agenda
• Introduction
• Becoming team players
• Team constitution and roles
• Setting ground rules and guidelines
• Team progression, tasking and planning
• Peer assessment

What is a team?
A team is a group of individuals working together to achieve a
common goal. In particular:
• the task is split into parts appropriate to each individual's talents
• team members are mutually accountable for completing the task
• cooperation is essential to the overall success of the group
• generate positive synergy through coordination of effort
Given this definition, ‘group’, is regarded as a generic term and
‘team’ as task specific. Therefore, in order for teams to work well,
they need to understand how people work in groups.

Difference between team and group
• Group: two or more individuals who interact with one another to
accomplish a goal.
• Team: a group who work intensively with each other to achieve a
specific common goal.
Group Team
Goal Share information Collective performance
Synergy Neutral Positive
Accountability Individual Individual and mutual
Skill Random and varied Complementary

Why work in teams?
There are several good reasons:
• Employers value abilities for functioning effectively in teams.
− “In today's organisation, technical competence only gets you up to the starting line.
High-performance relationship management is the critical skill which allows you to
go the distance.” 1
• Research shows that we all learn effectively from each other. Hence,
your teams should focus on helping each other to learn.
• Teams are much more effective than individuals for work on complex
projects.
• Teamwork develops your interpersonal skills in coping with conflict.
This aids your personal development and your non-work-related
relationships.
1. Interpersonal Skills Laboratory [Online]. http://www.interpersonal-skills.com

Achieve Task
Build team
IndividualIndividual
needsneeds
Defining the task
Making a plan
Allocating work and
resources
Controlling quality and
tempo of work
Checking performance
against plan
Adjusting plan
Attending to personal
problems/issues
Valuing individuals
Recognising and using
individual abilities
Training/helping the
individual
Setting standards
Maintaining discipline
Building team spirit
Encouraging, motivating,
giving sense of purpose
Appointing roles
Ensuring communication
within the group
How Teams Function
(Adair 1986)
Achieving the task is the focus
of academic projects. To do
that effectively you will need:
• to develop the group;
• to take care of individuals
within that group;
• to identify team roles to
make this happen.
Adair, John (1986) Effective Team Building, Aldershot:
Gower

Becoming Team Players
Teams generally go through five stages of development:
Forming (orientation)
• A mixture of positive expectations and anxiety.
• An energetic period, focusing on the task ahead.
Storming (dissatisfaction/conflict)
• A period of adjustment to how the team operates.
• This stage needs to be carefully managed.

Becoming Team Players (contd)
Norming (resolution/cooperation)
• Settling down, resolution of differences and making adjustments.
• Respect, harmony and trust are developing, giving all a sense of self
esteem.
Performing (productivity)
• Team members feel confident, work well together, can speak openly.
• Task is being achieved by joint effort.
Adjourning (disengagement/dissolution)
• Goals met, team no longer needed.
• Termination of task behaviours.
• Disengagement from relation-oriented behaviours.

Team Constitution
A team comprises individuals with their own personalities, each person will
contribute to the team in different ways and develop different roles.
• Action Person:
− Likes to get on with things.
− Extrovert and may appear a bit bossy.
• Thinker:
− Works things out first.
− Introvert and prefers to work alone first before acting.
− Not a good communicator.
• People Person:
− Aware of how people are doing in the team.
− Enjoys the company of other people.
− Good communicator.

Team Roles
• Coordinator/Leader:
− Creates common purpose.
− Provides communication and vision.
− Clarifies objectives.
− Ensures that everybody is involved, committed and motivated.
− Coordinates the efforts of the team.
− Ensures that decisions are made and the team makes progress.
• Thinker:
− Collects and analyses information.
− Listens to what is being said and watches what is going on.
− Is sometimes quiet before contributing ideas.
− Thinks through the problem.
− Sees solutions, anticipates problems.

Team Roles (contd)
• Achiever:
− Wants to succeed and strives for results.
− Likes to progress towards the goal quickly.
− Becomes impatient with delays.
− Challenges assumptions and proposes improvements.
− Has lots of enthusiasm.
− Questions complacency.
• Carer:
− Is concerned that everybody is fitting in.
− Contributes humour and builds bridges around the team.
− Works to develop a team spirit.
− Keen to get everyone to agree.
− Watches out for feelings and attitudes.
− Eases tension and fosters a positive spirit.

Team Roles (contd)
• Doer:
− Always wants to be active.
− Prepared to get involved to help others.
− Likes to see progress and adherence to plans.
− Becomes bored with too much discussion.
− Dislikes time wasting.
− Works hard to finish the task.

Project Teams
For some assignments, teamwork is a requirement of this course. You
will therefore have to work at being a team as follows:
• Get to know yourself and the individuals that make up your team (a
tutorial will cover this).
• Set ground rules.
• Develop a team spirit - take time to be a team.
• Analyse and understand the assignment given, develop a plan and
get organised.
• Maintain the team: reflect on your own contribution and how the
team is working as you go through the forming-storming-norming-
peforming stages – you will need to use the ground rules here.

Setting Ground Rules
Two important first steps to creating effective teams are to set out a clear
set of guidelines for team functioning and to have the members formulate
a common set of expectations of one another.
• Team Policies Statement:
− provides guidance on effective team functioning
− outlines different team roles
− defines the responsibilities that go with each role
− procedures for working on and submitting assignments
− agrees strategies for dealing with uncooperative team members

Setting Ground Rules (contd)
• Team Expectations Agreement - serves two purposes:
− it unites the team with a common set of realistic expectations
that the members generate and agree to honour
− it serves as a ‘quasi legal document’ to prevent students from
making invalid claims about what they were supposed to do.
Research has shown that commitments made in public are less likely to be violated (Salacik &
Pfeffer, 1978).
Salacik, G. R., & Pfeffer, J. (1978). A social information processing approach to job attitudes
and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 224-253.

Team Expectations Agreement - Guidelines
What do working agreements look like?
Hackmann (2002) suggests that only two sets of working agreements are
fundamentally necessary in a team:
• All team members to keep scanning the environment for signs that
mean the team needs to change its approach to the task.
• A basic list of key ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’, for example (not exhaustive):
− preparation for and attendance at group meetings;
− making sure everyone understands all the solutions;
− communicating frankly but with respect when conflicts arise, etc.
Each team member should sign the sheet, indicating acceptance of
these expectations and intention to fulfill them.
Hackmann R L (2002) Leading Teams. Harvard Business School Press.

Understand the task and develop a plan
Overview:
• As a team, analyse the task you have to do.
• Ensure each team member understands what has
to be done.
• Keep notes on the team’s progress and
performance.

Understand the task and develop a plan (contd)
• Create a plan so you can clearly see each team member’s
contributions. The plan should include:
− a title for the project;
− a list of team members;
− clear statement of goals, the tasks to be completed, and by
whom;
− list of sub-tasks (with names);
− the deadline for submission;
− a time frame for each task (your milestones);
− presentation format (how the group should prepare material).
• Be prepared to adjust your plan as the team develops.

Maintaining the team
It is important to be alert to how the team is progressing. To
ensure the team is at its most effective the following should be in
place.
• Procedures for:
− communicating
− monitoring progress
− addressing problems (with tasks or people)
• Regular checks on timing.
• Ensuring you are all working towards the plan.
• Agreed schedules on meeting times and venues.

Peer Assessment – 1
Introduction
• A ‘Frequently Asked Questions’ about teams is how team
assignments can be graded.
• Often, the same grade is given to each team member.
• This conflicts with the principle of individual accountability in teams
(Team Agreement).
• It may also reward and even encourage ‘free riders’ by some team
members.
• It remains therefore, that determining individual grades for team
assignments is a challenging task.
• One approach to obtaining information that may be helpful is Peer
Assessment.

Extract from the QAA Codes of Practice
… students are likely to find it helpful to receive constructive comments on their
work from a range of sources including teachers, personal tutors, peers and,
where appropriate, practitioners.
Examples of assessment that support student learning include:
… the use of peer assessed activities during formal teaching sessions where
students, either in pairs or groups, comment constructively on one another's work.
This technique enables students to understand assessment criteria and deepens
their learning in several ways, including:
• learning from the way others have approached an assessment task (structure,
content, analysis)
• learning through assessing someone else's work, which encourages them to
evaluate and benchmark their own performance and to improve it
QAA Code of practice for the assurance of academic quality and standards in higher
education
Section 6: Assessment of students - September 2006

What is Peer Assessment?
An innovative form of assessment where students are involved in
the assessment of the work of other students.
Students must have a clear understanding of what they are to
look for in their peers' work.
How may it be used?
• There is general agreement that, given clear criteria, it is appropriate
in formative assessment if performed in a cooperative rather than
competitive context
• There is less of a consensus of its value in summative assessment
unless results are moderated by the tutor

Potential advantages for students:
• receive critical appraisals of, and feedback on, their own work
• engage positively with the assessment criteria
• take responsibility for their own learning, developing them as
autonomous learners
• treating assessment as part of learning, so that mistakes become
opportunities (for improvement) rather than failures
• developing the transferable skills needed for lifelong learning, i.e.:
− supporting group interaction
− supporting group, self and peer reflection
− aiding development of the skill of judgement
− encouraging thorough rather than superficial learning

Principles of giving good feedback:
Principle Reason why
Be descriptive rather than evaluative [report what you see,
rather than an opinion]
If you just state what you see, it prevents the receiver from being
defensive
Be specific rather than general
A rather vague comment is very difficult to use. If you take a
concrete example of an issue it is much easier to deal with
Be honest, but sensitive
You are not there to give feedback to show how much you know –
always think of the needs of the receiver. If it is too insensitive,
it can be destructive
Be constructive
This means dealing with issues that the receiver can do
something about
Let receiver elicit some feedback Ask the receiver what they would like feedback on
Be timely For feedback to be of use, it has to come at the right time
Feedback must be clear
It may be good for the receiver to note down and possibly
rephrase it in their own way
Source: http://www.studyskills.soton.ac.uk/studyguides/Working%20in%20Groups.doc

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