Preliminary study on potable water solutions for the rural poor

Technology and Development Supervised Learning (TDSL)
Autumn 2014
Report
Preliminary Study on Potable Water Solutions
for the Rural Poor
ABHISHEK AGGARWAL
120020048
Safe drinking water is a basic human necessity. Poor rural communities across the world struggle to meet this basic
requirement either due to a lack of access to water or due to poor water quality of existing water sources. This
study is a preliminary study which focuses on the latter problem - the challenges surrounding water quality.
Drinking water quality is an immensely vast field, and challenges vary greatly by geography and local conditions.
This study considers the drinking water problems that are common in the hilly regions in north Thane district (now
Palghar), and explores possible treatment methods and existing enterprise solutions that may be applied there.

2
Table of Contents
1. Introduction .......................4
2. Potable water .......................4
3. Standards and Regulations .......................5-6
4. Common treatment methods .......................7-11
4.1 Boiling ............7
4.2 Activated Carbon ............7-8
4.3 Distillation ............8
4.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) ............8-9
4.5 KDF ............9
4.6 Ultra-Violet (UV) Radiations ............9-10
4.7 Chlorination ............10-11
4.8 Tabular summarisation of the processes ............11
5. Field visit .......................12-21
5.1 Kashivali .............12-14
5.2 Velpada ............15-16
5.3 Vikramgarh High School(Livinguard set-up) ............17
5.4 Thapapada ............18
5.5 Water Sample Testing using a Jal-Tara kit ............19
5.6 JJ Colony, Sawda Village near New Delhi ............20-21
(“Hub and Spoke" model of Sarvajal)
6. Case Studies .......................22-24
6.1 Livinguard Technologies ............21
6.2 Sarvajal ............22
6.3 SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) ............23
6.4 Bio-Sand filter ............24
7. Observation ............25
References

3
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this report and the facilities being required. It was a really wonderful learning experience. I
would really like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Miss Janhvi Doshi who allowed me to take
this topic. She has a very friendly nature. Her enthusiasm and constant involvement helped me a lot
throughout. I am thankful for her aspiring guidance, invaluably constructive criticism and friendly
advice.
I express my warm thanks to Mr. Santosh and Ms. Reshma Thakur founder of Astitva (an NGO in
Maharashtra) for their support and guidance. They helped a lot in understanding the ground reality
of potable water in the villages of Maharashtra. I would also like to thanks Deepak Halder, the
representative of Sarvajal at Sawda village near New Delhi for helping us understand their "Hub and
Spoke" model.
I will strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the best possible way,
Thank You
Sincerely Yours
ABHISHEK AGGARWAL
(Under-Graduate student of IIT-B)
Place :IIT-Bombay, Mumbai
Dated: 29th November,2014

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1 INTRODUCTION:
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. On Earth, 96.5% of the planet's water is found in seas and
oceans but drinking water with high salinity causes dehydration. Only 2.5% of the Earth's water is
freshwater and desalination process is really expensive, but still desalination plants are used in the Middle
East and Western Asia since there is no other source option (Apoprox. 17,000+ such plants worldwide).
Desalinated waters are commonly further treated by adding chemical constituents such as calcium
carbonate or limestone to improve their taste and reduce their aggressiveness to the distribution network
and plumbing materials1
. Around 0.3 million2
people out of 7.2 billion3
people depend on this desalinated
water.
“ Water water everywhere, Nor any drop to drink” -- Samuel Taylor
But this report is all about the water quality conditions in rural areas. Studying the business
models catering to underprivileged section of the society and the cheap treatment solutions
available.
2 Potable Water
Drinking/Potable water is the water which doesn’t cause any acute or chronic health effects like
diarrhoea, typhoid, intestinal worms, cancer etc.
Water contamination can be broadly classified in two types of impurities:
1. Biological contamination: Includes certain species of Bacteria (e.g. cholera, typhoid ), Virus(e.g.
hepatitis A, rotavirus), Protozoa and Helminths (Intestinal Parasites).
2. Chemical contamination: It can be further divided into two categories:
(i) Volatile impurities:- Those impurities which have boiling point close to water or less than it and
are generally organic like benzene, toulene etc. These impurities evaporate along with the water.
(ii) Non-volatile impurities:- Other impurities might be considered non-volatile with respect to
water e.g. sodium, calcium, iron, magnese, fluoride, nitrate, lead, arsenic, chlorine, fertilizers, pesticides
etc.
These impurities are not harmful at lower concentration and even some are good for health at low
concentration like fluoride. So, different organizations have different drinking water quality
guideline/standard.
1
WHO Report of Nutrients in Drinking Water (http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientsindw.pdf?ua=1 )
2
International Desalination Association (http://idadesal.org/desalination-101/desalination-by-the-numbers/ )
3
U.S & World Population clock by United States Census Bureau as on 19-11-2014
(http://www.census.gov/popclock/?intcmp=home_pop )

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3 Standards & Regulations:
Standards can be either mere guidelines or can be legally enforced.
There is a difference between pure and safe water. Generally safe water is the term used for water which
is potable. It won't be 100% H2O. Pure water is 100% H2O. Distilled water comes very close to pure water.
But water after distillation process is not 100% H2O. It may still have some volatile organic compounds
dissolved in it. It is not easy to comment on whether distilled is safe to drink or might cause depletion of
minerals from the body. Different groups give absolutely opposing answers. But as per the report of WHO
on “Nutrients in Water” it is clearly mentioned that distilled water should be recharged with the minerals
before drinking it.
It has been determined by different organizations/groups the concentrations at which contaminants
don’t pose acute or chronic danger. They have also found that some of the minerals lying between a
specific concentrations ranges could be beneficial. The list of these concentrations is called standards.
Till now we haven't been able to agree on one set of standards for drinking water worldwide. Different
areas may have different standards which may differ by 10 times. And even then in most nations these
are just mere guidelines. Only a few countries like USA, Europe have drinking water standards are
complied legally.
Table 3-1 Comparison of Drinking Water Standards
Parameter WHO Europe US China India1
Arsenic 10μg/l 10 μg/l 10μg/l 50μg/l 50μg/l
Boron 2.4mg/l 1.0 mg/L “ “ 1.0mg/L
Cadmium 3 μg/l 5 μg/l 5 μg/l 5 μg/l 3 μg/l
Chromium 50μg/l 50 μg/l 0.1 mg/L 50 μg/l (Cr6+
) 50 μg/l
Copper 2.0 mg/l 2.0 mg/l TT 1 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Cyanide “ 50 μg/l 0.2 mg/L 50 μg/l 50 μg/l
Fluoride 1.5 mg/l 1.5 mg/l 4 mg/l 1 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Lead 10 μg/l 10 μg/l 15 μg/l 10 μg/l 10 μg/l
Mercury 6 μg/l 1 μg/l 2 μg/l 0.05 μg/l 1 μg/l
Nitrate 50 mg/l 50 mg/l 10 mg/L (as N) 10 mg/L (as N) 45 mg/l
Selenium 40 μg/l 10 μg/l 50 μg/l 10 μg/l 10 μg/l
*All the parameters are not included. This is just to show the comparison b/w different guidelines.
1
Values for India are taken from its revised drinking water guideline in 2012 published by bureau of Indian Standard i.e. IS 10500 : 2012
Source : http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/9789241548151_annex.pdf?ua=1
If we just consider the case of India itself, we will find different departments of government publishing
their own standards for drinking water. And these standards are just guidelines i.e. They are not legally
enforced.
If we look at the Central level, we will find guidelines by departments like:
1)Bureau Of India (BIS) : IS 10500 (2012) Updated in 2012
Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS) follow these guidelines
2)Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

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3)Central Public Health and Environmental Engg. Organisation (CPHEOO), Ministry of Urban
Development
Even many states in India have their own guidelines e.g. Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal (WBPHED).But
mostly the BIS guidelines are followed by most of the departments/states.
According to UNICEF, 67% of Indian households do not treat drinking water despite the contamination;
and those who do, still rely largely on traditional methods such as boiling water4
. Boiling is one of the
methods of purifying the water. Boiling just disinfects the water from most of the biological
contamination but doesn’t decontaminate the chemical impurities. Let’s study some of the common
methods which alone or in combination are used in purifying the water.
4
Article by ValueNotes Database Pvt Ltd. on India's Home Water purifier Industry released published on Press Release
(http://www.pr.com/press-release/579155)

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4 Common Treatment Methods:
Following are some of the most common methods used in decontamination of drinking water:
1. Boiling
2. Activated Carbon
3. Distillation
4. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
5. Kinetic Degradation Fluxion (KDF) Process Media
6. UV Radiation
7. Chlorination
The most suitable treatment method for a location would depend on several factors– technological (e.g.
is electricity available?), environmental (what natural and human sources of contamination are present?),
and socio-economic (how much can a household afford to pay for water treatment?). The location needs
to be studied carefully - the water treatment that works in one area may not work in another.
Let’s discuss the above mentioned methods in brief.
4.1 Boiling:
Process: Keep water at its boiling temperature for 15-20 minutes.
Effect: Kills micro-organisms such as bacteria, virus or parasites and removes some VOCs
Disadvantages:
 Cloudy or highly turbid water must be filtered (can use cloth)
 Boiling may concentrate the contaminants
 Should not be used when toxic metals, chemicals or nitrates are present, since it increase
their concentrations
4.2 Activated Carbon:
The Activated Carbon is a form of carbon which has been treated with oxygen to make it porous.
Two basic carbon filters: Granulated Activated Carbon(GAC) and Solid Block Activated Carbon(SBAC)
Process:
It adsorbs the impurities via electrostatic interaction or chemisorptions.
Note: - Treatment with oxygen makes AC porous which results in increase in surface area and
bonding sites.
Effect:
Removes certain microorganisms and certain organic chemicals, especially pesticides, THMs
(chlorine by-product), trichloroethylene (TCE), and PCBs

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Disadvantages:
 Can become breeding grounds for the bacteria they trap, thus, it is suggested to run water
through it for a few minutes to flush them out before use.
 Hot water tends to release trapped contaminants into the water and even damage carbon
filter
 Doesn't affect heavy metals like lead, mercury, arsenic (unless specially designed to),
cadmium, total dissolved solids, hardness(i.e. calcium, magnesium, potassium), nitrates,
sulphides, and fluoride
4.3 Distillation:
Process:
Water is boiled in a container, which leaves non-volatile impurities behind. Steam is collected in a
separate container and condensed
Effect:
Kills pathogens, remove salts that carbon filtration cannot remove, like heavy metals, nitrates,
chlorides. Used rarely when a large amount of minerals or impurities are to be removed.
Disadvantages:
 VOCs(like pesticides) are not removed , so, a post-filter such as granular carbon filter is
attached to it
 Distilled water is prone to recontamination or bacterial growth.
 Distilled water (also referred as aggressive/hungry) have a leaching effect i.e. high
tendency to absorb minerals, metals or other materials it touches. To counterbalance this
effect mineral supplements are recommended
 Due to Distilled water aggressive nature, it easily absorbs carbon dioxide from the
atmospheric forming carbonic acid. Therefore, distilled water should be stored in closed
container preferably glass because of might be acidic nature.
 Maintenance is expensive and is required periodically
4.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO):
 Used by most leading water bottling plants. Combining RO and activated carbon filter provides the
most efficient treatment against broadest range of water contamination.
 RO water tastes like “spring water” since its well oxygenated.
Process:
Filters water through a semi- permeable membrane by applied hydraulic pressure which
counteracts the osmotic pressure. This membrane rejects the contaminants that are too large to
pass through the tiny pores in the membrane.
Effect:
Removes microbes, total dissolved solids (TDS), asbestos, lead, chloride, fluoride, nitrates and
other toxic heavy metals, radioactive substances (like radium).

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Disadvantages:
 Not highly effective in removing organic compounds and some of pesticides, solvents and
VOCs are not completely removed, so, a good post-filter like activated carbon filter is
recommended.
 RO water is essentially mineral-free ,thus, mineral supplements are recommended
 Since, some Membrane deterioration can occur due to the bacteria (like coliform), so a pre-
filter is also suggested.
4.5 Kinetic Degradation Fluxion (KDF) Process Media:
 KDF is a high purity alloy of copper and zinc.
 It has a life of more than 6 years and is recyclable.
 Used as a pre-filter before finer stage of filtration like RO, deionisation and exchange systems.
Process:
It utilizes the principle of redox process (Redox reaction) to eliminate a vast number of water
contaminants.KDF extends the life of Granulated Activated Carbon.
 The KDF itself creates a miniature electrolytic cell with anode as zinc, cathode as copper
and impure water as electrolyte.
o Substances such as metals are attracted to the surface of the KDF particles and
adhere with them.
o Non-metallic impurities react with the KDF and form oxides, hydroxides, sulphates
and even ozone. These by-products are not dangerous and carried through into the
drinking water.
 Ozone as a by-product forms hostile and desolate environment for micro-
organism like algae, bacteria.
Effect:
KDF is known to kill algae and fungi, control bacterial growth, and remove chlorine, pesticides,
organic matter, rust, unpleasant taste and odour, hydrogen sulphide, nickel, chromium, cadmium,
calcium, aluminium, mercury, arsenic, and other organic.
4.6 Ultra-Violet (UV) Radiation:
Process:
UV radiation (~ 250nm wavelength) is passed through water which alters the DNA of micro-
organisms, disrupting their growth and reproduction.
Effect:
This either kills the pathogens or renders them harmless.
Note:-
● Exposure time and lamp intensity determines the effectiveness of the UV lamp
● As per the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, disinfection systems must have
a minimum exposure of 16 mJ/cm2
.

● Turbulent water flow is more effective since it exposes the micro
UV radiation
Disadvantages:
● Since, lamp intensity decreases with use, so it should be replaced at least once a year
● UV is not effective if the
coliform, since the radiation
last stage of a treatment process.
4.7 Chlorination:
5
Chlorination is the cheapest means of disinfecting
in transportation of water without re
Process:
In water chlorine stays in equilibrium as:
Cl2 + H2O ↔ HOCl + HCl
And Hypochlorus acid (HOCl) is
equilibrium with hypochlorite ions as:
HOCl ↔ H+
+ OCl-
Since, chlorine and HOCl are
thus, easily penetrating the outer membrane of the
pathogens. Also, since these are good
agents, they react with the enzymes and proteins
inside the cell disrupting their growth
reproduction. And thus, either leading t
death or completely harmless
Effect:
This either kills the pathogens or
harmless.
Note:-Disinfection effect drops with increase in pH since, the equilibrium (2) shifts to the right side
i.e. decreasing the concentration of HOCl
Disadvantages:
 The presence of organic materials especially humic, fulvic acids (result as degradation of plant
material) and organic substances
chlorine via halo-form reaction
(THMs).
Figure 4.7-1: Centres for disease Control and Prevention
Turbulent water flow is more effective since it exposes the micro-
Since, lamp intensity decreases with use, so it should be replaced at least once a year
the water is very turbid, colored or has very high concentration of
the radiations don’t reach the organism Thus, UV is generally
treatment process.
Chlorination is the cheapest means of disinfecting water. The residual effect of c
of water without re-contamination for long duration.
In water chlorine stays in equilibrium as:
HOCl + HCl ……………(1)
) is in further
with hypochlorite ions as:
…………… (2)
Since, chlorine and HOCl are neutrally charged,
thus, easily penetrating the outer membrane of the
pathogens. Also, since these are good oxidizing
agents, they react with the enzymes and proteins
inside the cell disrupting their growth and
thus, either leading to their
or completely harmless
This either kills the pathogens or renders them
effect drops with increase in pH since, the equilibrium (2) shifts to the right side
i.e. decreasing the concentration of HOCl
The presence of organic materials especially humic, fulvic acids (result as degradation of plant
substances(e.g. urine, sweat, hair and skin particles)
reaction resulting in the production of carcinogenic
Centres for disease Control and Prevention <http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf
4.7-1 Definitions used in process of chlorination
10
-organisms completely to
Since, lamp intensity decreases with use, so it should be replaced at least once a year.
high concentration of
, UV is generally used in the
The residual effect of chlorination helps
effect drops with increase in pH since, the equilibrium (2) shifts to the right side
The presence of organic materials especially humic, fulvic acids (result as degradation of plant
(e.g. urine, sweat, hair and skin particles) combines with free
resulting in the production of carcinogenic Trihalomethanes
http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf>
Definitions used in process of chlorination

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The WHO has stated that the "risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison
with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection”
● Higher amount of chlorine needs to be added in turbid water.
● Helminthes are insensitive to chlorination.
● Chlorination introduces bitter taste and unusual smell
● Chlorine evaporates due to its volatile nature, thus, chlorine needs to be regularly added to
prevent biological recontamination
4.8 Tabular summarisation of the processes:
Parameter/
Technology
KDF Activated
Carbon
RO UV Chlorination Distillati
on
Electricity/Heating X X ✓ ✓ X ✓
Expensive X X X X X ✓
Life >6 years ≈ 1year
(depending on
amount of
impurities)
≈ 1year (Annual
filter change)
≈ 1year
(Annual
bulb
change)
- No drop
in quality
with
time
Recyclable
Technology
✓ ✓ - X X -
Taste of water after
processing
(✓)Removes
odour and
taste
(✓) (✓) Close to
Spring water
(X) - No
change
(X)
(Introduces
bitter taste)
(✓) (Flat
taste)
Biological
Contamination6
X X X (not
recommended)
✓ ✓ ✓
Volatile Organic
Contaminants (VOCs)
X ✓ X - X X
Residual Disinfecting
Effects
✓ X (used at POS,
no storage req.)
X X ✓ X
Non-Volatile Chemical
Contaminants7
✓ X ✓ X X ✓
Hazardous By-
products
X X X X ✓(Tri-Halo
Methanes THMs
and haloacetic
acids HAAs)
X
6
Many germs can no longer be detected in very low concentrations. In these cases, it is not possible to provide scientific
proof of a 100% reduction according to Eawag, the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sciences and Technology
(http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/mikrobio/index_EN)
7
Doesn't mean it removes all of them i.e. Ca
2+
/Mg
2+
/lead/Arsenic/Nickel/Cadmium etc the technology removes most of them.
Before using a technology, see specifically which all contaminants it doesn't remove.

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5 Field Visits:
Visits to few places were made to understand the ground reality. Following visits were made:
5.1 Kashivali (Sept'14)
The first village we visited was Kashivali accompanied by Reshma Thakur working with Astitva
Foundation. The living conditions over there are really drastic and no effort is being made by the
government to improve the situation.
The population of village is 477 (around 70 Households) out of which 246 are males and 231are
females. Their houses are built on a land owned by a farmer. He has given them permission to live but
don’t allow them to do any more construction on it. There is electricity supply to the village but is
mostly used in night while eating dinner.
5.1.1 How they spend their day:
Both males and females work on their farms during monsoon time, able to produce enough to
feed themselves. At other times, the men leave the village in search of work or are recruited from
the village itself. Females stay back in the village. They spend their day in fetching firewood before
the monsoons and collecting water. It takes almost the entire day of the women.
There is no way for them to grind wheat in the village itself. So, they travel to the nearest place
once a week. It almost takes their entire day. They have to spend a lot of amount on
transportation (Rs. 20 for the round trip and Rs. 2/kg for wheat grinding).
5.1.2 Water Condition:
They have two non-perennial wells around 150-200m from the habitation. One of the wells has
developed holes in the lining, so the water is no
longer potable but is used for other activities.
The primary well (Fig.5.1 -1) for drinking
purposes runs dry in February. As the level
depletes, women wait in line for long hours to
get water, sometimes up to 1AM. If someone is
late to collect water than they have to travel 5
km to another village, Valvandi which has a
perennial well. The people of Valvandi think this
will perish their water supply, so resist them
from taking water from their well.
Astitva foundation started a project “Rainwater Harvesting” in 2010. One of the things they do is
to help villages build a pipeline system from a perennial source to their habitation, in order to save
the women the drudgery of collecting water. They tend to all the technological needs like the
motor size, diameter of the pipe, size of the tank etc. They also provide the construction material
Figure 5.1-1 Well used for drinking purposes in Kashivali

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like pipe, storage tank, motor etc for free of
cost. But all the labour work is done by the
people of the village. They have till now
completed 6 such pipelines, at a cost of 2-3
lakhs each, for populations of around 500 or
more.
One such pipeline about 1.5 km long and dug
1.5ft in the ground has been built for Kashivali.
For this a 10x15x15 ft well was dug 1.5km away.
Water is pumped with the help of the motor
and is stored in a 5000L Plastic storage tank (Fig.5.1-2). The project was completed in 15-20 days.
The bill for the electricity used by motor is shared among the households (approximately
1500Rs/month). This year i.e. 2014 was the first time this system was used in this village. It is used
when the wells dry up, and this summer the women did not have to walk to Valvandi to collect
water. The villagers don’t have much knowledge of safe drinking water. The only thing they do is
add TCL tablets provided by the Gram Panchayat in the well every 2-3 days. They just use a filter
after drawing the water from the well to remove any visible impurities.
5.1.3 Education:
A primary school for 1st
to 8th
classes has been built near the village by the same “sanstha” this
year. School has 10 teachers and 8 staff members Books are provided for free of cost collected
through donation from all around the country. A very small fee is charged i.e. around Rs. 10-20 so
that children don’t skip the school in the middle.
5.1.4 Summary of water condition in Kashivali:
1. Diseases (Symptoms) prevalent in the area:
 Monsoon time :Stomach problems, Typhoid
 Throughout the year: Pain in Bones & Teeth
2. Sources of drinking water :
(i) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: GOVT.
 Description: A well of diameter 20ft and 25ft deep was dug about 10 years ago.
 Distance: About 150-200m
 Seasonal change: It dries up around feb-march till the start of next monsoon
Picture 5.1-1 Storage tank installed at Kashivali as part of
Astitva's Project. The visible black pipe is used for pipeline.
also visible

14
(ii) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: GOVT.
 Description: It was well which was dug up around 6-7 years ago. It has now developed
cracks and water is no longer potable
 Distance: About 150-200m adjacent to the previous one
(iii)Private/Govt./Natural/Other: Private(Astitva Foundation)
 Description: Astitva dug a 10x15x15 ft perennial well in Valvandi village and connected
it to a 5000L plastic storage tank in the village by a 1.5km pipeline of diameter
1.5inches and kept 1.5ft below the ground
 Cost: Cost of project by the foundation but the monthly electricity cost of about 1000-
1500Rs for pumping is shared by all the households
 Seasonal change: Used when the water in nearby well dries up
3. Type of land (Agricultural/Industrial/Residential): Agricultural

15
5.2 Velpada: (Sept'14)
The next village we visited was Velpada. The conditions are not as drastic as in Kashivali. The
population of village is 557 (around 67 Households) out of which289 are males and 262 are females.
There is electricity supply to the village. They also have a solar lamp at the centre of the village to
keep it lightened during the night time. Men don’t migrate like in Kashivali. If they go for work
outside village, than it’s not more than 15-20 days.
They have 1 non-perennial well at a distance of about 500m. It’s functional from the start of
monsoon to feb-march. When the shortage of water starts around February, they start using the
water from a perennial water channel for purposes other than drinking. For the remaining time
they use the water from the perennial well in another village Rhati-pada (situated at a distance of
about 2-3 kms). The water from wells is used both for drinking and other chores.
Astitva also built a pipeline in this village in April, 2012 as in Kashivali. Pipeline is 2 km long and is
dug 1.5ft in the ground. It source of water is from same well in Rhati-pada village and the pumped
water is stored in a 5000L Plastic storage tank. The project was completed in 20 days.
Same as Kashivali, they also just add TCL tablets provided by the Gram Panchayat.
5.2.2 Education:
They don’t discriminate much between male and female. It appears that people over there send
their kids both boy and girl to schools. There is an Anganwadi and school till class 4th
in the village
itself. For further they have to go to Vikramgarh around 1.5km away. For doing BA/MA they have
to travel about 12kms to Wada. The amusing thing is there 25 graduates in the village.
5.2.3 Summary of water condition in Velpada:
1. Diseases prevalent in the area:
 Monsoon time : Diarrhoea
 Throughout the year: Stomach Problems, Cold, Pain in Hands & Feet
2. Sources of drinking water :
(i) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: GOVT.
 Description: A Well was dug about 6-7 years ago.
 Distance: About 500m

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(ii) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: Private(Astitva Foundation)
 Description: Astitva connected a 5000L plastic storage tank with the already existing
perennial well a 2-3km far village, Rhati-pada, by a pipeline of diameter about
1.5inches and kept 1.5ft below the ground
 Cost: Cost of project was borne by the foundation but the monthly electricity cost of
about 1000-1500Rs for pumping is shared by all the households.
3. Natural water sources in the nearby area :
(i) Name ( along with type like river/lake: A Water stream (naala)
 Description: Its used for other activities other than drinking like washing clothes once
in a week or two
 Distance: 1.5-2km
4. Type of land (Agricultural/Industrial/Residential): Agricultural

5.3 Vikramgarh High School
Next place we visited was a Public S
Livinguard Technologies Pvt. Ltd
treatment plant in January, 2014 in the school
and redesigned it again in August. The company
has developed a candle commonly known as
Livinguard candle to disinfect water.
is achieved via a mechanical kill action as opposed
to conventional chemical ones. Candle pierces the
membrane of microorganisms that come in
contact.
The school has around 2200 students. The
number increases to 3200 during examinations.
Now, because of this generosity of the company, the students get safe drinking water. It has led to a
decrease in number of students getting sick and thus, is being seen drastically in the students’
attendance. The students can be seen
village.
Set-up in School:
The water comes from a nearby russet. It has a
very high turbidity, coffee coloured. Before
storing the water in a 1500L overhead tank
first passed through a primary filter to remove
suspended solid particles. Then it is passed
through a sand filter and then a carbon candle.
Then finally before passing through the
Livinguard Candle, it passes through 2 other
filters. Then it is finally stored in a 2500L in
another tank.
Before the start of each day, the sand filter
carbon and Livinguard candle are cl
backwash process. It just takes about 10 minutes.
High School: (Sept'14)
visited was a Public School in Vikramgarh
Ltd. Installed a water
treatment plant in January, 2014 in the school
and redesigned it again in August. The company
has developed a candle commonly known as
ndle to disinfect water. Disinfection
is achieved via a mechanical kill action as opposed
to conventional chemical ones. Candle pierces the
membrane of microorganisms that come in
The school has around 2200 students. The
uring examinations.
attendance. The students can be seen taking water back in water bottles to their homes in the
The water comes from a nearby russet. It has a
very high turbidity, coffee coloured. Before
storing the water in a 1500L overhead tank it’s
first passed through a primary filter to remove
suspended solid particles. Then it is passed
nd then a carbon candle.
Then finally before passing through the
Livinguard Candle, it passes through 2 other
ored in a 2500L in
of each day, the sand filter,
carbon and Livinguard candle are cleaned by
backwash process. It just takes about 10 minutes.
Figure 5.3-1 Livinguard Filter installed in Vikramgarh High School
Figure 5.3-2 Entire Water-purification set
High School
17
taking water back in water bottles to their homes in the
Livinguard Filter installed in Vikramgarh High School
purification set-up in Vikramgarh

18
5.4 Thapapada (Sept'14):
Next we went to Thapapada. There are around 30 households in the village. Just
adjacent to the village there is a very large agricultural land owned by big farmer.
There is also a water stream.
They have 2 non-perennial wells. One is quite small, not dug quite deep. This one is not used for
drinking purpose. It is used mostly for activities like washing clothes. The other one is situated
right in the middle of the village. It is quite
a big well. It’s functional from the start of
monsoon to feb-march. They told that the
well had blue coloured water (actually it is
green in colour).
They also have a perennial well dug by
Astitva (see fig. 5.4-1 (a) ) foundation right
next to the foremost smaller well i.e.
adjacent to water stream (see fig. 5.4-1 (c)
). They have connected the well with a
pipeline to the tank in the village. People
complained that the water had a brownish
colour; it must be due to rains as it washes
the loose sand. So, for drinking purpose
they were presently avoiding this well and
using the blue water well.
A school is presently constructing quite a big water system (see fig. 5.4-1 (b)) for itself. They have
agreed to provide water to the village as well.
They also add TCL tablets provided by the Gram Panchayat but during monsoons they first boil the
water and then use cloth for filtering it.
They have complained about stomach ache and fever.
5.4.2 Education:
Astitva started a Balwadi here. Care of 17 kids of about 2-5years is taken in it.
Figure 5.4-1 (a) The Well on the left is constructed by Astitva;
(b) Construction on the right is being done by athe school and
(c) In back "bandana" used for storing Dam water can be seen

19
5.5 Water Sample Testing using a Jal-Tara kit:
Sample 1 -> Water from the well in Kashivali used for drinking
Sample 2-> Water from Plastic Storage tank constructed as part of Astitva Rainwater Harvesting project in
Velpada
Sample 3-> Water from the storage tank before treatment
through Livinguard set-up in Vikramgarh High
School
Sample 4 -> Water after treatment through Livinguard set-
up in Vikramgarh High School
Sample 5-> Water from Plastic Storage tank constructed
as part of Astitva Rainwater Harvesting project
in Thapapada
Sample 6->Water from the well not used for drinking in Thapapada
Sample 7-> Water from the well situated right in the middle of the village of Thapapada which is used for
drinking purpose by the villagers
(1) As given in Jal-Tara Manual
(2) Measured by checking the presence of Coliform bacteria
(3) pH is within an error of ±1
(4) Residual chlorine is absent; since testing was done almost after 24 hrs after sample collection and villagers even reported
that they are out of TCL tablets for about 2 days and are yet to get the TCL tablets from the Panchayat.
(5) Test is unreliable since the amount of silver nitrate added varies with drastically with the amount of ammonia solution
added to solution to change its pH to 7-10. Silver reacts with the NH4OH
AgCl + 2 NH4OH -> Ag(NH3)2
+
+ Cl
-
+ 2H2O
* When repeated again it comes out to be 2127 which indicates that chloride test is unreliable
Test/Sample
Acceptable
limit(1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Faecal Contamination(2)
Must be -ve +ve +ve +ve -ve +ve +ve +ve
pH(3)
6.5-8.5 6 7 6 6 6 6 6
Turbidity (NTU) 5-10 <10 <10 <10 <10 ≈50 ≈25 ≈25
Residual Chlorine (mg/L)(4)
0.2 (min) Absent (∵ there was no change in colour)
Chloride (mg/L)(5)
250-1000 1418 1467.63 638.1 666.46 709 1205.3 1666.15*
Fluoride 1-1.5 (max) 0.6 mg/L (∵ all showed the same colour)
Hardness (mg/L) 300-600 120 200 144 144 136 144 200
Ammonia (mg/L) 1.5 0.6 mg/L (∵ all showed the same colour)
Figure 5.5-1 Sample in Bacteria Vials in order 1 to 7 (L-R) for
36 hrs. Black Colour denotes presence of Coliform bacteria

20
5.6 JJ Colony, Sawda Village near New Delhi / "Hub and Spoke" model of
Sarvajal: (Oct'14)
Visited the Sarvajal establishment in JJ Colony, Sawda village near Delhi. It was established almost a
year ago. At Sawda, met with the representative Deepak Halder running the facility. The entire facility
is handled by 2 persons i.e. a driver and the representative.
In the JJ colony there is no pipeline laid. Sewer line has been built but is not cleaned regularly. Sewer
line is not properly built. So, many households have underground tanks in which they store the sewer
waste. This waste is collected by a tanker for a fee.
Delhi Jal Board also supplies water for free of
cost in water tankers but its not potable water.
It has been seen to cause skin irritation and
gastronomical problem. There are about 8,000 –
9,000 households in the region on an average
having 5 members. Around 60-70% people have
motors at their homes. 2% households even
have installed Kent ROs.
They have a Water Treatment Plant (WTP) in an area of about 100-150 sq.ft and
have put about 13 kiosks (see fig. 5.6-1) like an ATM in the radius of about 300-
500m. These kiosks (can store about 500L of water like an ATM machine) are
recharged with using a CNG operated recharging vehicle which can carry about
800L of water. People are given cards, like Delhi Metro cards, which they
recharge at the WTP and then use them at the ATM kiosks to get water.
Presently 1000 people have these cards. They call this model as “Hub & Spoke”.
All of the kiosks are connected to the server using cloud computing, so the water
level is monitored. Whenever the water level falls below a certain level, an SMS
is sent to the people at the WTP. It seems to happen on every alternate day.
Before recharging the kiosk they dump the water in it into the sewers.
At WTP they store the ground water in an underground 10,000L storage tank so that sedimentation
takes place. Then they further pump this water (raw water)
into a 1,000L water tank. Before pumping this water through
the Reverse Osmosis (RO) membrane, it is subjected to some
pre-filtration processes. It is first passed through media filter
and then the cartridges. Before storing water in two 3000L
(see fig. 5.6.-4) storage tanks, it undergoes UV treatment.
Purified water is not stored for more than 76hrs. It is
dispensed in the recharge pit, it’s a pit dug in the ground to
pour back the waste water back into the ground. TDS of raw
water is around 1500 mg/l and after purification it’s around
100-130mg/l. After 6hrs of use they backwash/clean the entire
Figure 5.6-1 Delhi Jal Board Water Tankers
Figure 5.6-3 Sarvajal Water
Kiosk with Solar Panel at top
Figure 5.6-2 WTP with a 1000L tank on right.

21
system. It takes about 15min in backwashing and then further 10mins for the rinsing.
Electricity bill comes out to be 10,0008
Rupees/month. They pay around 8,0009
Rupees/month each to
their 2 employees. The transportation cost comes out to be 3,00010
Rupees/month. The cost of each
kiosk is about Rs 40,00011
.
8,9,10,11
Tentative figure, unable to confirm withorganisation
Figure 5.6-4 3000L Storage Tanks used to store Purified water for 76 hours

22
6 Case Studies:
I looked at some of the business models of the companies working in potable water sector for poor
people.
6.1 Livinguard Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
http://www.livinguard.com/
Block No C-96, 1st Floor, TTC Industrial Area, Turbhe MIDC, Navi Mumbai 400705
+9122-30212509
info@livinguard.com
● Uses a proprietary disinfecting coating material called Livinguard :
o This is coated/impregnated on the entire area of fabric.
o Coating forms tiny knives throughout the fabric which pierce the membranes of
microorganisms that come in contact with the fabric.
o Disinfection is achieved via a mechanical kill action as opposed to conventional
chemical ones.
● Livinguard™ coated textiles are used to make filtration candles
o Used to purify fresh water, tap/municipal water, well water
o Doesn’t require any electricity, thus, become a cost-effective process.
● Cost to Consumers: 2-6 Paise/L.
● Using the Livinguard filtering technology, they have developed a huge line of at different
scales.
o Livinguard Rural Filter
o Livinguard "Matka" Filter
o Livinguard Community Filter
o Livinguard Community Filter

23
6.2 Sarvajal
http://www.sarvajal.com/#
Piramal Water Private Limited, ChandanBunglow, OppParitosh Tower, Near Darpana Academy,
Usmanpura, Ahmedabad, Gujarat - 380 013 India
Office - 079 4050 2100; Toll Free - 1800 103 2334
● Product: Water ATM’s , also operate Filtration plants
o Solar powered
o Cloud based remote monitoring system
● Cost to consumer12
:Rs 0.30 per litre at ATMs away from filtration centre and Rs 0.15 at the
filtration centre
● Water undergoes :
o Reverse osmosis
o Ultra-violet treatment
o Do not use Ozonisation process : quite expensive
● Claims water quality maintained according to BIS guidelines
6.3 SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection)
http://www.sodis.ch/index_EN
SODIS Ueberlandstrasse 133 P.O. Box 611 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland
Phone +41 58 765 52 86
info@sodis.ch
Principle: UV-A rays in sunlight kill germs such as viruses, bacteria and parasites (giardia and
cryptosporidia)
● Clear and Transparent (generally PET) bottles are filled with the water and placed in full sunlight
for at least 6 hours (depending on sunlight)
● PET bottles are better than PVC (PVC have a pungent smell and doesn’t burn as easily as possible
whereas PET have)
Restrictions/Requirements:
● Bottles must be transparent, colourless, not heavily scratched
● In order to allow sufficient radiation water must have turbidity less than 30 NTU (which can be
tested by reading newspaper headline through it) and its depth shouldn’t be more than 10 cm
Disadvantages:
● If more than half of the sky is clouded than you might even be required to keep it under sunlight
for 2 days
● Water that has been polluted with chemicals (poisons, fertilisers, etc.) must not be used since
SODIS method change the chemical composition
● Once removed from sunlight, remaining bacteria may again reproduce in the dark
1.
12
"Draw Water from ATMs for 30 Paise under Delhi Jal Board’s New Initiative." article by The Indian Express. N.p., 13
May 2014. Web. Aug. 2014. ( http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/draw-water-from-atms-for-30-paise-under-delhi-
jal-boards-new-initiative/ )

6.4 BioSand Filter: (Developed by CAWST
90’s
Principle: Based on slow-sand filter
 Point-of-use water treatment system
 Pathogens and suspended solids are removed by
 Mechanical trapping in sand,
 Predation -- Micro-organisms in bio
 Adsorption -- Stuck to sand grains,
 Natural death -- lack of food,
 Rate of filtration of water : 12
 Removes up to 95% of turbidity, bad
 Also able to remove Iron and magnesium as well
Note: - Separating gravel (0.7-6mm)
mm) layer are used only to prevent filtration sand from entering
the water flow and plugging the flow.
Restrictions/Requirements:
 Chlorinated water should not be used since chl
 the filtration sand bed be
-- To ensure attachment and deactivation of viruses
-- 50 cm is the minimum depth at which slow sand filters operate
 Flow rate of 0.4 m3
/m2
/hr
 Literature suggests minimum height of layer must be 3 times the mean diameter of grain size.
Thus, 5 cm seems safe (2 times this minimum)
Disadvantages:
● Cannot remove most of the
● The water may look clear after filtration but there may still be some bacteria and viruses in the
water. So, the water must be further disinfected. Mostly Chlorination, SODIS or boiling is used.
● Prototype was constructed with Astitva in Wada
 The flow rate was 175 mL/min due to smaller cross
section area but it matched the required flow of 0.4 m
 It was built at very small level
 Its cost was around 500 bucks
Figure
6.4-2 Santosh (R) from Astitva
collecting filtered water
BioSand Filter: (Developed by CAWST* co-founder Dr. David Manz in
filter
use water treatment system
Pathogens and suspended solids are removed by
Mechanical trapping in sand,
organisms in bio-layer eat them,
Stuck to sand grains,
lack of food, air
Rate of filtration of water : 12-18 L/hr
Removes up to 95% of turbidity, bad odour& taste
Also able to remove Iron and magnesium as well
6mm) & Drainage gravel (6-12
layer are used only to prevent filtration sand from entering
the water flow and plugging the flow.
Chlorinated water should not be used since chlorine kills the biolayer
the filtration sand bed be not less than 50 cm in depth
To ensure attachment and deactivation of viruses
50 cm is the minimum depth at which slow sand filters operate
/hr ( i.e. 0.4 L/min for cross-sectional area of 0.06 m
Literature suggests minimum height of layer must be 3 times the mean diameter of grain size.
Thus, 5 cm seems safe (2 times this minimum)
Cannot remove most of the chemical impurities
The water may look clear after filtration but there may still be some bacteria and viruses in the
was constructed with Astitva in Wada:
The flow rate was 175 mL/min due to smaller cross
section area but it matched the required flow of 0.4 m3
It was built at very small level
Its cost was around 500 bucks
Figure
Figure 6.4-3 Prototype
Figure 6.4-4 Washed
Separation and
Drainage gravels
24
founder Dr. David Manz in
orine kills the biolayer
sectional area of 0.06 m2
) is the target
Literature suggests minimum height of layer must be 3 times the mean diameter of grain size.
The water may look clear after filtration but there may still be some bacteria and viruses in the
The flow rate was 175 mL/min due to smaller cross-
3
/m2
/hr
Figure 6.4-1 Components of BSF
Washed
Figure 6.4-5 Measurements
for Construction

25
7 Observations:
As observed, the households in most of the villages in India get their water from the dug-up well.
Majorly it’s polluted with biological contamination. Villagers do put chlorine powder in wells which is
fine. But
1. Once all the TCL is used, Gram Panchayat delays the delivery of TCL packets. So, during this
period people drink contaminated water
2. The other point is that the wells are not properly covered so they also have organic substances
like a dead frog (seen in a well during the field visit), leaves from the plants etc which results in
the production of carcinogenic THMs. These bi-products can be avoided:
i. if the wells are properly covered and/or
ii. Instead of directly putting TCL in well they first filter it using activated carbon or sand
filter and then use TCL.
Figure 6.4-1 Kids from Thapa-pada village checking pH for the water

26
References:
1. Assessing Microbial Safety of Drinking Water: Improving Approaches and Methods. Paris: OECD,
2003. Web. Aug. 2014.
2. "CAWST." Biosand Filter. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct.-Nov. 2014.
<http://www.cawst.org/en/resources/biosand-filter>.
3. "Chlorine Residual Testing." Chlorine Residual Testing Fact Sheet, CDC SWS Project (n.d.): n. pag.
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. Nov. 2014.
<http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf>.
4. "Different Water Filtration Methods Explained." Apec Water Free Drinking Water. N.p., n.d. Web.
Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education/quality-water-filtration-
method.htm>.
5. "Draw Water from ATMs for 30 Paise under Delhi Jal Board’s New Initiative." The Indian Express.
N.p., 13 May 2014. Web. Aug. 2014. <http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/draw-water-from-
atms-for-30-paise-under-delhi-jal-boards-new-initiative/>.
6. "Drinking Water Filters -- A Complete Guide." Pure Water Network. N.p., n.d. Web. Aug.-Sept. 2014.
<http://www.pwn.com/guide2.html>.
7. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: First Addendum to the Third Edition, Volume 1:
Recommendations. Geneva: WHO: n.p., 2006. Web. Aug. 2014.
8. "IDA." IDA. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2014. <http://idadesal.org/desalination-101/desalination-by-the-
numbers>.
9. Livinguard™. N.p., n.d. Web. Aug. 2014. <http://www.livinguard.com/>.
10. "Microbiology." SODIS:. To Eawag, the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sciences and Technology,
n.d. Web. Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/mikrobio/index_EN>.
11. Nutrients in Drinking Water. Geneva, Switzerland: Water, Sanitation, and Health Protection and the
Human Environment, World Health Organization, 2005. Web. Nov. 2014.
12. PG, Brian Oram. "Chlorination of Drinking Water." Water Research Centre. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov.
2014. <http://www.water-research.net/index.php/water-treatment/tools/chlorination-of-water>.
13. Randy Johnson. "Drinking Water Treatment Methods." Drinking Water Resources. N.p., 2005. Web.
Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.cyber-nook.com/water/Solutions.html>.
14. Randy Johnson. "Effectiveness of Water Treatment Methods." Drinking Water Resources. N.p., n.d.
Web. Aug.-Sept. 2014.
<http://www.everythingyoualwayswantedtoknow.com/watertreatment/treatment-table.html>.
15. "Simple Methods for the Treatment of Drinking Water." Centre for Ecological Sciences. Ministry of
Environment and Forests, India, n.d. Web. Nov. 2014.
<http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/water/paper/drinkingwater/simplemethods/disinfection.html>.
16. SODIS. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 2014. <http://www.sodis.ch/index_EN>.
17. "Ultraviolet Radiation for Disinfecting Household Drinking Water." Water Treatment Notes; Cornell
Cooperative Extension, College of Human Ecology (1993 Updated 2004): n. pag. Web. Nov. 2014.
<http://waterquality.cce.cornell.edu/publications/CCEWQ-10-UVWaterTrtforDisinfection.pdf>.
18. "United States Census Bureau." Population Clock. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2014.
<http://www.census.gov/popclock/?intcmp=home>.
19. "ValueNotes Database Pvt Ltd." India’s Home Water Purifier Industry to Grow at a CAGR of 22% Till
2019. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 2014. <http://www.pr.com/press-release/579155>.
20. "Water For All." ..::Sarvajal ::..N.p., n.d. Web. Aug. 2014. <http://www.sarvajal.com/>.

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