Report No 3. Assessment of plants posing a potential hazard in Qatar (Feb 2016)

REPORT No 3: Assessment of toxic and psychoactive plants in the Qatar context (Feb. 2016) Ivan Mohedano Mendez
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ASSESSMENT OF TOXIC AND PSYCHOACTIVE PLANTS IN THE
QATAR CONTEXT
‫تقييم‬‫النباتات‬‫السامة‬‫وذات‬‫التأثير‬‫النفساني‬‫في‬‫سياق‬‫قطر‬
REPORT No 3 3 ‫تقرير‬‫رقم‬
RELEASING DATE 01/02/2016 01/02/2016 ‫تاريخ‬
SUBJECT TOXIC/PSYCHOACTIVE PLANTS ‫النباتات‬‫السامة‬‫وذات‬‫التأثير‬‫النفساني‬ ‫الموضوع‬
DESCRIPTION Assessment of toxic and
psychoactive plants posing a
potential threat to humans, both
from the medical and the
sociological point of view, in the
Qatar context
‫تقييم‬‫النباتات‬‫السامة‬‫وذات‬‫التأثير‬
‫النفساني‬‫تشكل‬‫خطرا‬‫محتمال‬‫على‬
،‫البشر‬‫سواء‬‫من‬‫الطبية‬‫وجهة‬‫النظر‬
،‫االجتماعية‬‫في‬‫سياق‬‫قطر‬
‫الوصف‬
BACKGROUND
Plants have been during millennia the main source of chemical substances to human beings. Among their
astonishing variety of forms, some species have particularly attracted our attention for their outstanding
attributes, whether positive (medicines, psychedelics...) or negative (poisons, venoms...). Given that the
active properties of plant molecules have to do with their ability to interact with certain compounds of
human chemistry, the previous categories, and the positive or negative implications of their use, are indeed
pretty relative and often vary depending on the dose, part consumed, companion chemicals, and other
variable features. Thus we have, for example, that some of the most beneficial plants used in medicine can
potentially become harmful and even act as lethal poisons, if administered in the wrong dose.
Psychoactive plants are plants whose chemistry alters the state of consciousness. The alteration they
produce is very variable, ranging between STIMULATION, DEPRESSION, and HALLUCINATION
(PSYCHEDELLIA, DISSOCIATION, or DELIRIUM). The three first categories (stimulation and euphoria being
closely related) are simple enhancements of cognitive sensations that are already familiar to us.
Hallucination includes, on the other hand, states that cannot be compared to any ordinary way of cognition
humans may experience naturally. Dissociative substances cause a lucid detachment of feelings from the
environment, involving distortion of sensitive perceptions. Psychedellic substances lead to an alteration of
both perceptive (sensorial) and cognitive (mental) states, still maintaining a relatively lucid consciousness.
Unlike the previous ones, delirium entails a complete loss of lucidity and sense of reality. Like in the case of
medicines and poisons, psychoactive substances can be highly beneficial if administered in the right dose.
Nowadays they play a major role in medicine, with countless applications both at the physical (sedatives,
anesthetics, painkillers...) and psychological (anxiolythics, antidepressants...) levels.

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JUSTIFICATION
Despite the beneficial or harmful properties of chemical compounds are relative, it is precisely such
ambiguity what makes necessary to submit them to regulation. Authorities need to be aware of the range of
plants with psychoactive and/or toxic properties, in order to implement efficient management plans that
ensure the safety of public health and keep the social order. Psychoactive substances, for example, have
been long used as entheogens (spiritual enhancers) by peoples all over the world, always in a spiritual
context, as integral part of their culture and tradition. Nowadays, however, the scenario has changed
significantly. The use of drugs is highly decontextualized, almost entirely restricted to recreational purposes.
This leads to the emergence of social and health issues which make necessary, more than ever, the
implementation of regulating policies.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present report is an assessment of the most significant plant species known to pose a potential
threat to humans, both from the medical and the sociological point of view. Psychoactive and toxic plants
have been included here. Four main criteria have been evaluated: chemistry dangerousness, feasibility of
introduction in Qatar (if not naturally occurring in the country), suitability for cultivation/self-production,
and feasibility of consumption (with details on uses). A final assessment quantifies, basing on the previous
traits, the level of concern, considering three different categories: LEAST CONCERN, MEDIUM CONCERN, and
HIGH CONCERN.
The effects of psychoactive plants are often complex and difficult to classify. In this report we have seen
fit to classify psychoactive plants according to the following criteria:
 STIMULATING PLANTS. Plants whose chemistry, regardless of the dose, only causes stimulating
effects. Higher doses would cause stronger stimulation, and even EUPHORIA, but would never entail
further alterations of the state of consciousness such as hallucination or delirium.
 DEPRESSANT PLANTS. Plants whose chemistry, regardless of the dose, only reduces the arousal or
stimulation of the nervous system, including effects such as sedation, narcosis, anxiolysis, and
dream induction/enhancement. Higher doses would cause stronger inhibition and even
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, but would never entail further alterations such as hallucination or delirium.
 HALLUCINATING PLANTS. Plants whose chemistry, often having stimulating or sedative effects at low
doses, at higher amounts is able to induce significant alterations of the state of consciousness, which
are not comparable to any of the ordinary sensations experienced by human consciousness. This may
involve, with variable lucidness, both perceptive -sensorial- disruptions (DISSOCIATION), and cognitive
-mental- alterations (PSYCHEDELLIA). When the loss of lucidity -sense of reality- is total, they lead to
temporary or even permanent DELIRIUM. Plants falling into this category have traditionally been used
as ENTHEOGENS (enhancers of mystic experiences) by cultures all over the world.
Most of psychoactive plants included in the above categories can be toxic and even lethal to humans.
However, there is a number poisonous species whose toxicity and dangerousness are not linked to
alterations of the state of consciousness. We have classified them into a separate group:
 TOXIC PLANTS. Plants whose chemistry causes intoxication and even death, but with no effects on the
state of consciousness. Only the most reputed species or those likely to be found in Qatar, because of
natural distribution or their culinary or ornamental use, have been listed.

3
STIMULATING PLANTS
STIMULATING PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
CULTIVATION PROCESSING/CONSUMPTION CONCLUSSION
1 Erythroxylon
coca
COCA PLANT
(cocaine)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
HIGH DIFFICULT. The seeds, if dried out, are
not viable. They need to be planted as
soon as they fall from the mother plant.
Importation is hardly feasible.
DIFFICULT. The plant can be hardly
cultivated outside its natural habitat. It is
a bush native to high tropical altitudes,
with similar cultivation requirements
than the tea plant (Camelia sinensis), but
with higher altitude needed. It needs to
be kept alive for years to be profitable.
DIFFICULT. The plant itself is little
hazardous, it needs to be processed to
obtain the cocaine, the active principle
and the substance that is truly harmful.
Young leaves are the raw material used
in cocaine production. Consumed as
such they produce only light stimulating
effects, little hazardous, similar to those
of tea or coffee. Transformation into
cocaine, however, entails cumbersome
chemical processing tasks (almost
industrial-scaled), which need of
adequate facilities and large amounts of
chemicals to be supplied. Such activities
would be easily detected by Qatar
authorities. Additionally, the yield of the
whole process is pretty low, high
amounts of coca leave are needed, and
large plantations required to produce it
(approx. 5.5 kg of cocaine
clorhydrate/cultivated hectare) (ODC,
2014).
LEAST CONCERN. Despite the active
principle is highly harmful, cultivation and
importation are little feasible in Qatar,
and processing inside the country would
require a significant investment that
would be easily detected by authorities.
2 Catha edulis KHAT, QAAT
(cathinone)
ALIEN
(YEMEN,
HORN OF
AFRICA)
LOW EASY. Seeds are medium-sized, but can
be easily transported and planted in new
locations.
DIFFICULT. Like coca plant (Erythroxylon
coca) and tea (Camelia sinensis), khat is
bush growing in high tropical altitudes. It
also needs to be kept alive for years, to
be profitable. Cultivation and production
in Qatar is unlikely, even in indoor
conditions.
DIFFICULT. Fresh leaves and tender
stems are directly chewed. Sometimes
they are dried out and consumed as tea.
No purification of active principle is
known. It entails that large amounts of
plant material are needed to be
imported for consumption, which would
be easily controlled by authorities.
LEAST CONCERN. The active principle,
although highly stimulating, has one of
the lowest addictive and harmful effects
among narcotics. Only fresh plant
material is consumed, and cannot be
produced locally. Importation would be
easily controlled by custom authorities.
3 Nicotiana spp. TOBACCOES
(nicotine)
ALIEN
(AMERICA)
LOW EASY. Tobacco seeds are easy to
transport, germinate and grow in indoor
conditions. One particular species,
Nicotiana glauca, is likely to naturalize
around human settlements (common in
Southern Europe), but apparently has
not yet been reported in Qatar.
EASY. Some species are even used as
ornamental plants. The common
tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum, is a fast-
growing, annual plant, easy to cultivate
indoor.
DIFFICULT. Nicotiana tabacum, is
chewed or smoked. Although highly
addictive, it only generates a mild
stimulation and no psychoactive effects
are known. High amounts of raw plant
material are needed to produce serious
intoxications. As in many other
countries, Nicotiana tabacum is legally
imported and distributed in Qatar, so
that cultivation by consumers is not
needed.
LEAST CONCERN. Nicotiana tabacum is
widely available in the legal trade, and is
of easy (but little profitable for self-
consumption) cultivation. Its active
principle (nicotine) is little hazardous to
human health. Other Nicotiana spp. have
similar traits, and only one in particular,
Nicotiana glauca, is worth to be
monitored because of its invasive
potential.

4
STIMULATING PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
4 Coffea arabica/
Coffea robusta
(C. canephora)
COFFEE
(caffeine)
ALIEN
(AFRICA)
LOW MEDIUM. Seeds are small, durable, and
easy to transport. Raw seeds are
available online for cultivation.
Germination, though, is tricky. Seeds
preferably must be collected and
fermented within the fruit. This hinders
considerably self-production.
DIFFICULT. Tropical bushes (in the case
of C. robusta even tree) which are not
easy to cultivate. They grow better at
medium altitude. C. arabica (1.5%
caffeine) is much more demanding than
C. robusta (2.7% caffeine) (Gennaro and
Abrigo, 1992). They cannot grow in the
outdoor conditions of Qatar.
DIFFICULT. Beans were first time
roasted and grinded to prepare the
stimulating brew in Ethiopia. Nowadays
the use of coffee is widespread across
the world. The relatively low production
of seed per plant makes cultivation for
self-consumption little profitable,
especially if outdoor conditions are not
suitable. Large plantations are needed to
maintain sufficient production. Caffeine,
the active principle, is found in high
amounts in seeds, and in lesser degree
in other parts of the plant. It is a mild
stimulating.
LEAST CONCERN. Self-production of
coffee is little feasible. However, the raw
material is widely available, as it has
become integral part of cultures all over
the world. The active principle, caffeine,
is a mild stimulating which does not pose
a serious threat to health.
5 Camelia
sinensis
TEA
(caffeine,
theobromine)
ALIEN
(ASIA)
LOW DIFFICULT. Tea plants are commonly
propagated by using vegetative
propagation methods. Seeds need to be
fresh to be viable, so that cultivation
outside their natural distribution range
is difficult (Sato, 2007).
DIFFICULT. Like coffee plants (Coffea
arabica and C. robusta), tea plant is a
tropical bush that grows better at mid
altitude. However, unlike those, it is
relatively slow-growing. Indoor
production is feasible, but likely little
profitable. The plant, when cultivated at
low altitude (or indoor), grows faster
and contains less caffeine.
DIFFICULT. Dry buds have been used to
prepare tea in Asia for millennia.
Nowadays its cultivation and
consumption is widespread all over the
world. Self-production is pretty
unfeasible and little profitable, as the
bush is slow-growing and buds need to
be regularly harvested.
Dry leaves have up to 3% caffeine
content. They also contain theobromine
in about 0.1% (Gennaro and Abrigo,
1992). The brew is a mild stimulant.
LEAST CONCERN. The plant is very
difficult to cultivate outside its natural
range and, if successfully cultivated,
normally will have low quality for
consumption. However, like coffee, raw
material is widely available, as tea culture
is now widespread all over the world. The
brew has a mild stimulating effect, caused
by the active principle caffeine, which at
low doses pose no threat to health.
6 Ilex
paraguariensis
MATE, YERBA
MATE
(caffeine,
theobromine)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW DIFFICULT. Seeds need to be fresh to be
viable, so that cultivation outside their
original range is not easy. They are
difficult to germinate anyway.
DIFFICULT. The mate is a tropical bush
demanding high precipitations to grow.
Cultivation indoor is not impossible, but
seems tricky and little profitable.
DIFFICULT. Mate tea was already
consumed as stimulating brew by the
Guarani people in Pre-Columbian Era.
Nowadays it is integral part of the
culture of many South American
countries. Like tea plant (Camellia
sinensis), mate is not easy to cultivate
and self-production is little profitable,
given that leafs have to be harvested
regularly. Mate tea caffeine content
ranges between 0.5-2%, being 1% in
average. It also contains about 0.5% of
theobromine, another stimulating
alkaloid (Pomilio et al., 2002).
LEAST CONCERN. The plant is difficult and
little profitable to produce for self-
consumption and, unlike tea or coffee,
the raw stuff is not commercialized
outside its native distribution range
(South America). In any case, the active
principle, the caffeine, entails little risk to
health if not consumed in high amounts.

5
STIMULATING PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
7 Ilex guayusa GUAYUSA
(caffeine,
theobromine)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW DIFFICULT. Like the other caffeinated
Ilex sp., germination is extremely
difficult, only feasible if seeds are fresh.
They are not commercialized.
DIFFICULT. Evergreen bush native to the
upper Amazon. Cultivation indoor would
be difficult, and very little profitable.
DIFFICULT. Dry leaves are traditionally
used to make tea by Kichwa people of
the Ecuador. Given that leaves are the
raw-material used, self-production
seems little profitable, unless a large
number of plants be grown. The effect
of guayusa brew is similar to that of
coffee or tea, as it contains the same
active principles (caffeine and
theobromine).
LEAST CONCERN. Seeds are hard to find
and, if not fresh, impossible to germinate.
The plant is also difficult to cultivate. In
Qatar only indoor cultivation could be an
option, although little profitable. Guayusa
is a caffeinated stimulating that, if
consumed in a moderate way, does not
pose a serious threat to health.
8 Ilex vomitoria YAUPON
(caffeine,
theobromine)
ALIEN
(NORTH
AND
CENTRAL
AMERICA)
LOW DIFFICULT. Germination is a bit more
feasible than for other Ilex caffeinated
species, but anyway it is tricky (need
coat nicking) and extremely slow (it may
take years). Seeds are commercialized
online.
DIFFICULT. It is more drought tolerant
than its Amazonian relatives form the
genus Ilex and clearly much more
adaptable and resistant. The plant is
widely used as ornamental in southeast
USA. However, high summer
temperatures makes it little suitable for
outdoor cultivation in Qatar.
MEDIUM. Bush/small-tree native to the
subtropical forests of southeastern
North America, and the Mexican state of
Chiapas. Natives consumed a tea-like
brew made on dry leaves and stems. In
Qatar outdoor cultivation is not feasible
and indoor cultivation would be little
profitable for consumption. Like coffee
and tea, the brew has a mild stimulating
effect, as it also contains caffeine.
Despite its name, the plant does not
cause vomiting. This misconception has
to do with the fact that native American
ceremonies where yaupon was used also
involved self-inflicted vomiting as a way
of purification.
LEAST CONCERN. Seeds are available in
the market, but they are extremely
difficult to germinate and cultivate.
Outdoor production in Qatar is little
feasible, and indoor cultivation would be
tricky and little profitable. The brew
made on dried leaves has a mild
stimulating effect, such as that of coffee
or tea, and does not pose a real threat to
health.
9 Paullinia
cupana
GUARANA
(caffeine,
theobromine)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW DIFFICULT. Seeds are only viable when
fresh. Germination rate is very low, even
in optimal conditions.
DIFFICULT. Guarana plant is a climbing
bush native to the Amazon. It is very
demanding cultivation, even when
weather conditions are optimal.
Outdoor conditions of Qatar are not
suitable for guarana production. The
plant requires extremely high humidity
and would not resist summer peak
temperatures. Indoor cultivation is
unfeasible.
DIFFICULT. Seeds are used as stimulant
by Amazonian peoples of Paraguay
(Guarani and Tupi). More recently they
have been commercialized in the
Western World. They are shelled and,
roasted or not, grinded. Seed powder is
later used to prepare a coffee-like brew.
Given that seeds are the raw material
used and that cultivation is demanding,
self-production is difficult. Some
products though are available in the
market online. Caffeine content is about
double that of coffee beans, ranging
between 2-4.5%. Theobromine is also
found, but in much lower amounts.
Seeds are also rich in vitamins and other
beneficial compounds.
LEAST CONCERN. Guarana is difficult to
find, germinate and grow. It is not
suitable for the outdoor cultivation in
Qatar and hardly profitable if cultivated
indoor. Purified extracts are, though,
widely available online, as the plant has
gained in popularity in recent times. Its
consumption, if moderate, has beneficial
effects, due to its high vitamin content.

6
STIMULATING PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
10 Cola nitida/
Cola acuminata
COLA NUT
(caffeine-catechine,
theobromine)
ALIEN
(WESTERN
AFRICA)
LOW DIFFICULT. Seeds are relatively large and
have to be fresh to be viable.
Germination is extremely slow and
tricky, being seeds liable to fungal
infections (Tachie-Obeng and Brown,
2001).
DIFFICULT. Tropical evergreen tree
native to Africa. Cultivation outdoor
seems little feasible in Qatar given the
extreme temperatures experienced
during summer time. It is not suitable
for indoor production (Tachie-Obeng
and Brown, 2001).
DIFFICULT. Seeds ware traditionally
chewed as stimulant in tropical West
Africa. Later it became a popular
ingredient to prepare soft drinks,
spreading all over the world during the
last century. Self-production, outside
natural range, is little feasible. Cola nuts
contain between 1-2.5% of caffeine-
catechine and traces of theobromine
(Gennaro and Abrigo, 1992). They have
just a mild stimulating effect.
LEAST CONCERN. Seeds are not viable if
not fresh, and are extremely difficult to
obtain. The plant is little suitable for
cultivation outdoor in Qatar, and not
suitable for indoor production. It needs to
fructify to provide seeds, the raw material
used. Pollination seems tricky outside its
natural range. Consumption poses little
threat to health anyway, as it contains
caffeine and theobromine, like other mild
stimulants.
11 Theobroma
cacao
COCOA
(theobromine,
caffeine)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AND
SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW DIFFICULT. Germination is tricky. It
requires previous fermentation and is
only feasible if the seeds are fresh. They
are available on line though (Estrada et
al., 2011).
DIFFICULT. Tropical evergreen tree
native to the rainforests of Central and
South America. Likely it would not resist
the summer outdoor conditions of
Qatar. It is little suitable for cultivation
indoor (Estrada et al., 2011).
DIFFICULT. Cocoa seeds have been
extensively used by cultures of Central
America, including the Maya, the Olmec,
and the Aztec. They were even served as
coin. Typically, seeds were roasted and
grinded, and the powder used to make a
brew. This has a mild stimulating effect,
as it contains small amounts of
theobromine and traces of caffeine. It
was also thought to have aphrodisiac
properties. Today, the consumption of
cocoa powder and other chocolate
derivates have spread all over the world.
Like cola (Cola nitida, C. acuminata), the
production of raw material (seeds)
requires pollination, which seems pretty
tricky outside tropical areas. Cultivation,
both outdoor and indoor, is little
feasible in Qatar and would be, in any
case, little profitable from the point of
view of self-consumption.
LEAST CONCERN. Cocoa plant is difficult
to obtain and cultivate. It yields low
production rates if not cultivated in large
plantations, as seeds are the raw material
used. In Qatar both indoor and outdoor
cultivation are little feasible. Pollination
needed to produce seeds also seems
complicated. Chocolate derivates are,
though, widely commercialized across the
world in all their forms. The alkaloid
content of those products is anecdotal,
merely traces of caffeine and
theobromine. The brew made on roasted
seeds, consumed in the traditional way,
has a mild stimulating effect, which does
not pose a threat to health.
12 Areca catechu ARECA NUT PALM,
BETLE NUT
(arecaidine,
arecoline)
ALIEN
(SOUTH-
EAST ASIA,
OCEANIA)
MEDIUM
(mild, but
highly
addictive
effects)
MEDIUM. Seeds could be transported,
but they are large and not easy to
germinate.
DIFFICULT. Tropical palm whose
cultivation is hard and certainly little-
profitable outside its native distribution
range. The plant needs to fructify
successfully, as seeds are the part
consumed as entheogen.
DIFFICULT. Raw nuts are traditionally
chewed together with betel piper
leaves/aments (Piper betle), lime (coral
powder or others) to keep the alkaline
pH enabling sublingual absorption of
alkaloids, and sometimes tobacco or
other spices. The alkaloids (arecaidine,
arecoline) have a mild stimulating,
euphoric effect, but are extremely
addictive. Chewing causes quick
deterioration of dentition and has been
pointed out as cause of oral cancer,
among other harmful side effects
(Rooney, 1993, Rooney, 1995, Xuan-Hien
and Reichart, 2008).
LEAST CONCERN. It has mild stimulating
properties and only entails severe side
effects through a prolonged
consumption. This is unlikely in Qatar as
the plant can be hardly obtained and
cannot be produced locally.

7
STIMULATING PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
13 Piper betle BETEL PIPER ALIEN
(SOUTH-
EAST ASIA,
OCEANIA)
LOW MEDIUM. Seeds are suitable for
preservation, transportation, and
germination, but are hardly available in
the market.
MEDIUM. Evergreen vine from tropical
rainforests, whose cultivation indoor
seems feasible, although perhaps not
very profitable for consumption.
DIFFICULT. Leaves or aments are
chewed together with areca nuts (Areca
catechu) and other ingredients. Alone it
has very mild stimulating effects
(Pradhan et al., 2013).
LEAST CONCERN. The plant could be
cultivated indoor but has only mild
stimulating effects and is traditionally
consumed with other ingredients that are
difficult to obtain.
14 Ephedra spp. EPHEDRAS
(ephedrine)
ALIEN*
(WORLDW
IDE)
* There is
a local
species, E.
foliata,
which is
not
psychoacti
ve
LOW EASY. Seeds are small, durable, and easy
to commercialize. They are widely
available online. Germination yields
good results.
EASY. Fast-growing, drought-resistant,
leafless bushes, easy to cultivate indoor.
Some species are also suitable for
outdoor cultivation in Qatar. Indeed one
particular species, E. foliata, naturally
occurs in the country (while it lacks of
alkaloid content).
EASY. Dry stems have been used to
make tea in China for millennia. Not all
the species of the genus contain
sufficient alkaloid content to be
effective. The three main cultivated
species are E. sinica, E. vulgaris and E.
equisetina, with between 0.5-2%
alkaloid content. Plants are fast-growing.
Self-production is pretty profitable, as
almost all plant material can be used to
prepare the brew. Purified ephedrine
extracts are also available in the market,
and are subjected to regulation in some
countries. Ephedrine, consumed at high
doses (from extracts), entails a number
of undesirable side effects (EFSA,
2013a).
MEDIUM CONCERN. Ephedrine-rich
species (E. sinica and others) are easily
available in the market, being their
cultivation profitable, even in outdoor
conditions. One species naturally occurs
in Qatar (E. foliata) but its alkaloid
content is extremely low or inexistent (at
least in plants from Pakistan) (Ibragic and
Sofić, 2015, Caveney et al., 2001).
Ephedrine is a mild stimulant whose
consumption in the traditional way (stem
tea) does not pose a serious threat to
health. Ephedrine extracts should be
taken into account though, and perhaps
be submitted to regulation.
15 Panax ginseng/
Panax spp.
GINSENG
(ginsenosides,
gintonin)
ALIEN
(ASIA)
LOW MEDIUM. Seeds need a long storage
with warm/cold treatment to germinate.
Propagation from seeds, while difficult,
is the main method used. Seeds are
commercially available online, and have
normally followed the prior period of
storage required.
MEDIUM. Ginsengs are slow-growing
perennial plants native to temperate
areas of Asia. Self-production is feasible
indoor, some care provided, but sounds
little profitable. Not suitable for outdoor
cultivation in Qatar.
EASY. Ginseng roots have long been
used by Chinese traditional medicine
and by other cultures of Asia as
stimulating, medicinal, and aphrodisiac.
Nowadays it is commercialized in a
number of forms, as a major ingredient
of alternative medicine. Science is still
trying to understand the complexity of
its particular chemistry. No beneficial
effects have been yet proven
scientifically. Consumption is considered
to be safe, even in high amounts.
However some side effects have been
described, such as nausea, diarrhea, and
hypertension. Given than plants are
slow-growing and roots have to be
removed for consumption, self-
production, although feasible, seems
little profitable. A number of commercial
derivates are available in the market
though.
LEAST CONCERN. Consumption of
ginseng root has mild effects and does
not pose a threat to health. Seeds are
difficult to germinate, but are available
online. The plant is slow growing, but can
be grown indoor if care is provided. A
number of ginseng derivates are
commercially available though.

8
STIMULATING PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
16 Withania
somnifera
ASHWAGANDHA,
INDIAN GINSENG
(tropine,
cuscohygrine, and
withanolides)
LOCAL
(probably
introduced
)
LOW EASY. The plant can be found locally.
Propagation is feasible both from seeds
and through vegetative methods.
EASY. Drought-resistant, relatively fast-
growing, perennial bush, which can be
found around human settlements in
Qatar.
EASY. The root is long used by the
Ayurvedic medicine of India. The mild
alkaloids of ashwagandha are also found
in coca plant (Erythroxylon coca) and
other psychoactive species of the
Solanaceae family (Atropa spp., Datura
spp.). However, unlike them, it lacks of
the most potent compounds, such as
atropine or cocaine. Despite its name, it
seems to have an energizing effect if
consumed regularly (Sandhu et al.,
2010). Paradoxically, also axiolythic
properties have been described
(Chandrasekhar et al., 2012). Harvesting
entails killing the plant, as the root is the
part used, but the plant can be found
locally and is easy to cultivate.
LEAST CONCERN. Despite the plant is
easily available, as naturalized species in
Qatar, its psychoactive effects are pretty
mild and only seem noticeable after
regular use.
17 Peganum
harmala
WILD RUE
(MAOIs,
monoamine
oxydase inhibitors:
harmina,
harmalina, and
others)
ALIEN
(EUROPE
& ASIA)
LOW EASY. Seeds are small, dry, easy to
transport. They are widely available
online.
EASY. It is a small perennial bush, salt
and drought resistant, which can
potentially adapt to the outdoor
conditions of Qatar.
EASY. Seeds are burnt as incense or
smoked, producing mild psychoactive
effects. Also it is traditionally known as
abortifacient agent, and has other
medicinal, antiparasitic uses.
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant has mild
psychoactive effects but can be easily
introduced, cultivated, and even
naturalized in Qatar. Some undesirable
side effects have been described.
18 Sceletium
tortuosum
KANNA
(mesembrine,
mesembrenone
mesembrenol
tortuosamine)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AFRICA)
LOW EASY. Because of its properties, the
plant is being commercially exploited,
and seeds are available online.
EASY. As a succulent plant, adapted to
drought, it is likely to naturalize in Qatar
and, if desired, it could be easily
cultivated outdoor.
EASY. Traditionally dried roots and
leaves are chewed by Khoi peoples of
South Africa, as a stimulant and anxiety
killer. Higher doses only produce
euphoria.
LEAST CONCERN. Kanna can be easily
obtained and cultivated, but its
consumption, which only causes mild
stimulating effects, does not pose a
serious threat to health.
19 Lagochilus
inebrians
INEBRIATING MINT,
TURKESTAN MINT
(lagochilin)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
ASIA)
LOW EASY. Seeds are widely available online,
being small, durable, and easy to
transport.
EASY. Annual fast-growing plant of the
mint family (Labiatae) that doesn’t seem
to pose a significant challenge for
cultivation.
EASY. The plant is harvested in Central
Asia for consumption. Raw plant
material (including flowers, leaves, and
stems) is used to prepare a tea-like
brew. The effects of the active principle
lagochilin are euphoria and mild
dissociation of perceptions.
MEDIUM CONCERN. The effect of the
active principle lagochillin is pretty mild
and does not seem to pose a significant
threat to human health. However, it
would not be difficult to use the plant for
recreational purpose, as seeds are
available in the market and its cultivation
is easy and profitable.

9
DEPRESSANT PLANTS
DEPRESSANT PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
20 Papaver
somniferum
OPIUM POPPY
(heroin)
ALIEN
(ASIA
MINOR &
EUROPE)
HIGH EASY. Small seeds that can be easily
imported. They keep viable for long time
and keep viable for long time.
EASY. Easily cultivated. Little-demanding
plant, with short life cycle. It needs of
temperate climate, so that only indoor
cultivation is suitable in Qatar.
DIFFICULT. Raw opium (opium sap) is
collected from the seed capsules of
opium poppy and can be consumed as
such (smoked). Opium can be later
converted into heroin through a
chemical processing. Production rate,
both for the raw material and for the
active principle, is very low. It needs to
maintain large plantations to be
profitable. One hectare of poppy
produces in average between 7.5 and
22.5 kg of raw opium per hectare, which
yields only from 0.45 to 1.35 kg of
heroin. Potentially, only private
consumption of raw opium sap is
feasible in a place like Qatar. Local
production of cocaine is very unlikely.
MEDIUM CONCERN. Seeds can be easily
imported and cultivated indoor. On the
other hand, given the low production
rate, only consumption of raw opium
seems feasible. The substance, though, is
highly harmful. Even the raw opium sap,
whose heroin content is significantly
lower, can be extremely addictive and
cause of a number negative side effects.
21 Cannabis sativa CANNABIS,
MARIHUANA (THC)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
ASIA &
INDIA)
LOW EASY. Seeds are small, and can be
preserved for long time, and keep being
viable. They are even available to be
purchased on line.
EASY. Easily cultivated. It is a little
demanding, highly adaptable, fast-
growing plant, with short life cycle
(annual, biannual). It also yields good
production. It can be planted, cultivated,
and harvested within only a few months
time. In Qatar, though, only indoor
cultivation seems feasible.
EASY. Inflorescences are consumed dry.
No further processing is needed.
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant can be
easily introduced in the country, and later
cultivated, processed, and consumed
without further difficulties. However, it
poses a mild threat to human health.
22 Piper
methysticum
KAVA-KAVA
(kavalactones)
ALIEN
(OCEANIA)
LOW MEDIUM. Seeds are suitable for
preservation, transportation, and
germination, but are hardly available in
the market.
MEDIUM. Evergreen vine from tropical
seems feasible. Given that its
consumption entails the extraction of
roots and the killing of the plant,
production does not seem very
profitable outside its natural habitat.
DIFFICULT. Traditionally a brew is
prepared by chewing the root. It has a
narcotic, anxiolytic effect. Many
medicinal properties have been
described, but also some potentially
harmful effects, such as hepatoxicity.
LEAST CONCERN. Hard to be obtained
and cultivated in Qatar. Self-production
would be extremely little profitable, as
the plant has to be killed for
consumption. It only produces mild
narcotic effects.
23 Silene capensis
(S. undulata)
AFRICAN DREAM
ROOT, IINDLELA
ZIMHLOPHE
(triterpenoid
saponins)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AFRICA)
LOW EASY. Seeds are tiny and durable, and
are widely available in the market
online.
EASY. Strong, perennial grass very easy
to cultivate in indoor conditions.
EASY. Roots have long been used as
dream enhancer by the Xhosa people of
South Africa. In wakefulness effects are
mild and almost imperceptible. Despite
root harvesting entails to kill the plant,
cultivation for self-consumption is still
profitable for its fast and little
demanding growth.
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant
consumption has mild effects, which
seem to pose little threat to human
health. However, being easy to get and
grow, and indoor cultivation profitable, it
could become popular for recreational
use.

10
DEPRESSANT PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
24 Erythrina
americana
CORAL TREE,
COLORINES
(erytraline,
erysodine, and
others)
ALIEN
(MEXICO)
MEDIUM
(toxic at high
doses)
EASY. Seeds are beans that can be kept
viable for a long time. They are small
and easy to transport.
EASY. Drought-tolerant bush native to
the tropical xerophytic/deciduous
forests of Central America. Cultivation
does not pose difficulties and seems
feasible in Qatar in outdoor conditions, if
irrigation is provided.
MEDIUM. Traditionally used as sedative
and anxiolytic by cultures of Central
America. Seeds are the part of the plant
with higher alkaloid content, and the
raw material that is typically consumed.
Despite the plant is used as ornamental,
seeds are not easy to find. Seed
production outside their native range
sounds complicated and very likely
should be implemented by hand, given
that the species is pollinated in the wild
by hummingbirds. The action
mechanisms of its chemistry are not yet
well understood by science. It is known
to be toxic in high doses and even lethal
to animals (IDRC, 1989).
LEAST CONCERN. Despite the plant has
ornamental use, it is not easy to find in
the market. Seeds would not be difficult
to germinate and grow (in Qatar, and
with irrigation, even outdoor). However,
due to the particular pollination
mechanism of the species, their
production seems difficult outside their
natural habitat, and they are indeed the
raw material that is consumed. The
alkaloids that contains are relatively mild
and high doses are needed to produce
serious intoxications.
25 Calea
zacatechichi
(Calea
ternifolia)
MEXICAN CALEA,
DREAM HERB,
HIERBA DE LOS
SUEÑOS
(caleicines,
caleochromenes)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AMERICA)
LOW EASY. Like other Asteraceae, fruits are
achenes with pappus, small, durable and
easy to transport. They are available in
the market online.
EASY. Fast-growing, perennial bush,
whose cultivation does not pose
difficulties under controlled conditions.
EASY. Traditionally used by Chontal
people of Oaxaca (Mexico) as sedative
enhancer of dreams. Typically dry leaves
are smoked. No lethal dose has been
described (Shultes, 1976).
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant chemistry
does not seem to pose a serious threat to
health, but recreational use is easy as
seeds are available online and cultivation
indoor is feasible. Dry leafs are smoked.
26 Nymphaea
caerulea/
Nelumbo
nucifera
BLUE LOTUS/
INDIAN LOTUS
(apomorphine,
nuciferine)
ALIEN
(AFRICA/
INDIA)
LOW EASY. Small seeds that are
commercialized online. Both plants have
ornamental use.
DIFFICULT. Hydrophytes whose
cultivation would entail an enormous
investment to recreate their aquatic
habitat.
EASY. Both are lotus native to the Nile
valley. N. caerulea played a significant
role in Egyptian mythology, where is
likely to have been used as entheogenic.
Psychedellic properties are well known
by science, ranging between sedation to
mild dissociation. Difficulty of self-
production lies on cultivation, as it
requires a huge investment. However,
consumption itself is easy. Raw plant
leaves and stems can be eaten as such. It
can also be boiled to make tea or dried
to be smoked.
LEAST CONCERN. Their chemistry is
pretty mild and don´t seem to pose a
serious threat to human health. Despite
seeds are available online, plants are
extremely difficult to grow, as they
require a huge investment to recreate
their natural (aquatic) habitat.

11
HALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
27 Datura spp. STRAMONIUM &
OTHERS
(atropine,
hyoscyamine,
scopolamine &
other alkaloids)
ALIEN
(WORLD-
WIDE)
D. innoxia
reported
in Qatar
(Norton et
al., 2009)
HIGH
(lethally
poisonous at
moderate
doses)
EASY. Small seeds, easy to transport,
which keep being viable for long time.
EASY. Annual or biannual plants, of
quick development, that can be easily
grown in a pot. The active principles are
found in high amount, so that only one
plant is enough to perform the
hazardous consumption.
EASY. No processing/purification are
needed. With alkaloid contents up to
7g/kg of dry weight, small amounts of
raw plant material, if consumed, are
able to produce strong psychoactive
effects. It poses a serious threat to
health, miscalculations on the right dose
may end up causing death (EFSA,
2013b).
HIGH CONCERN. Seeds are easy to
import, and the plants are not difficult to
grow, quickly yielding the small raw
material that is needed for consumption.
With extremely high content of lethal
alkaloids, they pose a serious threat to
human health that can even cause the
death.
28 Hyoscyamus
niger/
Hioscyamus
spp.
HENBANE
& OTHERS
(hyoscyamine,
scopolamine &
other alkaloids)
ALIEN
(EUROPE,
ASIA,
MIDDLE
EAST)
HIGH
(lethally
poisonous at
moderate
doses)
EASY. Not difficult to grow in pot, in
indoor conditions. Plants with a short life
cycle, annual or biannual, which grows
quickly and can soon be used. Their
strong chemistry makes small-scaled
cultivation to be profitable for
consumption.
needed. With alkaloid contents reaching
3g/kg of dry weight, just a small amount
of raw plant material, if consumed, is
effects. They pose a serious threat to
2013b).
import, and plants are not difficult to
grow, quickly yielding the small raw
material that is needed for consumption.
With extremely high content of lethal
alkaloids, they pose a serious threat to
human health that can even cause the
death.
29 Atropa
belladonna
BELLADONNA
(atropine,
hyoscyamine,
scopolamine &
other alkaloids)
ALIEN
(EUROPE,
NORTH
AFRICA,
ASIA)
HIGH
(lethally
poisonous at
moderate
doses)
EASY. Despite being a perennial plant, its
cultivation is easier than that of
mandrake (Mandragora officinarum).
However, it grows much slower than the
short life-cycled henbane (Hyoscyamus
niger) and stramonium (Datura
stramonium). Of course, in Qatar, it
would need to be planted indoor.
needed. With alkaloid contents up to
10g/kg of dry weight, small amounts of
raw plant material, if consumed, are
effects. It poses a serious threat to
2013b).
import, and the plant is not difficult to
grow indoor, although it is less productive
than its annual relatives from the
Solanaceae family. However, the alkaloid
content is still high, so that in small
amounts produces strong psychoactive
effects and intoxications that can cause
the death.
30 Mandragora
officinarum
MANDRAKE
(atropine,
hyoscyamine,
scopolamine &
other alkaloids)
ALIEN
(EUROPE)
HIGH
(lethally
poisonous at
moderate
doses)
DIFFICULT. The plant is perennial and
not easy to grow. In Qatar it necessarily
needs to do so in indoor conditions.
EASY. All parts of the plant can be
directly consumed, producing
psychoactive effects in small amounts.
The alkaloid content varies significantly
between plants, so that accidental (even
lethal) intoxication is highly likely to
occur.
MEDIUM CONCERN. Like other
psychoactive plants from the family
Solanaceae, it has a strong chemistry that
poses a very serious threat to human
health, even in small amounts. However,
and despite seeds are easy to transport,
the plant is very difficult to grow, even in
indoor conditions.

12
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
31 Banisteriopsis
caapi
CAAPI
-AYAHUASCA
INGREDIENT-
(MAOIs,
monoamine
oxydase inhibitors:
harmina,
harmalina, and
others)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW
(only high in
combination
with other
ayahuasca
ingredients)
MEDIUM. The seeds are dry, potentially
easy to preserve and transport, but
DIFFICULT. It is a tropical vine whose
cultivation looks complicated. The
preparation of ayahuasca brew entails to
inflict serious damage or destruction of
entire the plant, so that production for
self-consumption turns out to be little
profitable.
DIFFICULT. Very strong entheogenic
effects when used in combination with
other ayahuasca ingredients. The
consumption of the liana alone has
some, but milder psychoactive power.
The recipe to make ayahuasca is
transmitted orally from one generation
to another among indigenous tribes of
South America. It is extremely
complicated to prepare, as the
combination of ingredients need to be
accurate to make it effective.
LEAST CONCERN. Despite the ayahuasca
brew has extraordinarily strong (little
toxic) entheogenic properties, it is very
difficult to prepare and ingredients can
hardly be found outside their natural
distribution range. Ingredients cultivation
and consumption of the ayahuasca in
Qatar are pretty unlikely. The vine alone
has milder psychoactive effects.
32 Psychotria
viridis/
P.
carthaginensis
CHACRUNA/
AMYRUCA
-AYAHUASCA
INGREDIENTS-
(DMT)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AND
SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW
(only high in
combination
with other
ayahuasca
ingredients)
MEDIUM. The seeds are small and dry
(like coffee beans), potentially easy to
preserve and transport, but difficult to
obtain.
MEDIUM. The plant is difficult to obtain
and, because of its humid tropical origin,
only likely to be cultivated indoor.
other ayahuasca ingredients. The oral
consumption of the plant alone is
innocuous, as the active principle (DMT)
can only be absorbed by gastrointestinal
tract when combined with the
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)
provided by Banisteriopsis caapi. The
recipe to make ayahuasca is transmitted
orally from one generation to another
among indigenous tribes of South
America. It is extremely complicated to
prepare, as the combination of
ingredients need to be accurate to make
it effective.
Qatar are pretty unlikely. The plant alone
is not effective, unless it is combined with
the MAOI molecules provided by
Banisteriopsis caapi, which enable DMTs
to be absorbed by gastrointestinal tract
when taken orally.
33 Diplopteris
cabrerana
CHALIPONGA
-AYAHUASCA
INGREDIENT-
(DMT)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW
(only high in
combination
with other
ayahuasca
ingredients)
MEDIUM. The seeds are dry, potentially
easy to preserve and transport, but
MEDIUM. The plant is difficult to obtain
and, because of its humid tropical origin,
only likely to be cultivated indoor.
it effective.
when taken orally.

13
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
34 Mimosa hostilis
(M. tenuifolia)
JUREMA
-AYAHUASCA
INGREDIENT-
(DMT)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AND
SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW
(only high in
combination
with other
ayahuasca
ingredients)
MEDIUM. Seeds are available online in
specialized markets. They are small, and
easy to preserve and transport.
EASY. Like other Mimosa spp., the plant
doesn´t seem to pose much difficulties
to be grown under controlled conditions.
it effective.
when taken orally.
35 Brunfelsia
grandiflora
BRUNFELSIA,
CHIRICASPI
-AYAHUASCA
INGREDIENT-
(aesculetine,
cuscohygrine,
manaceine,
manacine,
escopoletina)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
HIGH EASY. Seeds are small, durable, and easy
to transport. They are widely available
online, as the plant has extensive
ornamental use.
EASY. Normally the bark is soaked or
boiled to prepare brews, as it seems to
be the part of the plant with higher
alkaloid content. Roots and leaves can
also be used. In some areas it is an
ingredient of the Ayahuasca, but can
also be consumed alone. The effects on
the nervous system are strong and, at
high doses, may lead to delirium and
cause permanent side effects such as
haze and blindness.
HIGH CONCERN. The plant meets all
requirements to be considered a serious
threat. Its chemistry is complex and
potent, and can cause severe side effects
if consumed at high doses. Moreover, it is
easy to obtain and grow, and could be
found in gardens as it is widely used as
ornamental. Fortunately, it seems to be
little known by the public for its
psychoactive properties.
36 Sophora
secundiflora
(Dermatophyllu
m
secundiflorum)
TEXAS MOUNTAIN
LAUREL
(cytisine)
ALIEN
(MEXICO,
TEXAS)
HIGH
(small doses
can be fatal)
EASY. It is a popular ornamental plant,
whose seeds are available online at a
low cost.
MEDIUM. As ornamental bush, its
cultivation is feasible, if some care is
provided.
MEDIUM. The seeds and other parts of
the plant (the whole plant contain
alkaloids) are consumed by Native
Americans as hallucinogenic. A relatively
small amount of seeds causes strong
psychoactive effects. The plant poses
some challenges to be cultivated, but a
single plant could provide enough
material to produce intoxications.
HIGH CONCERN. The plant is a bit tricky
to grown, but seeds are available in the
market as ornamental. Indeed the seeds
are the part traditionally used to produce
psychoactive effects, so that they could
be legally purchased and consumed with
no need of further production. Small
doses of the active principle, cystine, can
be fatal.
37 Pernettia
furens
(Gaultheria
insane)/
Pernettia
parvifolia
HIERBA LOCA,
HUEDHUED,
TAGILI
(andromedot-
oxine, arbutine)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
HIGH DIFFICULT. Seeds are hardly found in the
market.
DIFFICULT. As per its origins (moist
mountain forest), the plant seems hard
to be cultivated. It is a perennial bush.
MEDIUM. Fruits are consumed to induce
hallucinogenic effects. Its production,
even in indoor conditions, seems little
feasible in Qatar, as pollinators are
needed to produce fruits. Overdose
causes serious intoxicating effects and
even the death.
MEDIUM CONCERN. Plants are hard to
obtain and cultivate. However, their
toxicity is remarkable and little is known
about the nature of their chemistry. We
have seen fit, therefore, to consider the
level of concern for the species as
"medium".

14
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
38 Virola
calophylla
VIROLA
(DMTs and MAOIs)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
HIGH
(as it
contains
both the
hallucinogeni
c DMTs and
their MAOIs
enhancers)
MEDIUM. The seeds are similar to those
of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), with
which is closely related. They are
potentially good to be preserved and
transported, but they are hardly
available in the market and their
germination would be extremely
difficult.
DIFFICULT. Tree native to tropical
evergreen forest, which could hardly be
cultivated in Qatar.
DIFFICULT. The bark resin is consumed
by indigenous peoples of the Amazonian
region as entheogenic. If optimal
conditions are provided, the tree still
needs long time to reach the size
desired. The damage caused by bark
removal makes little feasible to use the
same single tree for consumption
repeated times (Shultes, 1976).
LEAST CONCERN. The plant is hard to
obtain, and extremely difficult to cultivate
outside its native range. Its cultivation for
consumption, moreover, wouldn´t be
really profitable.
39 Myristica
fragrans
NUTMEG
(probably
myristicin)
ALIEN
(SOUTH-
EAST
ASIA)
MEDIUM
(only
psychoactive
at high
doses,
entailing
unpleasant
side effects)
MEDIUM. Seeds are potentially good to
be preserved and transported, but are
not easy to find whole in the market. If
available, they would be difficult to
germinate and grow.
DIFFICULT. Tree native to tropical
rainforests, which during centuries was
one of the most valued spices as it could
only be grown in the Moluccas region.
Its cultivation in Qatar is little feasible
and certainly non-profitable.
DIFFICULT. Like Virola calophylla,
cultivation and local production are little
feasible and non-profitable. The raw
material, though, is widely
commercialized as spice, so that is easily
available in the market, at a low price.
High doses are needed to be
psychoactive, entailing extremely
annoying side effects (Weil, 1966).
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant cannot be
produced locally, at least in a profitable
way. However, it is widely available in the
market as spice, so that it may potentially
be consumed by some people attracted
by its cannabis-like effects. Its
consumption as entheogenic requires
high doses that entail dangerous side
effects.
40 Tabernanthe
iboga
IBOGA
(ibogaine)
ALIEN
(AFRICA)
MEDIUM DIFFICULT. Seeds, if dried, are not
viable. The need to be fresh and
preferably be kept inside their fruit to be
germinated. They are difficult to find
though.
MEDIUM. Bush native to the tropical
evergreen rainforests of Africa, whose
cultivation seems feasible indoor if the
appropriate care is provided.
MEDIUM. The plant roots are used on
the Bwiti spiritual practise of the Congo
catchment. Bark can also be used. The
active principle ibogaine is stimulating if
consumed in small amounts, but
provokes strong hallucinations at higher
doses. Production for self-consumption
sounds little profitable, as harvesting
(roots or bark) would cause serious
damage to the plant, and very likely its
death.
MEDIUM CONCERN. The bush can
potentially be cultivated indoor, but it is
difficult to find and germinate. The
damage infringed by the removal of the
useful parts (roots or bark) makes self-
production little profitable. Yet, the
hallucinogenic power of the active
principle, ibogaine, is worth to be taken
into account.
41 Voacanga
africana
VOACANGA
(ibogaine and
others)
ALIEN
(AFRICA)
MEDIUM DIFFICULT. Seeds are commercialized
dried.
MEDIUM. Like Tabernanthe iboga, it is a
bush from evergreen tropical
could be successful if the appropriate
conditions are provided.
MEDIUM. Bark and seeds are
traditionally as psychedelic by peoples of
the Gulf of Guinea. They contain
ibogaine, as well as other alkaloids. The
effects are as complex as its chemistry,
ranging from stimulation to psychedelia.
Uses as poison are also described. Like
Tabernanthe iboga, indoor cultivation
for self-consumption is not impossible,
but seems little profitable, given that
bark and seeds are the parts consumed.
HIGH CONCERN. The species is little
known outside its native range. Its
cultivation indoor, while not very
profitable, could be feasible. Seeds are
available in the market and can be
consumed as such, as they also contain
ibogaine, the main active principle. The
plant contains many other alkaloids and
active substances whose consumption
would produce unexpected effects.

15
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
42 Coleus blumei
(Plectranthus
scutellarioides)
/ Coleus spp.
(Plectranthus
spp.)
COLEUS
(unknown active
principles)
ALIEN
(SOUTH-
EAST ASIA)
LOW EASY. Seeds are small, durable, and easy
to pack and transport. They are widely
commercialized as the plants have
extensive ornamental use.
EASY. Plants are very popular to be
grown as indoor ornamental. Their
cultivation poses little difficulties.
EASY. Leaves are used, smoked or
chewed, in the Oaxaca region of Mexico,
where plants were introduced in historic
times. No psychedelic uses are known
from their native range in Southeast
Asia. Widely available in the market of
ornamental plants. They are claimed to
produce mild relaxing/hallucinogenic
effects, but their chemistry is yet little
known by science.
HIGH CONCERN. Plants are widely
available in the ornamental market and,
in some circles, are rising in popularity as
easily accessible substitute of Salvia
divinorum. The species chemistry,
though, is yet little known by science and
its consumption would entail unknown
harmful effects.
43 Salvia
divinorum
SAGE OF THE
DIVINERS, MARIA
PASTORA
(salvinorin A)
HIGH DIFFICULT. The plant mostly reproduces
asexually, rarely produces viable seeds.
There is no consensus whether it is a
true species or just an unfertile hybrid.
DIFFICULT. Seeds are not available in the
market. Cultivation is possible indoor,
but in Qatar would require a huge (and
striking) investment to import seedlings
produced abroad.
EASY. Leaves are used as entheogen in
shamanic practises of the Mazatec of
Mexico. They are normally traditionally
as a tea. Dry leaves and extracts are
widely available online at a low cost.
Although little toxic and non-addictive,
the active principle is the most potent
naturally occurring hallucinogen. It
seems to pose, therefore, a bigger threat
to social order than to human health.
MEDIUM CONCERN. Self-production is
not feasible as the plant naturally does
not produce viable seeds. Dry leaves and
extracts are, however, widely available in
the market. The active principle is little
toxic and non-addictive, but is an
extremely potent hallucinogen.
44 Lophophora
williamsii
PEYOTE (mescaline) ALIEN
(MEXICO)
HIGH MEDIUM. Seeds are widely available
online, but their germination poses
some difficulties.
MEDIUM. Cactus particularly suitable for
cultivation in Qatar, both in outdoor and
indoor conditions. Growth is very slow
though, germinated seeds require
between 5-10 years to reach the size
needed to be consumed. They can be
grafted into larger species of cactus,
which accelerates growth rate
significantly.
EASY. Peoples from the Chihuahuan
desert have consumed the peyote as
entheogen for at least 5,500 years. The
active principle mescaline is a potent
hallucinogenic. Its consumption, though,
entails a number of undesirable side
effects.
MEDIUM CONCERN. Cactus seeds are
widely available in the market and are
particularly suitable for cultivation in
Qatar. However, it is an extremely slow-
growing plant, which makes self-
production little profitable. The whole
body of the cactus is consumed, and it
takes between 5-10 years to grow it. The
active principle, the mescaline, is an
active hallucinogenic that causes a
number of side effects.
45 Echinopsis
pachanoi
SAN PEDRO
CACTUS
(mescaline)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
HIGH EASY. Seeds are widely available online
and are easy to germinate.
EASY. Cactus particularly suitable for
cultivation in Qatar, both in outdoor and
indoor conditions. Unlike the peyote
(Lophophora williamsii), the San Pedro
Cactus is fast-growing, and is often used
as ornamental. It can easily reproduce
vegetatively.
EASY. Traditionally consumed as
entheogen by the Moche people of the
Andes. The cactus can be partially
harvested and keep growing. Mescaline
content is lower than that of
Lophophora williamsii, but this is offset
by its faster growth and size.
HIGH CONCERN. Easily available in the
market, both in the seed form and as a
cultivar. The species is widely use as
ornamental. Easy to grow, cutting, and
grafting, and well adapted to the outdoor
conditions of Qatar. Mescaline content is
lower than that of Peyote cactus
(Lophophora williamsi), but the species
grows faster and can be consumed in
higher amounts. Mescaline is a potent
hallucinogenic associated to a number of
undesirable side effects.

16
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
46 Lobelia tupa TUPA,
TABACO DEL
DIABLO
(lobeline)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
MEDIUM EASY. Seeds are available online and
seem easy to germinate.
EASY. Considered sacred by the
Mapuche people of Chile, latex and
leaves are consumed as entheogen for
their hallucinogenic properties. The
active principle lobeline is a nicotine
agonist used to combat tobacco
addition. It is also known as abortifacient
(Shultes, 1976).
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant is fast-
growing and suitable for indoor
cultivation. Seeds are available online, as
it has ornamental use, but the species is
little known by the public. Latex is the
material consumed, and can be harvested
repeated times without killing the plant.
Despite it has been traditionally used as
entheogen, chemistry doesn´t seem to
pose a serious threat to health.
47 Ipomoea
tricolor
MORNING GLORY
(ergolines)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AND
SOUTH
AMERICA)
MEDIUM EASY. Seeds are small, durable, and
easy to transport, and are available in
the market online. The plant is widely
used as ornamental.
EASY. Tropical vine very easy to cultivate
indoor. It is widely used as ornamental.
EASY. Aerial parts of the plant are rich in
alkaloids. Seeds have been widely used
as entheogen by peoples of Central
America, such as the Nahuatl, the
Zapotecs, and the Aztecs. Seeds also
contain glycosides that may entail
undesirable side effects (nauseas and
cramps). Ergine, one of the ergonines, is
a powerful vasoconstrictor that may
cause difficulties to breath. They are
often consumed together with seeds of
Turbina corymbosa, a closely related
species.
MEDIUM CONCERN. Ergolines, the main
active principle, have moderate
hallucinogenic properties. Undesirable
side effects have been associated to
consumption. Seeds are available in the
market for ornamental and recreational
(entheogenic) purpose, being indeed the
main part consumed. The plant is also
easy to grow in indoor conditions, with
good yield.
48 Turbina
corymbosa
(Rivea
corymbosa)
OLOLIUQUI
(ergolines)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AND
SOUTH
AMERICA)
MEDIUM EASY. Seeds are small, durable, and
easy to transport, and are available in
the market online. The plant is used as
ornamental.
EASY. Closely related to Ipomoea
tricolor, it also has similar distribution
and traditional uses.
EASY. Seeds have long been used as
entheogen by peoples of Central
America, often mixed with seeds of
Ipomoea tricolor. Chemistry and effects
are also similar to those of I. tricolor.
market for ornamental and recreational
(entheogenic) purpose, being indeed the
good yield.
49 Argyreia
nervosa
ADHOGUDA,
VIDHARA,
HAWAIIAN BABY
WOODROSE
(ergolines)
ALIEN
(INDIA)
MEDIUM EASY. Seeds are medium-sized, but still
durable and easy to transport. Seeds
are available in the market online. The
plant is used as ornamental.
EASY. Tropical vine which does not seem
to pose difficulties in indoor cultivation.
Indeed, it is considered to be invasive in
some areas where climate is favorable.
EASY. Unlike other psychoactive
relatives occurring in America, no
entheogenic use is known for A. nervosa,
despite seeds have nearly identical
alkaloid composition (indeed the most
potent amongst Convolvulaceae family).
It is traditionally used by Ayurvedic
medicine of India. Effects are expected
to be the same to those described for
Ipomoea tricolor and Turbina
corymbosa.
market for ornamental, being indeed the
good yield. It is little known as
entheogenic.

17
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
50 Heimia
salicifolia
SINICUICHI
(quinolizinides)
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AMERICA)
LOW EASY. Seeds are extremely small,
durable, and easy to germinate. They are
widely available in the market online, as
the plant has also some ornamental use.
EASY. Cold-resistant subtopical shrub,
which can also grow as herbaceous in
cold weather. Despite it is not suitable
for the outdoor conditions of Qatar, it
could be easily cultivated in indoor
conditions.
EASY. Leaves are traditionally used in
Mexico as entheogen. They are dried up
and soaked in cool water for few days
for fermentation. The brew has a mild
hallucinogenic effect, distorting auditory
perceptions. The plant contains 5
quinolizinid alkaloids, the most active of
which is the cryogenine (vertine).
However, the nature of the psychoactive
effects of sinicuichi is not yet well
understood by science. It is known that
excessive consumption provokes
unpleasant side effects (Shultes, 1976).
MEDIUM CONCERN. Despite the
hallucinatory effect of the plant seems to
be pretty mild, it may cause intoxications
if consumed in excess. Seeds are easy to
get online and do not pose difficulties to
be germinated. The plant is easy to be
grown indoor and is used as ornamental.
Chemistry action of its alkaloid content is
not yet well known by science. This, and
the easy access to this plant, makes
advisable to upgrade the level of concern
to “medium”.
51 Latua pubiflora LATUE,
ARBOL DE LOS
BRUJOS
(scopolamine,
hyoscyamine,
apoatropine)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
HIGH EASY. Like other Solanaceae plants,
seeds are small, durable, and easy to
transport. They are available in the
market online.
EASY. Mountain shrub not suitable for
outdoor conditions of Qatar, but easy to
grow indoor.
EASY. Like its Eurasian relatives from the
family Solanaceae (Atropa belladonna,
Hyosciamus spp., Datura spp.,
Mandragora officinarum), L. pubiflora
contains tropane alkaloids with deliriant
properties. It is traditionally used by the
Mapuche people of Chile (Arauz, 2004,
Shultes, 1976).
HIGH CONCERN. The plant has strong
deliriant properties and high intoxicating
potential, being a serious threat to
human health. It is easily available online
and does not pose difficulties to be grown
indoor.
52 Brugmansia
spp.
(Including the
former
Methysticoden
dron
amesianum)
ANGEL TRUMPETS,
CUIEBRA
BORRACHERO
(scopolamine)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
HIGH EASY. Seeds are durable and, despite
medium-sized, still suitable to be
commercialized. They are available in
the market online, as plants are used as
ornamental.
EASY. They are bushes or small trees
that grow well in frost-free climates.
Perhaps not suitable for outdoor
cultivation in Qatar, given summer peak
temperatures. Production indoor is
feasible, though.
EASY. Leaves brew is consumed as
entheogen. Methysticodendron
amesianum in particular is traditionally
used by indigenous peoples of the
Sibundoy Valley, Colombia. Like other
deliriant plants from the Solanaceae
family (Atropa belladonna, Hyosciamus
spp., Datura spp., Mandragora
officinarum, Latua pubiflora),
Brugmansia plants contain high amounts
of tropane alkaloids. Alkaloid content
differs significantly in all parts of the
plant, which increases the risk of fatal
intoxication (Shultes, 1976).
HIGH CONCERN. All species of the genus
have high tropane alkaloid content,
having therefore strong deliriant
properties. The alkaloid content differs
very much in all parts of the plant, so that
the risk of fatal intoxication is high.
Several Brugmansia spp. can be found in
the market online, as they are used as
ornamental, and are suitable to be grown
indoor.
53 Desfontainia
spinosa
(D. hookeri)
TAIQUE,
CHILEAN HOLLY
(unknown, likely
tropanes)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW EASY. Seeds are available in the market
online. The plant has ornamental use.
DIFFICULT. Slow-growing bush/small
tree native to mountain rainforests of
the Andes range. Not suitable for Qatar
outdoor conditions, but can be grown
indoor.
EASY. Leaves tea is used as mild
entheogen by several cultures across
South America. The plant is a major
entheogen of the Mapuche people of
Chile. There are also reports of use in
the Colombian’s Sibundoy Valley, and in
other areas as an ingredient of the
Ayahuasca. No toxic compounds have
been isolated so far, although chemistry
is not yet well known by science
MEDIUM CONCERN. Taique seeds can be
easily found online, but the plant is slow-
growing and little profitable for self-
production indoor. Leaves are used to
make a psychoactive brew. Effects are
reported to be mild, but the plant
chemistry is not yet well known by
science, and it is considered to be toxic
across their native range.

18
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PROPAGATION/
IMPORTATION
54 Acorus calamus CALAMUS,
SWEET FLAG
(likely asarones)
ALIEN
(EURASIA
AND
NORTH
AMERICA)
HIGH
(considered
to be
carcinogenic)
DIFFICULT. Plants rarely set flowers or
fruits, they mostly reproduce though
vegetative propagation. Living plants or
fresh rootstocks are needed to cultivate
the plant in Qatar.
DIFFICULT. Perennial wetland grass
native to the boreal regions of the
Northern Hemisphere. It is little suitable
for outdoor cultivation in Qatar and
hardly cultivable indoor.
DIFFICULT. The rootstock has long been
used as stimulating, but in high doses
has hallucinatory effects. Harvesting
entails killing the plant, so that self-
production, particularly indoor, is little
profitable. Asarones are likely to be the
compound responsible of hallucinogenic
properties (Rätsch, 2005). The main
active principle β-asarone has been
proven to be carcinogenic in rats at high
doses, so that consumption is
considered to be unsafe (SCF, 2001).
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant is difficult
to get and cultivate, and self-production
sounds little profitable, as the root is the
part consumed. At low doses it has just a
mild stimulating effect. At higher doses it
can cause hallucinations. The main active
principle β-asarone has been described as
carcinogenic agent, so that its use is
considered to be unsafe.
55 Anadenanthera
peregrina
(Piptadenia
peregrina)/
A. colubrina
YOPO/
VILCA
(bufotenin)
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA
AND THE
CARIBBEA
N)
HIGH MEDIUM. Seeds are available online but
have a low germination rate if they are
not fresh. If fresh, however, they provide
pretty good yield. The plant has
ornamental use.
MEDIUM. Tropical to subtropical tree of
the family Fabaceae that could be
suitable for cultivation indoor and
perhaps even outdoor in Qatar.
DIFFICULT. Seeds were traditionally
roasted, grinded, and snuffed by Tahinos
and other indigenous peoples of the
Caribbean and the Orinoco and Amazon
catchments. Self-production seems quite
unlikely in Qatar, unless the tree be
grown outdoor to reach the size needed
to produce seeds. Seeds contain more
than 7% of bufotenin, an alkaloid of the
DMT family that is also produced by
some species of toads. It has strong
hallucinatory effects and can cause
severe intoxications and even death by
respiratory arrest.
HIGH CONCERN. The plant is available in
the market for its entheogenic and
ornamental use. Like other Fabaceae
species, it is quite resistant for being a
tropical tree, so that it could potentially
be cultivated outdoor in Qatar, producing
the seeds that are used as raw material to
be snuffed. The main active principle
bufotenin is a potent hallucinogenic that
can cause fatal intoxications.

19
TOXIC PLANTS
TOXIC PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
PHARMACOLOGY TOXICITY EXPOSURE CONCLUSSION
56 Aconitum spp. ACONITE,
WOLFSBANE
ALIEN
(TEMPERA
TE NORTH
AMERICA
AND
EURASIA)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Aconitine
PARTS: All
ACTION: Aconitine interacts with the
sodium-ion channels found on the
membranes of muscles and neurones. It
opens the channels, depolarizes the
membrane and disrupts action potential,
which is the electrochemical mechanism
that enables neurotransmission.
DOSE: Aconitine LD50* is 1mg/kg in rats
and 0.06 mg/kg in pigs.
(*LD50 = Lethal dose killing 50% of treated individuals)s
EFFECTS: Local anesthesia, diarrhea,
convulsions, arrhythmias, and death.
Alien mountain plants that cannot grow
in Qatar’s climate. Some species are
used as ornamental for their striking
blossoming, but are not suitable for local
gardening. Seeds are available online
though.
LEAST CONCERN. Reputed poisonous
plants, well known in temperate areas of
the Northern Hemisphere because of
their high toxicity. Aconitum spp. cannot
be found locally. They have some
ornamental use but, as mountain plants,
can hardly be grown in the outdoor
conditions of Qatar. Public exposure is
very unlikely.
57 Adenium
obesum
SABI STAR, KUDU,
DESERT ROSE
ALIEN
(AFRICA,
ARABIA)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Cardiac glycosides
(mostly oleandrigenin) (Yamaguchi and
Abe, 1990)
PARTS: Sap
ACTION: Cardiac glycosides inhibit
sodium-potassium pumps of the cardiac
muscle cells. This raises intracellular
potassium levels, increase calcium-
induced calcium release, and therefore
enhance muscle contraction (Yamaguchi
and Abe, 1990).
DOSE: Unknown, but extremely low.
EFFECTS: Arrhythmia and death by
cardiac failure.
The plant is highly valued as ornamental.
It is a drought-resistant bush that would
be suitable for outdoor cultivation in
Qatar. Seeds are available in the market
online. The sap is used as arrow poison
by some native peoples of Tanzania.
HIGH CONCERN. Adenium obesum is not
a local species but could be used in Qatar
as ornamental. Seeds are easily available
online. The plant is extremely poisonous,
very small amounts of sap are enough to
cause death by cardiac failure (indeed it is
used as arrow poison by some tribes of
Tanzania).
58 Asparagus sp. ASPARAGUS ALIEN
(EUROPE)
LOW ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Saponines
(furostanol and spirostanol)
PARTS: Berries
ACTION: Unclear
DOSE: More than 5 or 7 ripe berries
induce abdominal pain and vomiting.
EFFECTS: Abdominal pain and vomiting.
Asparagus shoots are widely
commercialized, but they are toxin-free.
Despite Asparagus plants are salt-
resistant, they are native to temperate
Europe and therefore little suitable for
cultivation in Qatar. Also, cultivated
plants are normally harvested before
they reach reproductive maturity, so
that berries are rarely available.
LEAST CONCERN. Commercialized
asparagus shoots are toxin-free, only the
berries are poisonous. Asparagus are little
suitable for cultivation in Qatar and,
moreover, when cultivated, they are
typically harvested before they can
produce berries. Fatal intoxications have
not been reported.
59 Caladium spp. ANGEL WINGS,
ELEPHANT EAR,
HEART OF JESUS
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
MEDIUM
(potentially
fatal)
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Calcium oxalate
crystals
PARTS: All
ACTION: Direct damaged in soft tissues
caused by the needle-shaped oxalate
crystals
DOSE: Lethal dose unknown
EFFECTS: Topically, destruction of soft
tissues (mouth, cornea...). If ingested,
severe gastrointestinal disorders
(nausea, vomiting, diarrhea). Potentially,
irreversible and even fatal liver and
kidney damage.
Caladium plants are highly valued as
indoor ornamental plant. They are
widely available in the market of
ornamental plants.
HIGH CONCERN. Despite no fatal cases
have been reported, intoxication by
Caladium may have severe consequences.
Plants are easy to get as ornamental.
Public exposure is high. Plant shops
should be obligated to warn customers
about the risks associated to the plant.

20
TOXIC PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
60 Calotropis
procera
SODOM’S APPLE LOCAL
(NATIVE)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Cardiac aglycones
(calotropin and others)
PARTS: All
ACTION: Similar than cardiac glycosides
DOSE: Unclear
EFFECTS: The latex is very irritating and
corrosive. It causes severe keratoconjun-
ctivitis and reversible vision loss if comes
into contact with eyes. If ingested, it
provokes burning pain in gastrointestinal
tract, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions,
and death through collapse.
Fast-growing bush that occurs naturally
in Qatar, where it is also cultivated. It is
very common around human
settlements. Intoxications normally take
place through contact with the irritating
latex.
HIGH CONCERN. It is a local, very
common species in Qatar. Public
exposure is extremely high. Intoxications
normally occur through direct contact
with the irritating latex, but the plant is
also rich in cardiac aglycones that have an
enormous intoxicating potential.
61 Cerbera
odollam
ODOLLAM,
PONG-PONG
SUICIDE TREE
ALIEN
(INDIA)
HIGH
(fatal at low
doses)
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Cardiac glycoside
(cerberin)
PARTS: Seeds
ACTION: Blocks calcium-ion channels in
heart muscle, causing disruption of heart
beat.
DOSE: 1.8 mg/kg and 3.1mg/kg are
lethal in dogs and cats respectively
EFFECTS: Nausea, vomiting, and
abdominal pain. Death by heart failure.
Evergreen tropical bush very reputed in
India for facilitating suicide. The lethal
toxin cerberin is very difficult to find in
autopsies, so that the plant is also used
to commit homicides. Native to marshes
and swamps, the plant can also grow as
weed in urban areas.
HIGH CONCERN. Seeds contain an
extremely potent toxin that causes fatal
heart failure at low doses. In India it is
used to commit both suicide and
homicide (the toxin is hardly found in
autopsies). The plant would be suitable
for cultivation in Qatar. The risk of
introduction and misuse in Qatar, which
has close ties with India, is extremely
high.
62 Cicuta spp. WATER HEMLOCK,
COWBANE
ALIEN
(TEMPERA
TE
EUROPE
AND
NORTH
AMERICA)
HIGH
(fatal at low
doses)
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Cicutoxin
PARTS: Root
ACTION: Cicutoxin is a GABA receptor
antagonist. It induces receptor blocking
that causes constant depolarization and
hyperactivity of central nervous system
cells.
DOSE: Cicutoxine LD50* is 2.8mg/kg in
mice
EFFECTS: Nausea, emesis, abdominal
pain, seizure, and death by respiratory
failure.
Cicuta spp. are perennial grasses that
grow alongside ponds and marshes of
the temperate areas of Europe and
North America. Cultivation requirements
are similar to those of common parsley,
perhaps being a bit more water
demanding. Seeds are available online
and are easy to grow.
HIGH CONCERN. Water hemlock is not a
local plant but can be easily obtained and
cultivated. It is a very reputed species in
the temperate areas of the Northern
Hemisphere, where it is native, because
of its traditional use as poison. It has
played a significant role on Western
history and culture. The root contains a
toxin that is lethal at very low doses.
63 Colchicum
autumnale
AUTUMN CROCUS,
MEADOW
SAFFRON
ALIEN
(EUROPE)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Colchicine
PARTS: Bulbs
ACTION: Colchicine binds to tubuline
inhibiting microtubule polymerization
and, therefore, mitosis. Extreme
vascular damage and fluid loss occurs
through the gastrointestinal tract, which
eventually leads to hypovolemic shock.
DOSE: No consensus
EFFECTS: Fever, vomiting, diarrhea,
abdominal pain, kidney failure, and
death by hypovolemic shock.
The plant does not occur in Qatar, but it
is valued as ornamental and thus
commercialized. Seeds and bulbs are
available online.
HIGH CONCERN. Because of its
ornamental use, bulbs, which are the
toxic part of the plant, are widely
available online.
64 Conium
maculatum
HEMLOCK ALIEN
(EURASIA)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Piperidine alkaloids
(γ-coniceine, coniine...)
PARTS: All
ACTION: Curare-like. Piperidine alkaloids
disrupt the action of the central nervous
system by interacting with the nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors. This blocks
neuromuscular junction.
DOSE: For coniine alone LD50* is 7mg/kg
in mice. For the piperidine alkaloid
cocktail found in grapes LD50* is 8
mg/kg.
EFFECTS: Stomach ache, vomiting,
paralysis, and death by respiratory
failure.
Herbaceous, fast-growing plant that
naturally grows in the poorly drained
soils of temperate Eurasia. It also
behaves as a weed and has significant
invasive power. Cultivation in a pot
would be very easy and quick. Seeds are
available in the market online.
HIGH CONCERN. The plant is not native to
Qatar but can easily be grown in a pot.
Seeds are available online. All parts of the
plant are extremely poisonous, containing
a lethal alkaloid cocktail that causes
death through paralysis and subsequent
suffocation. It is a very reputed natural
poison in Europe, where it played a
significant role in history.

21
TOXIC PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
65 Consolida spp. LARKSPUR ALIEN
(TEMPERA
TE
EURASIA)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Methyllycaconitine
(MLA)
PARTS: All (specially seeds and young
parts)
ACTION: Curare-like. MLA blocks
neuromuscular transmission in skeletal
muscle, acting as an acetylcholine
antagonist on the nicotinic sites.
DOSE: MLA LD50* is 5mg/kg in mice
EFFECTS: Hyperventilation, tachycardia,
gastrointestinal disorders, skin irritation.
Death because of cardiotoxic and
neuromuscular blocking effects.
Plants are popular in gardening. Seeds
are available online and can be grown in
indoor conditions.
HIGH CONCERN. Valued ornamental
plants that can be purchased online and
cultivated in indoor conditions. All parts
of the plant are highly poisonous and
intoxications are often lethal.
66 Convallaria
majalis
LILY OF THE VALLEY ALIEN
(TEMPERA
TE
NORTHER
N
HEMISPHE
RE)
PARTS: All
ACTION: Blocks calcium-ion channels in
heart muscle, causing disruption of heart
beat.
DOSE: Unknown, but very low
EFFECTS: Nausea, vomiting, and
abdominal pain. Death by heart failure.
Woodland herbaceous plant, very
popular as gardening species in
temperate areas. Berries are particularly
attractive for children. It is not suitable
for outdoor cultivation in Qatar, but
seeds are available online and could be
grown in indoor conditions.
HIGH CONCERN. The cardiac glucosyde
cocktail found in this plant is fatal. It is a
valued ornamental species, which seeds
are widely available in the market.
Cultivation is feasible indoor.
67 Convolvulus
arvensis
FIELD BINDWEED LOCAL
(introduce
d)
MEDIUM ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Alkaloids (mostly
pseudotropine)
PARTS: All
ACTION: Unclear
DOSE: Alcoholic plant fractions yielded
LD50* of 160 mg/kg in sheep and 410
mg/kg in rats (Al-Bowait, 2007).
EFFECTS: In rats, hepathic necrosis,
gastritis with ulceration, liver and kidney
disfunction (Schultheiss et al., 1995,
Todd et al., 1995).
Weed naturalized in gardens and
irrigation fields. It causes mild
intoxications to grazing livestock. Given
that the plant is little palatable, human
poisoning is very unlikely.
LEAST CONCERN. Weed introduced
locally, which causes mild intoxications to
grazing livestock. The plant has no
gastronomic value, so that human
poisoning is very unlikely.
68 Daphne spp. DAPHNES ALIEN
(TEMPERA
TE
EURASIA)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Mezerein, daphnin
PARTS: All (especially the berries)
ACTION: Mezerein mimics diacylglycerol
(DAG), activates isoforms of the protein
kinase C and disrupts apoptosis (cell
prpgrammed death) regulation.
Mezerein is a tumoral agent.
DOSE: Unknown
EFFECTS: Severe damage to mouth and
digestive tract tissues, coma, and
eventually death.
Evergreen shrub native to temperate
areas of Eurasia. Some species, such as
Daphne mezereum and D. odora, are
used for gardening and landscaping,
although perhaps are not very suitable
for Qatar conditions. Seeds are available
online.
MEDIUM CONCERN. Some species have
ornamental use and their seeds are
commercialized. They are not very
suitable for cultivation outdoor in Qatar,
though. Berries are particularly
poisonous, and can be fatal.
69 Delphinium
spp.
LARKSPUR ALIEN
(NORTHER
N
HEMISPHE
RE AND
AFRICA)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Methyllycaconitine
(MLA)
PARTS: All
ACTION: See Consolida spp.
DOSE: MLA LD50* is 5mg/kg in mice
EFFECTS: See Consolida spp.
Like their close relatives Consolida spp.,
Delphinium plants are used as
ornamental because of their striking
bloom. Seeds are available online and
are easy to grow. They are suitable for
indoor cultivation.
HIGH CONCERN. Plants are widely used
as ornamental and seeds can be easily
purchased online. They are not difficult to
grow indoor. All parts of the plant are
extremely poisonous, causing death at
low doses by cardiac failure.
70 Dieffenbachia
spp.
DIEFFENBACHIA ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AND
SOUTH
AMERICA)
MEDIUM
(potentially
fatal)
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Calcium oxalate
crystals (raphides)
PARTS: All
ACTION: See Caladium spp.
DOSE: Lethal dose unknown
EFFECTS: See Caladium spp.
Like other Araceae species,
Dieffenbachia spp. are very appreciated
as houseplant. Adult plants can easily be
found in plant shops of Qatar. Public
exposure is high.
HIGH CONCERN. Diffenbachia plants are
widely commercialized as houseplant. As
in other Araceae, all parts of the plant
contain highly toxic calcium oxalate
crystals. Incidental intoxications are likely
to occur. Plant shops should be obligated
to warn customers about the risks
associated to the plant.

22
TOXIC PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
71 Digitalis spp. FOXGLOVES ALIEN
(EURASIA,
AUSTRALA
SIA)
(digitoxin, digoxin...)
PARTS: Aerial parts
ACTION: Cardiac glycosides inhibit
ATPase activity of the transmembrane
sodium-potassium ATPase pump. This
makes rising up intracellular Na
+
and
Ca
2+
with in turn enhances myocardial
muscle contractions.
DOSE: Digoxin LD50* is 30 mg/kg in rats
(Weinhouse et al., 1979)
EFFECTS: Tachychardia, nausea,
vomiting, arrhythmia, and eventually
death though cardiac arrest.
Herbaceous perennial plants naturally
growing in acidic disturbed soils of
temperate Eurasia and Australasia.
Plants are highly valued as ornamental
and seeds are commercialized. They are
easy to grow in pot.
HIGH CONCERN. Digitalis spp. are valued
as ornamental and seeds can be easily
purchased online. They are easy to grow
indoor in a pot. Aerial parts are rich in
cardiac glycosides that are lethal at
relatively low doses.
72 Lathyrus
sativus
GRASS PEA,
INDIAN PEA
ALIEN
(EUROPE
AND ASIA)
MEDIUM ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: ODAP (β-N-Oxalyl-L-
α,β-diaminopropionic acid)
PARTS: Legumes
ACTION: ODAP is a neurotoxic
aminoacid, agonist of the ionotropic
AMPA glutamate receptor, which causes
receptor overstimulation and therefore
an increase of the Ca
2+
level in the
cytoplasm. This leads to motor neuron
degeneration.
DOSE: Variable
EFFECTS: If acute, temporary paralysis. If
chronic, neurolathyrism, permanent
paralysis of lower body and emaciation
of gluteal muscle.
It has been planted from India to the
Mediterranean Basin as a productive
and resistant substitute of other more
appreciated but more delicate legumes.
Not known in Qatar so far, but likely to
be cultivated in the future. Two closely-
related species, Lathyrus alphaca and L.
inconspicuus, are weeds introduced in
Qatar, but they have no culinary use .
Soaking and thorough cooking of seeds
reduces toxin content. One particular
kind of the Indian dish Dal, the Khesari
Dal, is made on L. sativus seeds. Some
attention should be paid to this issue, as
Dal is usually served in Qatar in a generic
way, without further specifications.
MEDIUM CONCERN. Grass Pea has not
yet been reported in Qatar, but it is a very
attractive species to be cultivated, given
its good performance. There is an
additional risk that Khesari Dal (Grass
pea) be sold with little control in local
restaurants as “generic” Dal. Intoxication
may cause severe paralysis.
73 Ligustrum spp. PRIVETS ALIEN
(EURASIA)
LOW ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Unclear
PARTS: Berries, flowers, and pollen.
ACTION: Unclear
DOSE: Not lethal cases reported
EFFECTS: Headache, abdominal pain,
vomiting, diarrhea, weakness,
hypotension and hypothermia.
Privets are very appreciated in
landscaping. Some species could be
suitable for use in Qatar.
LEAST CONCERN. Some privet species
could be used for landscaping in Qatar.
Fruits are poisonous, but they are only
known to cause mild intoxications.
74 Malva
parviflora
CHEESEWEED LOCAL LOW ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Malvic acid, nitrates
PARTS: All
ACTION: Unclear
DOSE: Unknown
EFFECTS: In livestock, tachycardia,
trembling, and weakness.
It naturally occurs in Qatar, where it is
very abundant. Potentially toxic to
livestock.
LEAST CONCERN. Typically it causes mild
intoxications in livestock that have grazed
it. The plant is native to Qatar, and very
common.
75 Manihot
esculenta
CASSAVA, TAPIOCA,
MANDIOCA
ALIEN
(SOUTH
AMERICA)
MEDIUM
(fatal at high
doses)
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Cyanogenic
glycosides
PARTS: Roots and leaves
ACTION: Glycosides decompose
releasing hydrogen cyanide (Prussic
acid).
DOSE: Potentially, only 2 kg of fresh root
of bitter cassava (variety with high
cyanogenic glycoside content) is enough
kill a cow. Commercialized sweet
cassava has up to 50 times less glycoside
content.
EFFECTS: If chronic, prolonged low-level
exposure, goitre and tropical ataxy
neuropathy. If acute, konzo (paralytic
disorder) and death.
Tuberous roots are commonly sold as
food in markets across Qatar. The
varieties commercialized are “sweet”
cassava with low glycoside content.
However, importers should be
submitted to regular control measures
on the glycoside content of their
product.
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant chemistry
can be potentially fatal, but the varieties
sold in Qatar are likely to have a low toxin
content (“sweet” cassava). Importers
should be regularly submitted to control
measures on the glycoside content of
their product.

23
TOXIC PLANTS
SPECIES
PLANT NAME/
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
ORIGIN
DANGER-
OUSNESS
76 Melilotus albus SWEET CLOVER LOCAL
(introduce
d)
LOW ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Dicumarol
PARTS: All
ACTION: Degradation of cumarines yield
dicumarol, which is a vitamin K
antagonist and anticoagulant.
DOSE: 20-30 mg/kg of dicumarol (oral)
are enough to cause poisoning in cattle.
EFFECTS: In livestock, death is caused by
massive hemorrhage (Stegelmeier,
2014).
Weed that has been introduced in Qatar
(Norton et al., 2009). Intoxications in
grazing livestock are well reported, but
seem to have more to do with a wrong
storage of the raw plant material used
as forage. Degradation of the cumarines,
present in fresh plants, yields dicumarol,
the active principle to which intoxicating
effects are associated.
LEAST CONCERN. Only grazing livestock
intoxications are likely to occur. They are
related to the degradation of wrongly-
stored plant forage. Intoxications could
be prevented by implementing
information campaigns among farmers.
77 Nerium
oleander
OLEANDER ALIEN
(EURASIA,
ARABIAN
PENINSUL
A)
MEDIUM
(fatal at very
high doses
only)
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Cardiac glycosides
(oleandrin, oleandrigenine)
PARTS: All
ACTION: Similar than digoxin from
Digitalis spp., but less potent.
DOSE: For leaf extract LD50* is 325
mg/kg in mice (Alkhayyat et al.)
EFFECTS: Like digoxin, causing death by
cardiac failure.
Evergreen riparian shrub widely used in
landscaping. Irrigation provided, it
adapts very well to the conditions of
Qatar, where it’s also been used
outdoor. Indeed, the species naturally
occurs in Iraq and the ravines of Arabian
Peninsula. Public exposure is high.
MEDIUM CONCERN. High amounts of
plant raw material are needed to induce
fatal intoxications. However, the plant is
been used in Qatar for gardening and
landscaping. Incidental intoxications are
likely to occur. All parts of the plant are
toxic.
78 Plumeria spp. PAGODA TREE,
FRANGIPANIS, AND
OTHERS
ALIEN
(CENTRAL
AND
SOUTH
AMERICA)
LOW ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Alkaloids
PARTS: All (typically sap)
ACTION: Unclear
DOSE: Unknown
EFFECTS: Irritation of eyes and skin
One species of the genus, the pagoda
tree (Plumeria alba), is cultivated in
gardens of Doha. Intoxications often
have to do with direct contact with the
irritating sap, as the flowers are highly
attractive and likely to be cut.
MEDIUM CONCERN. The plant is been
used in gardening in Doha. Intoxications
are likely to happen, although they are
typically mild, related to the irritating
effect of the sap.
79 Rheum
rhabarbarum
RHUBARB ALIEN
(TEMPERA
TE
EURASIA)
LOW ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Oxalic acid
PARTS: Leaves
ACTION: Oxalic acid is a nephrotoxine
that provokes kidney disorders.
DOSE: About 5 kg of sour leaves are
needed to kill a 65kg person.
EFFECTS: Kidney failure, convulsions,
coma, and (in rare cases) death.
Rhubarb is commonly sold in markets
across Qatar, as a fresh vegetable.
However, only stalks are offered, toxic
leaves have been previously removed.
LEAST CONCERN. Despite the plant is sold
in local markets, only safe parts of it are
offered. Toxic parts (leaves) need to be
consumed in high amounts to be lethal.
80 Ricinus
communis
CASTORBEAN,
CASTOR OIL PLANT
LOCAL
(introduce
d)
HIGH ACTIVE PRINCIPLE: Ricin
PARTS: All (very high in seeds)
ACTION: Ricin inhibits protein synthesis,
acting at the ribosome level. It prevents
the assemblage of various aminoacids
into proteins according to the message
of the messenger RNA.
DOSE: Ricin is fatal at doses of 20-30
mg/kg in humans (4-8 seeds), if orally
administered, and only 0.022 mg/kg if
injected (Wedin et al., 1986).
EFFECTS: Irritation of skin. Edema in
eyes and other soft tissues. If ingested, it
causes pain, inflammation, and
hemorrhage in the mucous membranes
of the gastrointestinal tract. Death
occurs by multi-organic failure.
Castorbean is considered by many the
most poisonous plant. Castor oil is,
however, widely consumed all over the
world, but the toxin ricin is destroyed
during the processing. The plant has
been introduced in Qatar, likely as
ornamental. It can potentially naturalize
around human settlements.
HIGH CONCERN. Considered by many the
most poisonous plant on Earth, only 4 to
8 seeds are enough to kill a human being.
The plant has been introduced in Qatar,
so that fatal intoxications are likely to
occur.

Report No 3. Assessment of plants posing a potential hazard in Qatar (Feb 2016)

Report No 3. Assessment of plants posing a potential hazard in Qatar (Feb 2016)

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Report No 3. Assessment of plants posing a potential hazard in Qatar (Feb 2016)