1. Reviving Traditions of the Past: A Project Model to Prevent Type 2 Diabetes on
Native American Reservations in South Dakota
Ashley Propes
Food and Foodways CSP620
Rita Moonsammy
May 27th, 2013

2. Propes 2
Children ran around the dusted sidewalks yanking on their parents, elderly
shuffled forward with their walking sticks and persevering mothers proved their
patience. All generations were aligned outside of a small abandoned building
waiting for boxes of commodities. The blistering sun beat down and the line leading
up to the building only grew longer into the late afternoon.
Every week I shadowed a counselor to the Crow Creek reservation and after
her sessions she would drive her clients to pick up their commodities box. Each
week she drove a woman coming from her dialysis treatment, a man who did not
have a home to put his food in, and two women who claimed their home among two
hollowed out trees. All of these individuals were also all coping with type 2 diabetes.
Upon receiving their commodities we would all look inside to see what was on the
menu. More often than not we found processed and canned foods with low
nutritional values. I wondered how it felt to stand in line waiting for a box full of
food someone else decided upon for you, decided you should wait in line for, and
decided you were eligible for. It was September of 2012 and as I looked at the line of
patient individuals I asked myself; is this progression, is this tolerable to the ideals
of freedom and justice for all?
The roads stretch just far enough out of sight to be out of mind for citizens
that encircle the lands around both the Crow Creek and Rosebud Native American
reservations in South Dakota. Having driven these roads week after week with the
intentions of providing assistance to a community in need, I found myself disturbed,
perplexed, and most of all in question of the spatial limitations placing the great
ancestors of our nation so far out of reach. Over the past two years I have spent

3. Propes 3
numerous hours with both Lakota and Dakota communities of South Dakota and am
dazed by the shocking events their communities face on a daily basis. My exposure
has led to more questions with fewer answers of how, why, and what can be done to
stop such expansive issues of social injustice.
It is my intention to create a project model concerning the health issues of
type 2 diabetes found on reservations by acknowledging the physical complications
as well as the social issues that have interrupted the health of an entire nation. In
explaining and proposing my project model I seek to address the past, the present,
and the future of the communities of the Rosebud and Crow Creek reservations.
Through a revitalized relationship with food and tradition I believe it is possible to
prevent greater health issues and in return mend a disrupted social structure that
once thrived out of order and balance.
First I look to the concept of interrelatedness as a powerful and ruling theme
for the Great Plains reservations. Mitakuyue oyasin; a Lakota phrase meaning “to all
my relations.” The value of this relationship goes beyond human-to-human
relations; it is an interconnection to the plants, animals, earth, skies, winds, sun,
moon, and stars. Lewis Hyde’s discussion on the systems of cycles examines how
ecology is a natural cycle of life, encompassing plants, animals and the sun. Hyde
states, “widening the study of ecology to include man means to look at ourselves as a
part of nature again, not its lord.”1 The ideals of Native Americans are deeply rooted
in recurring life of all plants and animals together with respect for using all parts of
their borrowed food from the earth.

4. Propes 4
Native Americans of the Great Plains never believed in owning land or
borrowing more from the earth than they could return. The reciprocal relationships
born from these cycles allowed for a self-sustained culture to endure the world it
participated in. Western perspectives failed to acknowledge the cultural differences
between the two nations. Nineteenth-century removal and reservation policies
placed Indians on remote lands with little economic value.2 This not only separated
them from the colonizing states, it separated them from their sacred spaces. Lakota
culture has an embedded relationship to the earth formed from the belief of sacred
places.3 Independent scholar and Dakota Native American, Angela Wilson states:
As a consequence of colonization, health conditions among Indigenous
populations have dramatically deteriorated, and we are suffering from an
onslaught of diet- and lifestyle- related diseases threatening to destroy us.
Loss of land base and destruction of ecosystems, combined with the
imposition of the colonizer's diet and lifestyle through government boarding
schools and commodities programs, have left Indigenous populations
debilitated with what scholars have termed "Western diseases.”4
One of the greatest concerns facing Native Americans on reservations today
is the ailment of type 2 diabetes. The U.S population is estimated to have 6.2 percent
of it’s population, or 17 million Americans diagnosed with diabetes whereas 30
percent of Native Americans are diagnosed with diabetes and are 25 percent more
likely to develop diabetes than non-Natives.5 Diabetes is a condition in which there
is a continued impairment of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism due to a
lack or nonexistence of insulin.6 Symptoms of diabetes can include unsatisfied thirst,

5. Propes 5
constant hunger, ulcers of the skin, walking pains, fatigue, a constant urge to urinate,
numbness or tingling of feet and hands, slow healing cuts or injuries, blurred vision,
headaches, and above average blood pressure.7
Diabetes was a rare diagnosis within Native American populations until the
1930’s, but is now diagnosed in epidemic proportions and is largely attributed to
the growing prevalence of obesity.8 Type 2 diabetes is not the only health risk
related to obesity. With the prevention of obesity issues of cardio vascular disease,
hypertriglyceridemia, low HDL cholesterol and endometrial cancer in women,
colorectal cancer in men, and rates of adverse pregnancy outcomes are shown to
lower in Native Americans.9 According to evidence from research with the
Seminoles and other Native American populations, the epidemic of diabetes can be
reversed through modifications of behaviors and environments that predispose and
precipitate diabetes.10 The idea of completely reversing the effects of diabetes is
controversial and is most often described as preventing further complications and
implications of the disease rather than the disease itself.
In understanding how to create a project model to benefit and prevent Native
communities from developing type 2 diabetes, it is important to understand the
history of policies and health care systems surrounding them. Native American
scholar Edward Valandra researches Native worldviews as frameworks for
understanding modern complexities surrounding the underdeveloped nations. He
examines how contradictions toward Native sovereignty manifest within the
complexities of U.S. Indian policy; constantly creating unbalanced economic
environments for tribal self-government.11 Valandra uses the Lakota as a case study

6. Propes 6
in his research to shed light on how Western standards are the primary models
placed on Native Americans when creating economic structures and policies.
Reviewing political trends within this arena of economic structure illuminates how
Western perspective negates to reflect on or promote the worldviews and
experiences of the Lakota community.12
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Native Americans were self-governed in
accordance to the values and customs of their culture.13 Policies placed on sovereign
nations have rearranged the systems of daily life for a nation that once freely
roamed the prairies in search of their center of life; the buffalo. Author of Indigenous
Nutrition: Using Traditional Knowledge to Solve Contemporary Health Problems
Michael Milburn states:
Indigenous nutritional knowledge emerges from Indigenous science with its
distinct “ways of knowing” and integrated, holistic worldview. Traditional
food- ways are based on an intimate and spiritual connection to the land and
entail a reciprocal relationship that must be actively maintained.14
Milburn’s connection to the distinct “ways of knowing” for indigenous
populations is a key factor in progressing forward with addressing such an immense
and invasive issue such as type 2 diabetes.
The General Allotment Act of 1887 was a key policy in the course of history
for Native Americans regarding food regulations and distributions that curved their
cultural traditions and diets drastically. The General Allotment Act or Dawes Act
was a push from the federal government for Native Americans to participate in
Western culture, including agriculture and developing allotted land into farms.

7. Propes 7
Efforts to promote farming failed and the years following the passing of the Dawes
Act show consistent declines in the land available for future development on
reservations.15 The Plains tribes developed an economic system by the eighteenth
century based off the use of the horse in bison hunts, prior to the introduction of the
horse they were primarily hunter gathers.16 Bison herds were extinguished from the
Plains in the 1870’s, at the same time other traditional foods were eliminated by the
army, trappers, and white settlers.17 The switch from hunting to farming was an
extreme shift in livelihood for both the Lakota and Dakota and had little success
with the passing of the Dawes Act. The loss of the buffalo or tatanka (Lakota for
buffalo) is to this day a great sadness to the Great Plains Native Americans as it
represented their ancestor and a gift from the Great Spirit.18 They believed the
buffalo sustained all life and following the buffalo was important; permanence was
not.19 The Dawes Act disregarded the importance of following the seasons, the
animals and the cycles of the traveling nomadic tribes.
Today the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is responsible for
the food and nutrition polices in the United States and deals with inherent conflicts
between agribusiness and public health.20 Beginning in the 1930’s the government
began what are generally referred to as commodity programs, as a way to prevent
malnutrition and help American farmers after the Great Depression. Senate reports
from 1977 list the commodities that were distributed on all Native American
reservations that year. The items listed for Rosebud and Crow Creek were similar
and included corn syrup, beans, canned boned poultry, peanut butter, evaporated
milk, beans, butter, cheese, egg mix, instant nonfat dry milk, rice, prunes, apple juice,

8. Propes 8
dehydrated potatoes, and other items that were far from traditional.21 Most of these
items are high in fat and carbohydrates with little traditional food for Native
Americans to use in their cooking. When I asked elders of the communities what
their commodities included when they were younger, they mentioned that it was
much the same as it was in the 1970’s and has most recently changed from the
beans, rice, and canned meat to packaged and instant foods. Access to grocery stores
and markets have been limited on both reservations until recent years, making it
difficult to access food outside of the food distribution programs. In the 1970’s food
stamps became a second option, however this did not mean a change in bettered
nutritional food choices, it merely meant a second option for dependence on the U.S
government. While the government phased out the rest of the countries
commodities programs in the 1970’s, reservations continued receiving them due to
their remote access to social services and eligible shopping centers. Currently
enrolled tribal members may only choose one of the two programs and can only
participate in the assistive programs if they are eligible.
Issues of limited food choice are important factors in both communities as
they have created their own form of suppression and cultural constructs throughout
time. Traditional foods and foodways have been lost through the reconstruction of
the way in which Native Americans nourish themselves and depend on their natural
ecologies. Systems that once worked together have been forgotten or unused and in
return an epidemic of health concerns have formed. For example one of the main
foods both the Lakota and Dakota communities claim as traditional is fry bread. Fry
bread can be more accurately described as fried bread because it is most often flour

9. Propes 9
and butter (lard) fried in oil. Fry bread has been around for a few centuries but was
not a traditional food for Native Americans, as wheat was not brought to the New
World until 1602.22 Fry bread is high in fat and carbohydrates and low in nutritional
value, especially in the act of preventing diabetes.
My participation with both the Crow Creek and Rosebud communities has
proven difficult in many ways and often times felt like an entangled web of
dilemmas. Individuals rely on both commodity programs and food stamps to get
them through each passing week or month and most often are still hungry for more.
Having participated with a meals on wheels program last year I witnessed many
disconnects with nonprofit organizations aiming to help feed the community of the
Crow Creek reservation. Their intentions were good, but week after week they
would distribute frozen foods to the homeless, sugary sodas to children, and packs
of chips to the elderly. The question of hunger strikes you on reservations, but I was
stuck asking myself how is the community going to overcome diabetes when this is
happening? In trying to understand what the emotions were for individuals
standing in line I asked a community member how she felt about the nutrition of the
food as I handed her an egg salad sandwich from our meals on wheels program. She
expressed that she was thankful for food but realized she was often times eating
food that was not good for her diabetes, her heart, or her teeth.
The communities suffer with oppression from the outside world and
oppression from their own community. A personal friend, member of the Dakota =
and social activist stated, “We need people to understand that the oppression is so
severe the oppressed are oppressing one another.” She also describes the youth’s

10. Propes 10
desire to be anything but native saying they are taking on identities of African
Americans and Hispanics before claiming their own. I look to this phenomenon as a
result of the misplaced policies and continued suppression of Native Americans
from the dominant culture:
Like colonized groups throughout the world, American Indian people learned
and internalized the discursive practices of the West --- the very codes that
created, reflected, and reproduced our oppression.23
Internalized oppression fosters co-occurring expressions within the
individuals who are oppressed. Pain, grief, depression, anxiety, drug and alcohol
abuse and suicide are all indicators of the internally oppressed individual.24 When a
culture is dealing with a whole community infected with internal oppression, it is
time for a revolution from within. Food and nutrition can be the starting point to the
inner most desires and expressions of transition in a nation ruled by the choices of
others. The New York Times states: “As American Indians try to reverse decades of
physical and cultural erosion, they are turning to the food that once sustained them,
and finding allies in the nation's culinary elite and marketing experts.”25
Policies are constantly modifying the terms for which Native Americans exist
within the United States making it harder and harder for communities to prosper on
their own terms. Fostering sustainable change within a community will need a
project model governed at a level encompassing all elements of a society. Policies
should be recognized as cultural just as much as they are social, environmental, and
economic.26

11. Propes 11
Project Model:
The following is a proposed project model targeting issues of type 2 diabetes
with respect and regard to Native Americans on both the Crow Creek reservation
and Rosebud reservation in South Dakota. The strategy for this project model is to
lower the rate of diabetes and obesity within the communities while also building
on the traditional ways of living and nourishing the community both physically and
spiritually.
Project Objectives:
1. To promote youth leadership through positive mentorship and outreach
in healthy lifestyles
2. To build the community’s awareness of type 2 diabetes and develop
culturally relevant education and intervention strategies
3. To rely on traditional knowledge for revitalized food systems with an
emphasis on positive food habits
4. To create programs that are community driven and funded
The long-term goal of the project is to create a self-sustained community
pushing forward to lower the rate of diabetes within their community for future
generations with a gradual separation on the dependency of the U.S government for
food assistance and diabetes prevention programs.
Methods and Resources
In discussing sustainable development Jon Hawkes states, “The diversity of
mediums of expression and of cultural manifestations are both essential parts of

12. Propes 12
life’s rich tapestry and invaluable tools with which to engage with challenges that
will inevitably confront us.”27 The challenges within the Great Plains Indians are
vast and co-occurring but must all be accounted for when understanding long term
goals. Flexibility is vital in calculating how to create a shift in a culture’s dominant
lifestyle. Focus groups will be built into the first year evaluation to maintain the
community’s best interest. Sustainable models have to be relevant to the
personalities of the culture.
One of the most concerning issues of type 2 diabetes is after an individual is
diagnosed with the disease their life is changed forever, because of this it is
imperative to look first and foremost at the youth of the community. Their decisions
are often times made for them when it comes to food choices and they may not be
aware of the true consequences of unhealthy food combined with poor physical
activity. From the American Academy of Pediatrics, Vincent M. Biggs M.D states:
Today the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes among Native children is higher
than any other ethnic group. Indian Health service data indicate the
prevalence of diagnosed diabetes among 15- to 19- year olds has increased
54 percent since 1996, which is a dramatic and overwhelming increase.28
Pediatric patients with type 2 diabetes are more likely to have early onsets of
heart disease, renal disease, vision impairment, and limb amputations.29
Understanding the levels of instability Native American youth encounter on a daily
basis, stabilizing their nutritional health is a crucial first step. Studies have shown
youth with chronic conditions such as type 2 diabetes are at a higher risk for
behavioral disorders and depression.30 If the community’s youth are going to rise

13. Propes 13
above the layers of oppression they must foster a healthy relationship with food for
their mind and body without the constraints of behavioral disorders and
depression.
Reaching out to the schools and developing youth initiative programs is a
main objective of this project model. Nick Lowery of Native Vision recommends that
as we progress forward, the youth’s voice must be heard and from this we can move
forward. He states:
The single most effective way to develop a cycle that generates greater social
capital is by engaging youth at the earliest age in the problem solving of its
community by teaching involvement and service as the highest value. In so
doing, an education system unleashes the imagination and energy of its true
clients, its students.31
The model’s program will use the teachers as both mentors and models. Each
school will commit to engaging in healthy habits three times a week for an hour each
session. This will be a tribal wide activity and all teachers will be required to
complete a cultural awareness certification where they will learn the
interconnections of the community and begin to treat their students as a unit rather
than competing individuals. In order to respect and listen to the voices of the youth
there will be a focus group of students from each grade surveyed after the first year
of the projects implementation.
The following questions will be used to re-evaluate the needs and desires of
the youth to strengthen the in school programing according to their needs:
 How important is nutrition to you?

14. Propes 14
 What are healthy foods?
 What are unhealthy foods?
 How often are you physically active in school?
 How often do you wish you participated in physical activity in school?
 What are your favorite foods?
 Who is your role model?
 What makes you want to eat healthier food?
The next level of the project model is to incorporate a community Circle of
Health group held at the community center. All generations will be encouraged to
gather here where all voices are equal and all members can share and speak of their
struggles, hardships, success, and triumphs in relation to diabetes and other
elements of their lives. It is important for the center of the community to be
accessible for all individuals on the reservation. Individuals who cannot walk to the
meetings will receive a public car pool or encouraged to participate in a group walk
to generate the positive experience in walking for health. Often times there is an
emphasis placed on the hardships of reservation life, however the weekly communal
meetings will be an open forum to engage in positive promotion of energy and
stability.
Many Native activists advocate educating Native Americans about their
histories in efforts to take a stand against colonization, including the ways their
ancestors use to eat.32 Weekly meetings will be a way to share distinct ways of
knowing that have been passed down from medicine men and elders of the

15. Propes 15
community. Medicine men will be crucial in showing their community the
importance of the plants and animals around them used in healing and health for
their ailments and prevention of diabetes. Elders also play an important role in
teaching traditional knowledge that derives from empirical observation and
spiritual insight.33 The inclusion of layers of generations will weave together the
knowledge of everyone.
The medicine wheel is a sacred circle with equal parts red, yellow, black and
white. It represents balance in the four directions and seasons of life, with respect to
all phases of life and the food that prospers in each season. The symbol of the
medicine wheel will be used to relate once again to the importance of balance and
order in natural cycles of life. Concepts of cooking with seasonal ingredients will be
reinstalled as healthy options with high protein and low carbohydrate diets are
remembered. Each month the “Circle of Health” will lead their way through a
communal cooking night (held on Friday or Saturday evening) to promote healthy
alternatives to other unhealthy weekend functions. This event will be a communal
meal that will offer the flavors of the past such as squash, beans, corn, and buffalo
meat. Traditional dance, language, and drum practice will be encouraged for the
youth to learn from their elders.
Native members rather than an agency counselor or health service worker
will lead the meetings, displaying to the community their ability to lead and uplift
one another from within. Each meeting will include information on how to better
one’s health through traditional food and movement. In respect for the policies that
will be placed in the project model there will be a focus group of middle-aged and

16. Propes 16
elderly tribal members who will answer the following questions to reevaluate and
recondition the programs based on what is most beneficial to their community.
 How often do you have dinner with your family?
 What is the greatest benefit of the “Circle of Health”?
 What is most satisfying about eating and exercising?
 How could the community support you to feel healthier?
One of the greatest hurdles in the promotion of connecting the Lakota and
Dakota back to their ancestors’ foodways is access to the appropriate foods. A
primary part of the project’s goal is to promote the voice of the tribal community in
advocating for their desire for a return to their original forms of nourishment. The
policies of the U.S government have been a back and forth sway misleading the
tribes into many great losses of their traditional ways. The project model will
promote the power of the Dakota and the Lakota through understanding their
rights. Pro bono lawyers already on each of the reservations will be asked to speak
once a month about individual’s legal rights on the reservation and off the
reservation. Within my year on the Crow Creek reservation issues involving food
have included families not receiving their commodities because they made one
hundred dollars more a month than they had before and were no longer qualified,
trying to return rotten meat after purchasing it the day before, and supermarkets
up-pricing items on the shelves during the first few days food stamp funds are
distributed. If each individual demands for issues such as these to be bettered and
they feel as though they deserve the right to good food then they will fight for it.

17. Propes 17
The project model is a movement for the community to begin to re-
appreciate their ancestors’ community based efforts and move forward with
culturally sustainable methods for coping with their existing diabetes and future
preventions of diagnosis.
Concluding Rationale
Recognizing education alone is not enough to create an active difference in
the community when there are food barriers preventing the community from having
the options to eat what they are being advised to.34 Uncovering the meaning of
tradition unveils a culture’s future by looking to the past.35 Henry Glassie explains
tradition to be the people’s creation from their past; it’s character is that of
endurance and it’s contradiction is oppression.36 In holding value in this explanation
of tradition it is then understood that traditional Native American culture is masked
by oppression, preventing the community from seeing it’s own future.
The objectives of cultural sustainability review a holistic approach I view as
necessary in the preservation of traditions, generations, and resources of the world
in threat of great loss, if not total disappearance. My time spent with Dakota and
Lakota communities has proven how delicate a generation is, and time is of the
essence when it comes to gathering threads of the entangled past before untold
stories are taken and lives are lost to ailments as invasive as diabetes. I believe this
project model is a starting point for lifting up the voices of the community to help
one another mend their spirits and bodies. The importance of the food we consume
and the ways we move about this world have the ability to strengthen both the mind
and body.

18. Propes 18
Notes
1. Lewis Hyde, The Gift: Creativity and the Artist in the Modern World, (New
York:Vintage Books, 2007): 23.
2. David Rich Lewis, “Native Americans and the Environment: A Survey of the
Twentieth-Century Issues”, American Indian Quarterly 19, no. 3 (1995): 423.
3. Kari Forbes-Boyte, “Respecting Sacred Perceptions: The Lakota, Bear
Butte, and Land-Management Strategies,” The Public Historian 18, no. 4
Representing Native American History (1996): 104.
4. Angela Waziyatawin Wilson, “Introduction: Indigenous Knowledge
Recovery Is Indigenous Empowerment,” The American Indian Quarterly: Special
Issue: The Recovery of Indigenous Knowledge 28, no. 3&4 (2004): 364.
5. Devon A. Mihesuah, “Decolonizing Our Diets By Recovering Our Ancestors'
Gardens,” The American Indian Quarterly 27, no. 3&4 (Summer/Fall 2003): 809.
6. Sandra K. Joos, “Economic, Social, and Cultural Factors in the Analysis of
Disease,” In Ethnic and Regional Foodways in the United States: The Performance of
Group Identity, ed. Linda Keller-Brown and Kay Mussell. (Knoxville: University of
Tennessee Press,1992), 218.
7. Mihesuah, “Decolonizing,” 809.
8. Mary Story et al., "The Epidemic of Obesity in American Indian
Communities and the Need for Childhood Obesity-Prevention Programs." The
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69, no. 4 (1999): 750S.
9. Story et al., “Epidemic,” 748S.
10. Joos, “Economic,” 236.
11. Edward C. Valandra, “Rethinking Indigenous Underdevelopment in the
United States,” Wicazo Sa Review 12, no. 2 (1997): 112
12. Valandra, “Rethinking Indigenous,” 113.
13. Jon Hawkes, The Fourth Pillar of Sustainability: Culture’s Essential Role in
Public Planning (Australia: Common Ground Publishing Pty Ltd, 2001): 34.

19. Propes 19
14. Michael P Milburn, “Indigenous Nutrition: Using Traditional Food
Knowledge to Solve Contemporary Health Problems.” The American Indian Quarterly
28, no. 3&4 (Summer/Fall 2004): 421.
15. Leonard A. Carlson, Learning to Farm: Indian Land Tenure and Farming
Before the Dawes Act (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, Publishers, 1992), 68.
16. Carlson, Learning to Farm, 71.
17. Carlson, Learning to Farm, 75.
18. “The Heart & Soul of the Lakota: The Buffalo,” Prairie Edge, accessed May
26, 2013. http://www.prairieedge.com/tribe-scribe/the-heart-soul-of-the-lakota-
the-buffalo/.
19. “The Heart.”
20. Milburn, “Indigenous Nutrition,” 427.
21. Senate Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, Recommendations for
improved food programs on Indian reservations, 95th Cong., 1st sess., 1977, 63.
22. Mihesuah, “Decolonizing,” 823.
23. Lisa Poupart, “The Familiar Face of Genocide: Internalized Oppression
Among American Indians,” Hypatia 18, no. 2 Indigenous Women in the Americas
(2003): 87.
24. Poupart, “Familiar Face,” 89.
25. Kim Severson,"Native Foods Nourish Again." New York Times, November
23, 2005, accessed May 13, 2013,
http://www.tankabar.com/tankabarcom/NANF/NANF%20 Full%20Article.pdf.
26. Hawkes, Fourth Pillar, 34.
27. Hawkes, Fourth Pillar, 34
28. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Problems facing Native American
youths, 107th Cong., 2nd sess., 2002, 11.
29. Senate Committee. Senate, Problems facing Native, 11.
30. Senate Committee. Senate, Problems facing Native, 11.

20. Propes 20
31. Senate Committee. Senate, Problems facing Native, 18.
32. Mihesuah, “Decolonizing,” 827.
33. Milburn, “Indigenous Nutrition,” 421.
34. Betty Geishirt Cantrell, “Access and Barriers to Food Items and Food
Preparation among Plains Indians,” Wicazo Sa Review 16, no. 1 (2001): 72.
35. Henry Glassie, “Tradition,” The Journal of American Folklore 108, no. 430
(1995): 395.
36. Glassie, “Tradition,” 396.

21. Propes 21
Bibliography
Cantrell, Betty Geishirt. “Access and Barriers to Food Items and Food
Preparation among Plains Indians.” Wicazo Sa Review 16, no. 1 (2001): 65-
74.
Carlson, Leonard A. Learning to Farm: Indian Land Tenure and Farming Before the
Dawes Act. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, Publishers, 1992.
Forbes-Boyte, Kari. “Respecting Sacred Perceptions: The Lakotas, Bear Butte,
and Land-Management Strategies.” The Public Historian 18, no. 4
Representing Native American History (Autumn 1996): 99-117.
Glassie, Henry. “Tradition.” The Journal of American Folklore 108, no. 430 (1995):
395-412.
Hawkes, Jon. The Fourth Pillar of Sustainability: Culture’s Essential Role in Public
Planning. Australia: Common Ground Publishing Pty Ltd, 2001.
Hyde, Lewis. The Gift: Creativity and the Artist in the Modern World. New York:
Vintage Books, 2007.
Joos, Sandra K. “Economic, Social, and Cultural Factors in the Analysis of Disease.” In
Ethnic and Regional Foodways in the United States: The Performance of Group
Identity, edited by Linda Keller-Brown and Kay Mussell. Knoxville: University
of Tennessee Press, 1992.
Lewis, David Rich. “Native Americans and the Environment: A Survey of Twentieth
Century Issues.” American Indian Quarterly 19, no. 3 (Summer 1995): 423-
450.
Mihesuah, Devon A. “Decolonizing Our Diets By Recovering Our Ancestors'
Gardens.” The American Indian Quarterly 27, no. 3&4 (Summer/Fall 2003):
807-839.
Milburn, Michael P. “Indigenous Nutrition: Using Traditional Food Knowledge to
Solve Contemporary Health Problems.” The American Indian Quarterly 28, no.
3&4 (Summer/Fall 2004): 411-434.
Poupart, Lisa. “The Familiar Face of Genocide: Internalized Oppression Among
American Indians,” Hypatia 18, no. 2 Indigenous Women in the Americas
(2003): 87.
Prairie Edge. “The Heart & Soul of the Lakota: The Buffalo.” Accessed May 26, 2013.
http://www.prairieedge.com/tribe-scribe/the-heart-soul-of-the-lakota-the-
buffalo/

22. Propes 22
Severson, Kim. "Native Foods Nourish Again." New York Times, November 23, 2005.
Accessed May 13, 2013.
U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Indian Affairs. Problems facing Native American
youths.107th Cong., 2nd sess., August 1, 2002.
U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs. Recommendations
for improved food programs on Indian reservations. 95th Cong., 1st sess.,
April,1977.
Wilson, Waziyatawin Angela. “Introduction: Indigenous Knowledge Recovery Is
Indigenous Empowerment.” The American Indian Quarterly: Special Issue: The
Recovery of Indigenous Knowledge 28, no. 3&4 (2004): 359-372.