The document outlines various research methodologies, categorizing them into qualitative, quantitative, descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, exploratory, and conclusive research, each serving distinct purposes and utilizing different data types and analysis methods. It emphasizes the importance of clear research objectives, thorough procedural design, and sufficient data analysis to ensure valid, reliable, and applicable findings. Additionally, it explains the concepts of units of analysis and units of observation, detailing their relevance in conducting research.

9. Types of Research Methodology
1. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research method is a methodological approach primarily used in
fields like social sciences, anthropology, and psychology. It’s aimed at
understanding human behavior and the motivations behind it. Qualitative
research delves into the nature of phenomena through detailed, in-depth
exploration.
Definition and Approach: Qualitative research focuses on understanding human
behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. It involves in-depth
analysis of non-numerical data like texts, videos, or audio recordings.
Key Features:
Emphasis on exploring complex phenomena
Involves interviews, focus groups, and observations
Generates rich, detailed data that are often subjective
Applications: Widely used in social sciences, marketing, and user experience
research.

10. 2. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research method is a systematic approach used in various
scientific fields to quantify data and generalize findings from a sample to a
larger population.
Definition and Approach: Quantitative research is centered around
quantifying data and generalizing results from a sample to the population of
interest. It involves statistical analysis and numerical data.
Key Features:
• Relies on structured data collection instruments
• Large sample sizes for generalizability
• Statistical methods to establish relationships between variables
• Applications: Common in natural sciences, economics, and market
research.

11. 3. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is a type of research method that is used to describe
characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not
answer questions about how or why things are the way they are. Instead, it
focuses on providing a snapshot of current conditions or describing what exists.
Definition and Approach: This Types of Research method aims to accurately
describe characteristics of a particular phenomenon or population.
Key Features:
• Provides detailed insights without explaining why or how something happens
• Involves surveys and observations
• Often used as a preliminary research method
• Applications: Used in demographic studies, census, and organizational
reporting.

12. 4. Analytical Research
Analytical research is a type of research that seeks to understand the
underlying factors or causes behind phenomena or relationships. It goes
beyond descriptive research by attempting to explain why things happen
and how they happen.
Definition and Approach: Analytical research method goes beyond
description to understand the underlying reasons or causes.
• Key Features:
• Involves comparing data and facts to make evaluations
• Critical thinking is a key component
• Often hypothesis-driven
• Applications: Useful in scientific research, policy analysis, and business
strategy.

13. 5. Applied Research
Applied research is a type of scientific research method that aims to solve
specific practical problems or address practical questions. Unlike
fundamental research, which seeks to expand knowledge for knowledge’s
sake, applied research is directed towards solving real-world issues.
Definition and Approach: Applied research focuses on finding solutions to
practical problems.
• Key Features:
• Direct practical application
• Often collaborative, involving stakeholders
• Results are immediately applicable
• Applications: Used in healthcare, engineering, and technology
development.

14. 6. Fundamental Research
Fundamental research, also known as basic research or pure research, is a type of
scientific research method that aims to expand the existing knowledge base. It is
driven by curiosity, interest in a particular subject, or the pursuit of knowledge
for knowledge’s sake, rather than with a specific practical application in mind.
• Definition and Approach: Also known as basic or pure research, it aims to
expand knowledge without a direct application in mind.
• Key Features:
• Theoretical framework
• Focus on understanding fundamental principles
• Long-term in nature
• Applications: Foundational in fields like physics, mathematics, and social
sciences.

15. 7. Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is a type of research method conducted for a problem that
has not been clearly defined. Its primary goal is to gain insights and familiarity
with the problem or to gain more information about a topic. Exploratory research
is often conducted when a researcher or investigator does not know much about
the issue and is looking to gather more information.
Definition and Approach: This type of research is conducted for a problem that
has not been clearly defined.
Key Features:
• Flexible and unstructured
• Used to identify potential hypotheses
• Relies on secondary research like reviewing available literature
• Applications: Often the first step in social science research and product
development.

16. 8. Conclusive Research
Conclusive research, also known as confirmatory research, is a type of
research method that aims to confirm or deny a hypotheses or provide
answers to specific research questions. It is used to make conclusive
decisions or draw conclusions about the relationships among variables.
Definition and Approach: Conclusive research is designed to provide
information that is useful in decision-making.
• Key Features:
• Structured and methodical
• Aims to test hypotheses
• Involves experiments, surveys, and testing
• Applications: Used in market research, clinical trials, and policy
evaluations.

17. Research Methods Focus Methodology Applications
Qualitative Human behavior
Interviews,
Observations Social Sciences
Quantitative Data quantification Statistical Analysis Natural Sciences
Descriptive Phenomenon
description Surveys, Observations Demographics
Analytical Underlying reasons Data Comparison Scientific Research
Applied Practical solutions Collaborative Research Healthcare
Fundamental Knowledge expansion Theoretical Research Physics, Math
Exploratory Undefined problems Secondary Research Product Development
Conclusive Decision-making Experiments, Testing Market Research

18. Difference between Qualitative And Quantitative
Research
Aspect Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Definition
Focuses on exploring ideas,
understanding concepts, and
gathering insights.
Involves the collection and
analysis of numerical data to
describe, predict, or control
variables of interest.
Objective
To gain a deep understanding of
underlying reasons, motivations,
and opinions.
To quantify data and generalize
results from a sample to a larger
population.
Data Type
Non-numerical data such as
words, images, or objects.
Numerical data, often in the
form of numbers and statistics.
Data Collection
Interviews, focus groups,
observations, and review of
documents or artifacts.
Surveys, experiments,
questionnaires, and numerical
measurements.
Data Analysis
Interpretive, subjective analysis
aimed at understanding context
and complexity.
Statistical, objective analysis
focused on quantifying data and
generalizing findings.
Outcome Descriptive, detailed narrative or
thematic analysis.
Statistical results, often
presented in charts, tables, or
graphs.
–

19. Sample Size Generally smaller, focused on
depth rather than breadth.
Larger to ensure statistical
significance and
representativeness.
Flexibility
High flexibility in research
design, allowing for changes as
the study progresses.
Structured and fixed design,
with little room for changes once
the study begins.
Nature of Research Exploratory, open-ended, and
subjective.
Conclusive, closed-ended, and
objective.
Common Uses
Social sciences, humanities,
psychology, and market research
for understanding behaviors and
experiences.
Natural sciences, economics,
and large-scale market research
for testing hypotheses and
making predictions.
Advantages
Provides depth and detail, offers
a more human touch and
context, good for exploring new
areas.
Allows for a broader study,
involving a greater number of
subjects, and enhances
generalizability of results.
Limitations
Can be time-consuming, harder
to generalize due to small
sample size, and may be subject
to researcher bias.
May overlook the richness of
context, less effective in
understanding complex social
phenomena.

20. Criteria of Good Research
1.The purpose of the research, or the problem involved,
should be clearly defined and sharply delineated in terms
as unambiguous as possible.
The statement of the research problem should include
analysis into its simplest elements, its scope and
limitations, and precise specifications of the meanings of
all words significant to the research. Failure of the
researcher to do this adequately may raise legitimate
doubts in the minds of readers as to whether the
researcher has sufficient understanding of the problem to
make a sound attack upon it.

21. 2.The purpose of the research, or the problem involved,
should be clearly defined and sharply delineated in terms
as unambiguous as possible.
The statement of the research problem should include
analysis into its simplest elements, its scope and
limitations, and precise specifications of the meanings of
all words significant to the research. Failure of the
researcher to do this adequately may raise legitimate
doubts in the minds of readers as to whether the
researcher has sufficient understanding of the problem to
make a sound attack upon it.

22. 3.The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
When a sampling of a population is involved, the report should
include evidence concerning the degree of representativeness of
the sample. A questionnaire ought not to be used when more
reliable evidence is available from documentary sources or by
direct observation. Bibliographic searches should be as thorough
and complete as possible. Experiments should have satisfactory
controls. Direct observations should be recorded in writing as
soon as possible after the event. Efforts should be made to
minimize the influence of personal bias in selecting and
recording data.

23. 4.The researcher should report, with complete
frankness, flaws in the procedural design and estimate
their effect upon the findings.
There are very few perfect research designs. Some of
the imperfections may have little effect upon the
validity and reliability of the data; others may
invalidate them entirely. A competent researcher
should be sensitive to the effects of imperfect design
and his experience in analyzing the data should give
him a basis for estimating their influence.

24. 5.Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance; and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
The extent to which this criterion is met is frequently a good measure
of the competence of the researcher. Twenty years of experience in
guiding the research of graduate students leads the writer to
conclude that adequate analysis of the data is the most difficult
phase of research for the novice.
The validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully. The
data should be classified in ways that assist the researcher to reach
pertinent conclusions. When statistical methods are used, the
probability of error should be estimated and the criteria of statistical
significance applied.

25. 6.Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the
research and limited to those for which the data provides an
adequate basis.
Researchers are often tempted to broaden the bases of inductions
by including personal experiences not subject to the controls under
which the research data were gathered. This tends to decrease the
objectivity of the research and weaken confidence in the findings.
Equally undesirable is the all-too-frequent practice of drawing
conclusions from study of a limited population and applying them
universally. Good researchers specify the conditions under which
their conclusions seem to be valid. Failure to do so justifiably
weakens confidence in the research.

26. 7.Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research, and is a person of integrity.
Were it possible for the reader of a research report to
obtain sufficient information about the researcher, this
criterion perhaps would be one of the best bases for
judging the degree of confidence a piece of research
warrants. For this reason, the research report should be
accompanied by more information about the
qualifications of the researcher than is the usual practice.

27. What is a unit of analysis?
• A unit of analysis is an object of study within a research project.
It is the smallest unit a researcher can use to identify and
describe a phenomenon—the 'what' or 'who' the researcher
wants to study.
• For example, suppose a consultancy firm is hired to train the
sales team in a solar company that is struggling to meet its
targets. To evaluate their performance after the training, the
unit of analysis would be the sales team—it's the main focus of
the study.
• Different methods, such as surveys, interviews, or sales data
analysis, can be used to evaluate the sales team's performance
and determine the effectiveness of the training.

28. Units of observation vs. units of analysis
A unit of observation refers to the actual items
or units being measured or collected during the
research. In contrast, a unit of analysis is the
entity that a researcher can comment on or
make conclusions about at the end of the study.

29. Unit of analysis types
Below are the main types of units of analysis:
• Individuals – These are the smallest levels of analysis.
• Groups – These are people who interact with each other.
• Artifacts –These are material objects created by humans
that a researcher can study using empirical methods.
• Geographical units – These are smaller than a nation and
range from a province to a neighborhood.
• Social interactions – These are formal or informal
interactions between society members.

30. Examples of a unit of analysis
• Individuals – A person, an animal, etc.
• Groups – Gangs, roommates, etc.
• Artifacts – Phones, photos, books, etc.
• Geographical units – Provinces, counties,
states, or specific areas such as
neighborhoods, city blocks, or townships
• Social interaction – Friendships