Research Methods (Unit 4: Issues and Debates)

Research Methods
Unit 4: Issues and Debates

Lab Experiment
• Involve an artificial environment, using careful controls.
• Researcher manipulates IV to see effect on the DV.

Evaluation
StrengthsStrengths WeaknessesWeaknesses
• Reliable- replicable.
•Control over extraneous variables.
•Objective measures due to quantitative data.
• Lack validity as tasks are un natural, and don’t
reflect real human behaviour.
•Lack ecological validity due to artificial envrionment.

Milgram
• Aim: to see if Germans were different. How far would someone obey an authority figure
(administer shocks) despite it going against their moral code (agentic state)
• Procedure: 40 male participants, willing to take part. Took place at Yale university.
Room with a generator with levels and levers. Voltage was labelled as dangerous
levels. In another room was a chair which was wired up. The implication was that
shocks were given, and the chair recipient received the shocks. The stooge always got
wired up to the chair. Whilst shocks were administered (to an individual who wasn't
wired up at all) false screams of pain were given out. There was a point where the man
went silent. The participants gave shocks every time the individual got an answer of a
memory test incorrect. The Shock increased 15 volts at a time. When the participants
wanted to give up, they were given verbal prods to continue. After the fourth prod, the
experiment stopped.
• Findings: All participants went up to 300volts. 65% went all the way to 450volts. Many
participants during the procedure seemed very distressed. One had a full blown
seizure.
• Conclusions: Milgram concluded that an ordinary person would obey orders from
an authority figure to an extreme extent even when they were very uncomfortable
about doing so.

Evaluation
• - The study was a lab experiment, so was
tightly controlled.
•- The study acts as a warning about
society about its potential to be evil, so it is useful.
•- Milgram theories release people from
responsibility for their actions.
•- Milgram's study challenges the existing
view of human nature, and it has high political impact.
•- Easy to replicate and get same results,
has reliability.
•- Participants were seriously deceived,
many were caused a great deal of stress- the ethical
issues were too great.
•- Sample wasn’t representative (volunteer)
•- The study has ethnocentric and
andocentric biases as the participants were American
and male.
•- The study lacks ecological validity as it
was carried out in a lab, and wasn’t a normal situation
for the participants.

Field Experiment
• Involves the use of careful controls.
• Occurs in a natural environment or setting.
• Manipulation of the IV and DV.

Evaluation
• Controls are sufficient.
•Reliable due to control of variables.
•More ecologically valid.
• Lack of control of extraneous variables.
•Ethical issues.

Hofling
• Aim: Investigate obedience in a real life situation- within the work place. Tested
to see if nurses would obey a doctor (authority figure) even though it would
have gone against their training.
• Procedure: A person pretending to be a doctor rang up 22 hospital demanding
that nurses should give an overdose (according to label) to patients. They were
not aware that Astrogen was just a placebo. He said he would fill in the paper
work when he arrived. Other nurses then went through an
interview/questionnaire. They were told the scenario and then asked if they
would have done the same.
• Results: 21/22 nurses gave the overdose of medication. 11 said they did not
notice it was an overdose, and 10 saud they had noticed by obeyed anyway.
Most of the nurses felt guilty and even angry about what they had done. 21/22
said they would not have given medication, when they did infact do just that.
• Conclusions: Even in a real life situation, agency theory occurs. Nurses obeyed
the Doctor who was an authority figure. Although nurses felt they would not
behave in that way, they did.

Evaluation
• - The study has ecological validity as the
nurses were working in their natural environment.
•- Have implications to nurse training.
Hofling has made it aware hoe obedient nurses are,
can be applied to real life.
•- The participants were deceived, and
didn’t give informed consent to take part.
•- Has ethnocentric bias as it was done in
America.
•- Was carried out in 1966 and research
may not be true of nurses today.
•- Many extraneous variables not
controlled, the nurses may have been tired.
•- Hard to replicate.

Natural Experiments
• The IV is naturally occurring. It has a natural effect on DV.
• Variables are hard to control, due to the natural process.

Evaluation
• IV is naturally occurring.
• Experiments are valid with regard to what is being
measured.
• Hard to replicate- we cant say findings are reliable.
•Can’t generalise as they tend to be one off, unique
situations.

Charlton
Aim: To investigate the effects of TV on children’s behaviour in particular if TV affected
PRO-social or ANTI-social behaviour.
Procedure: Researchers studied playground behaviour of 3-8 year olds in 2 schools on an
island in the south Atlantic (St Helena) before the introduction on TV (1995) and then 5
years later. Behaviour was recorded for a 2 week period. Researchers classified
behaviours as pro and anti social behaviours, and then independent researchers
watched the footage and tallied how many times the children performed these. There
was inter-rater reliability.
Results:64 comparisons were made between 1995 and 2000, but only 9 were statistically
significant. 2 showed decreases in anti social behaviour in boys. 5 showed increases in
pro social behaviour in both sexes. 2 showed decreases in pro social behaviour in
boys.
Conclusions: The introduction of TV had no negative affect on the children’s behaviour- in
fact it improved it.

Evaluation
• The study was high in ecological validity, as it was a
naturally occurring event, with no manipulation of
variables.
• The children played as they normally would have.
•Cameras were placed in schools months before
research began so that the children became used to
them in order to prevent demand characteristics.
• They used triangulation..
• Longitudinal study showed the long term effect.
•Practical application
•Charlton did not analyse viewing habits of children.
•St Helena is a close knit community, meaning
environmental influences like social control may have
affected children’s pro social behaviour.
• Linked to this, the island would have been
determined on putting on a good image, which may
have rubbed off onto the children. This would affect
validity of results.
•The TV shown to children in Helena was censored,
and therefore e may have been less violent than on
the mainland.

Observation
• Structured observations use careful controls and a aset up
situation that can be repeated.
• There if often more than one observer and it is carried out
behind a one way mirror to avoid affecting the situation.
• Naturalistic observations take place in a natural setting.
They could be over or covert. They could be participant or
non participant.
• There is usually a carefully designed scoring procedure.

Evaluation
• Structured: we can repeat them and test for
reliability. Tallying is used, results can be correlated.
•Natural: Has validity as they take place in a natural
setting. Ecological validity too.
• Structured: controlled setting meaning it lacks
ecological validity.
•Naturalistic: If non-participant, observer may alter
behaviour- lack of validity. Hard to replicate due to
uncontrolled variables.

Bandura
Aim: To investigate whether participants exposed to aggressive models would reproduce
aggressive acts resembling those of their models.
Procedure: Sample of 72 children. 36 girls, 36 boys divided into 3 groups and given a male or
female role model 1 group- aggressive condition: an adult role model played with toys then
aggressively hit and kicked the Bobo doll 2nd group- non aggressive condition- model played
with toys nicely and ignored Bobo doll control- no role model present- children allowed to play.
hen kids taken into a room with toys but were not allowed to play with them—produced
annoyance. Taken into a second room where there were lots of toys and the Bobo doll. Children
were observed through a one way mirror where behaviour noted and recorded.
Results: Children in the 1st condition were more aggressive to the Bobo doll than the other groups.
70% of the 2nd condition showed no aggression. Boys had a higher level of physical aggression
than girls male aggressive model more likely to be copied than a female one as females not
associated with aggression. Children more likely to copy the same sex role model.
Conclusions: aggression can be learnt through imitation by observing aggressive role models. Same
sex role models had more of an effect than opposite sex role models- gender development.

Evaluation
• - Results can be generalised to other
children as the sample size was large.
•- The study has application to real like, in
terms of TV violence.
•- Quantitative data was easy to analyse,
and was free from bias.
•- High levels of control meaning it could be
replicated again.
•- It was unethical in terms of influencing
children to be violent, which could have caused long
term effect.
•- There is not talk of parental consent.
•- The study lacks in ecological validity.

Questionnaires
• Involve gathering quantitative data using closed questions.
• Involve gathering qualitative data using open questions.
• Open questions allow the participant to give opinions and
elaborate whilst closed questions provide a forced answer.
• A likert scale may be used.
• Personal data like name, age and occupation may also be
asked.

Evaluation
• Sent by post to a large population
(generalisable/representative).
•Gather large amounts of data about a lot of people.
•Ethical- they can withdraw themselves.
• Response rates tend to be very low.
•Issues with attrition.
•Issues with social desirability.
•Issues with validity.

Mumford and Whitehouse
Aim: to see if eating disorders do occur fewer times in British Asian girls than in their white
counterparts.
Procedure: The researchers studied girls ages 14-16 from four different schools in Bradford. The
total sample size was 559-204 Asians and 355 whites. The girls were given an eating attitudes
test and a body shape questionnaire. In both the test and the questionnaire, the more
abnormal the girls attitudes were to eating or body shape, the higher the score. Those who
scored over 20 on the test or 140 on the questionnaire, went on to an interview. The details of
these girls eating history was collected and were examined to see if hey had an eating
disorder. Altogether 22 Asian girls and 32 white girls were interviewed. An eating disorder was
only diagnosed between the researchers.
Results: They found a significant difference in the scores from the eating attitudes test. Asian girls
had a mean of 10.6 and the white girls had a mean on 7.7. There was no significant difference in
the scores of the body shape questionnaire. The Asian girls there had a mean on 73.3 and a
white girls 70.3. Of those who went on to the interview, 7 Asians and 2 whites were diagnosed
with Bulimia, Anorexia was diagnosed in one Asian and none in the white girls.
Conclusion: They concluded that bulimia nervosa was more prevalent in Asian school girls than
white school girls, which is not what they expected. They also found that Asian school girls
were more concerned about their weight, and the amount of food they ate compared to their
white counter parts.

Evaluation
• The sample was very large 599 completed the tests
and 54 went on to have an interview. The results can
therefore be generalised to other school girls.
• The reliability of diagnosis of an eating disorder was
high as the researchers came to a joint decision and
had to agree.
• A limited age range was used, so its hard to say if
the same results would be found in older women or
younger girls.
•The original questionnaires were administered by
their teachers, which may have created a bias in the
results. The girls may have been more careful in what
they wrote.
• They used the DSM which may not be a reliable of
valid way to diagnose.
•There may have been the experimenter effect in the
diagnosis, as no independent blind researcher was
involved.

Interviews
• Structured interview: Uses a set of questions which are
fixed for every participant.
• Unstructured interview: Used a schedule of questions, but
the interviewer can deviate from the plan, to investigate
areas which arise in conversation.
• Semi-Structured interviews use a selection of both
methods.

Evaluation
• Elaboration to improve validity is possible.
• Structured interviews are more replicable.
•Structured interviews more comparable.
• Respondents still may lie. (Validity)
•Structured interviews less valid- ecological validity-
not allowed to talk freely.

Loftus and Palmer
Aim: To see the effect of leading questions on the accuracy eye witness testimony.
Procedure: There are only three conditions- questions are asked in a structured interview.
(Hit, Smashed, Control). They came back a week later after seeing the video. They were
asked if they had seen broken glass? (although there was none)
Results: The wording of the original critical question affected the memory of the witnesses
a week later.
Those in the smashed condition were more likely to stat that they had seen broken glass,
even though it didn’t exist.
Conclusion: The information given to us in the leading question can distort our memory of
the event. There are two factors that make up our memory of an event: information
during the event, and information after the event.

Evaluation
•The study was reliable due to the high levels of
control with in a lab experiment meaning that it is
highly scientific and can be replicated.
• In the second experiment quantitative data was
provided leading to a lack of bias as it is not objective.
•They carried out two experiments to ensure validity.
•There are issues with demand characteristics as
due to the lab setting participants may try and guess
the aim of the experiment.
•Findings are not generalisable as only students were
used.
• Validity of results is questionable as it is not likely
participants were under the same amount of emotion
strain as they would be when witnessing a real car
crash, so the use of video affects ecological validity.

Content Analysis
• Analysing the content of a media topic or story. Aspects are
analysed.
• Categories linked to the topic are determined. This shows
what is to be counted.
• A researcher goes through material, and counts the number
of times something is mentioned. This is tallying.
• When the analysis is written up, categories need to be made
clear, to ensure the right conclusions are drawn.

Evaluation
• Few ethical issues are involved, as data comes from
sources which already exist.
•Highlights a fresh interpretations not available via
other research methods.
•Often has a rigorous process.
•Can be replicated.
• Hard to avoid subjectivity as researchers may have
personal bias towards some sources.
•Sources may not cover exact content/specifics of
what is being studied. Issues with validity.

Gauntlett and Cumberbatch
Aim: To look at TV programmes targeted and watched by 10-15 year olds
to see how drugs, smoking and alcohol were treated.
Procedure: The top ten programmes watched by the age group were
chosen. A content analysis was carried out on their drugs content.
Results: Over a 3 month period, 256 programmes were watched. 70%
of these were soaps, which were broadcast before the 9 o’clock
water shed. Altogether, 2099 scenes of drugs (legal or illegal use)
were noted. 84% of messages about alcohol were neutral. Of main
characters drinkers made up 37% and smokers 4%.
Conclusions: TV programmes aimed at 10-15 year olds contained
alcohol, yet often images were neutral.

Evaluation
• It is the obvious way of collecting data of collecting
information on certain types of behaviour.
•It is ethical, as sources have already been published.
•Three months is a long time, so the sample is
relatively generalisable,
• Categories would need to make sense and be clear.
This could affect both reliability and validity of
research,
•Although the top 10 programmes were picked, this is
just a snap shot of all that is seen on tv. Results may
not be generalisable of all TV shows.

Correlation
• Involves comparing two scores against each other.
• One variable is correlated with another variable. A test can
be done to demonstrate the relationship.
• A positive correlation would be towards +1.
• A negative score would be -1. The closer to 1, the treater the
relationship.

Evaluation
• Good way of showing a relationship between two
variables.
•Finding a relationship is the first step of linking two
variables together.
•E.g. Smoking correlates with heart disease.
• Do not show a cause and effect link.
•May be issues with fluke results ‘outliers’ - alter
validity of research.

Debellis
Aim: To investigate sex differences in brain development, looking at grey matter (which is cell bodies and synapses), white
matter (axons) and an area called the corpus callosum (which is the part of the brain that links the left and the right
sides of the brain).
Procedure: Sample: 61 males 57 female (children ages 6-17) obtained using volunteer sample (advertised in the local
community Pittsburgh, USA). Children assessed for: cognitive abilities, handedness, intelligence (via IQ), socioeconomic
status and ethnicity. There were no differences between males and females in terms of IQ, age, handedness,
socioeconomic status, and ethnicity. The boys were taller than the girls in general. Most participants had a higher IQ
than average. A full written description of the study was given to parents, and participants, and full written consent
was given. Brain Volumes were measured using an MRI scanner. The participants went through a simulator first, so
they were used to the sight and sounds. They were allowed to watch their favourite film when in the scanner, and also
were given a bribe that they could see a picture of their brain, if they promised to stay still. The volumes were
assessed by raters who were in a blind condition (unaware of the sex of participants). There was high inter rather
reliability between raters of 0.98 and 0.99, in each condition.
Results: The volume of grey matter significantly fell with age, more so in males than in females. The volumes of white matter
and the corpus callosum increased with ages, more so in males. The differences were significant in white matter and
corpus callosum. There wasn’t a significant change on cerebral volume between ages; there was a significant
difference between males and females. This was taken into account.
Conclusions: As boys show faster changes (loss of grey matter, increase of white matter and corpus callosum volume) this
shows boys brain mature faster than female brains. One of these reasons could be linked to hormones. Oestrogen
delays pruning, but testosterone promotes myelination. These differences can help to explain gender difference in
cognitive abilities. Also, helps to see the patterns of development as males and females mature. It can also help to
explain gender related differences in early development disorders like autism and ADHD.

Evaluation
• - Uses of MRI scans are very accurate,
objective and reliable.
•- Consent was given from the parents and
the participants themselves.
•- Large Sample.
•- Results are reliable as they could be
replicated because of the tight controls over the
variables.
•- It was a cross sectional study, but a
longitudinal study may have been more appropriate.
•- Lab experiment so low in ecological
validity.
•- Environmental Factors and Learning
factors weren’t taken into account; these could have
caused the brain differences.
•- Volunteer sample isn’t representative.

Case Study
• In-depth study of one person or one group. Many different
research methods may be used, and a case study is an
umbrella term.
• Previous case studies include: gaining unconscious desires,
study of feral children, case study of gang culture etc.

Evaluation
• Gather in-depth detailed information from a variety
of sources.
•Data is likely to be valid to real life.
•Much of the data will be qualitative.
• Issues with subjectivity in interpretation of data.
•It is usually a unique procedure, meaning replication
is difficult.
•Generalising is also not possible.

Freud- Little Hans
Aim: to gather evidence for the Oedipus Complex, and also to cure Little Hans of his phobia of horses. The background
to the case, was that information that supports it comes from Hans' father, as he and Freud communicated
through letters. From this information, Freud analysed Little Hans' dreams and also what he said. Freud also
analysed the circumstances that could have caused the phobia of horses, and therefore find a way for it to be
resolved.
Case: In the case description, from dream analysis, Freud identified a figure that Little Hans always seemed to be
scared of, it was a white horse with black bits around its mouth and eyes, which is significant as his father was
reported to have pale white skin, a moustache and wears dark glasses. His phobia affected his behaviour, as he
would not out into the street where the horses where for fear that they would bite him. Another dream that
Freud found was significant, was that of a 'deflated' giraffe. It was crumpled up when Little Hans sat on it, so if
the crumpled up giraffe represents Little Hans' father, then he could be wanting to crush him, which is a phase
of the Oedipus complex. Sometimes, Little Hans would play at 'having children' with his mother, where she was
the children's mother and he was the father, and that Little Hans' father was the grandfather
Analysis: In Freud's case analysis, he thought that he was going through the Oedipus complex, which would explain
why he wished his father dead; he wanted to take his father's place and be with his mother. Hans resolved this
conflict by 'becoming' his father when playing these games, so Freud took this as a resolution to the Oedipus
complex, and he would then get over his fear of horses.
Conclusions: Little Hans case was good evidence for Oedipus complex as it covers the onset to the resolution of it.

Evaluation
• - Rich, detailed information was gathered
so a range of information could be interpreted.
•- Freud’s case studies provided evidence
for his theories. Little Hans backs up psychosexual
stages, Oedipus complex and Dream Analysis.
•- It also provides evidence for the
techniques he used for helping patients treated with
psychoanalysis (still used today).
•- Most data was not obtained by Freud, and
most information came from Hans’ Dad.
•- His father may have been biased as he
may have been aware of some Freudian concepts
(Oedipus).
•- Interpretation of the case study may
have experimenter bias, as Freud could twist the
information to make it support his ideas. He ignored
the fact that Hans had seen a horse collapse, so case
lacks credibility.
•- The case also lacks believability, as
generally the idea that children have sexual feelings
isn’t true.

Ways to Improve Research
• Lab: Place in natural environments where
possible. Use double blind experiments. Used
matched pairs.
• Field: Use more controls.
• Natural: Try to control more variables. Ensure
demand characteristics are avoided- use of
hidden cameras etc.
• Questionnaire: Use triangulation to ensure valid
data. Use both closed and open questions to
gain in-depth knowledge.

• Interview: Use more than one interviewer
to prevent bias. Have someone else
analyse results. Use semi-structured
interviews.
• Content Analysis: Use inter rater reliability,
use reliable sources, use a longitudinal
design to have more valid data.

• Correlation: Use reliable primary data.
Control variable strictly. Repeat the study
to ensure the relationship is not due to
chance.
• Case Study: Test re test. See if other
researchers come to same conclusions.
Use triangulation. Increase sample size if
possible to make generalisations.

Research Methods (Unit 4: Issues and Debates)

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