The document discusses some of the key challenges that may prevent negotiators from reaching an agreement at the 2015 Paris Climate Change Conference (COP21). Specifically:
1) One major legal challenge is determining the form of the international agreement, whether it will be a protocol, legal instrument, or agreed outcome under international law.
2) The role and status of the intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) submitted by countries prior to the conference is unclear in terms of how they may be renegotiated or changed post-COP21.
3) Issues around measuring and accounting for the collective impact of countries' efforts to limit global temperature rise to 2 degrees Celsius and how to structure cooperative arrangements between countries.
The document summarizes the key points in negotiations leading up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris. It discusses how the negotiations have changed significantly from the Kyoto Protocol approach of binding emissions targets for countries. Now, countries submit voluntary emission reduction contributions. It outlines some of the major issues still under debate, including whether developing countries will receive differentiated treatment and how countries' contributions will be measured and reviewed. The document also analyzes the positions and expected contributions of major country blocs and emitters, such as the EU, US, China, and BASIC countries (Brazil, South Africa, India, China). For COP21 to succeed, agreements must be reached on the form of countries' contributions
The document provides an analysis of the Copenhagen Accord that came out of the COP15 climate talks in Denmark. It acknowledges some shortcomings of the accord, such as emissions targets that may not keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius and a lack of deadline for a legally-binding agreement. However, it also outlines some positives, including major developing countries committing to mitigation actions for the first time, an agreement on transparency compromising between developed and developing countries, and additional commitments for climate finance. Overall, the accord is assessed as an important stepping stone, but much work remains to strengthen it in the coming months.
Cancun Accords – Agreement & ImplicationsKrishan Kapil
The United Nations Climate Change Conference took place in Cancun, Mexico from November 29 to December 10, 2010. [1] The key documents from the conference were the Outcome of the AWG-LCA and the Outcome of the AWG-KP. [2] Twenty-six agreements were reached, including establishing a Green Climate Fund to help poor nations, protecting forests, and transferring clean energy technologies. [3]
Executive Summary- UNEP Emission Gap Report 2021: The Heat is OnEnergy for One World
1. Following a 5.4% drop in 2020 due to COVID-19, global CO2 emissions are rebounding in 2021 and are expected to be only slightly lower than pre-pandemic levels in 2019. Concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere continue to rise despite the 2020 drop.
2. New climate pledges for 2030 show some progress but their aggregate effect on reducing global emissions is insufficient, reducing emissions only 7.5% by 2030 compared to a 30% reduction needed to limit warming to 2°C.
3. As a group, G20 countries are not on track to achieve either their original or new 2030 pledges, requiring stronger policies. Ten G20
The document provides an overview of global and national interactions related to climate change politics. At the global level, it discusses the key players in producing climate change evidence like the IPCC and scientific journals. It also outlines several important international agreements on climate change like the UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement. At the national level, it examines the climate policies and commitments of governments in countries like the US, China, Canada, and Australia at both the federal and state/provincial levels. It provides details on the key climate plans and initiatives of these different governments.
The document summarizes the outcomes of COP16, the 2010 United Nations climate change conference in Cancun, Mexico. Key outcomes included the "Cancun Agreements," which established the Green Climate Fund to mobilize $100 billion annually for developing countries, frameworks for reducing deforestation and increasing transparency, and formalization of emissions pledges. However, no agreement was reached on extending the Kyoto Protocol, postponing that decision until COP17. Overall COP16 was seen as progressing the UNFCCC process and rejuvenating global climate cooperation.
The document summarizes the outcomes of the UN Climate Change Conference (COP 17) in Durban, South Africa from November 28 to December 11, 2011. Key outcomes included: establishing a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol; agreeing to a process to negotiate a new legal agreement applicable to all countries by 2015; and operationalizing the Green Climate Fund to support climate action in developing countries. The conference saw progress on long-term cooperative climate action after difficulties in Copenhagen and efforts in Cancun to rescue the multilateral climate regime. However, concerns remained about whether commitments made would close the gap between emissions pledges and levels needed to avoid dangerous climate change impacts.
Climate negotiations cop20lima_p4_ext_shortArthur Lee
The document summarizes negotiations from COP20 in Lima, Peru. Key issues that divided nations included differences over common but differentiated responsibilities and what constitutes a balanced agreement. After 30 hours of overtime negotiations, nations agreed on the Lima Call for Climate Action which included references to adaptation, loss and damage, and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. The Call also pushed negotiations forward on elements of the 2015 treaty to be completed by COP21 in Paris.
The document summarizes the key points in negotiations leading up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris. It discusses how the negotiations have changed significantly from the Kyoto Protocol approach of binding emissions targets for countries. Now, countries submit voluntary emission reduction contributions. It outlines some of the major issues still under debate, including whether developing countries will receive differentiated treatment and how countries' contributions will be measured and reviewed. The document also analyzes the positions and expected contributions of major country blocs and emitters, such as the EU, US, China, and BASIC countries (Brazil, South Africa, India, China). For COP21 to succeed, agreements must be reached on the form of countries' contributions
The document provides an analysis of the Copenhagen Accord that came out of the COP15 climate talks in Denmark. It acknowledges some shortcomings of the accord, such as emissions targets that may not keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius and a lack of deadline for a legally-binding agreement. However, it also outlines some positives, including major developing countries committing to mitigation actions for the first time, an agreement on transparency compromising between developed and developing countries, and additional commitments for climate finance. Overall, the accord is assessed as an important stepping stone, but much work remains to strengthen it in the coming months.
Cancun Accords – Agreement & ImplicationsKrishan Kapil
The United Nations Climate Change Conference took place in Cancun, Mexico from November 29 to December 10, 2010. [1] The key documents from the conference were the Outcome of the AWG-LCA and the Outcome of the AWG-KP. [2] Twenty-six agreements were reached, including establishing a Green Climate Fund to help poor nations, protecting forests, and transferring clean energy technologies. [3]
Executive Summary- UNEP Emission Gap Report 2021: The Heat is OnEnergy for One World
1. Following a 5.4% drop in 2020 due to COVID-19, global CO2 emissions are rebounding in 2021 and are expected to be only slightly lower than pre-pandemic levels in 2019. Concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere continue to rise despite the 2020 drop.
2. New climate pledges for 2030 show some progress but their aggregate effect on reducing global emissions is insufficient, reducing emissions only 7.5% by 2030 compared to a 30% reduction needed to limit warming to 2°C.
3. As a group, G20 countries are not on track to achieve either their original or new 2030 pledges, requiring stronger policies. Ten G20
The document provides an overview of global and national interactions related to climate change politics. At the global level, it discusses the key players in producing climate change evidence like the IPCC and scientific journals. It also outlines several important international agreements on climate change like the UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement. At the national level, it examines the climate policies and commitments of governments in countries like the US, China, Canada, and Australia at both the federal and state/provincial levels. It provides details on the key climate plans and initiatives of these different governments.
The document summarizes the outcomes of COP16, the 2010 United Nations climate change conference in Cancun, Mexico. Key outcomes included the "Cancun Agreements," which established the Green Climate Fund to mobilize $100 billion annually for developing countries, frameworks for reducing deforestation and increasing transparency, and formalization of emissions pledges. However, no agreement was reached on extending the Kyoto Protocol, postponing that decision until COP17. Overall COP16 was seen as progressing the UNFCCC process and rejuvenating global climate cooperation.
The document summarizes the outcomes of the UN Climate Change Conference (COP 17) in Durban, South Africa from November 28 to December 11, 2011. Key outcomes included: establishing a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol; agreeing to a process to negotiate a new legal agreement applicable to all countries by 2015; and operationalizing the Green Climate Fund to support climate action in developing countries. The conference saw progress on long-term cooperative climate action after difficulties in Copenhagen and efforts in Cancun to rescue the multilateral climate regime. However, concerns remained about whether commitments made would close the gap between emissions pledges and levels needed to avoid dangerous climate change impacts.
Climate negotiations cop20lima_p4_ext_shortArthur Lee
The document summarizes negotiations from COP20 in Lima, Peru. Key issues that divided nations included differences over common but differentiated responsibilities and what constitutes a balanced agreement. After 30 hours of overtime negotiations, nations agreed on the Lima Call for Climate Action which included references to adaptation, loss and damage, and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. The Call also pushed negotiations forward on elements of the 2015 treaty to be completed by COP21 in Paris.
Road to Lima is a summary of preparations for COP20, the 20th session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and the 10th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol, which will be held Dec. 1-12 in Lima, Peru.
International Efforts on Climate Change MitigationIrfan Mohammed
The document summarizes key events and outcomes in international efforts to address climate change mitigation from 1979 to 2011, including:
1) The establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 to assess scientific information on climate change.
2) The adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 and entry into force in 1994, establishing a framework for international cooperation.
3) The adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which legally bound developed countries to emission reduction targets, and subsequent Conferences of the Parties to negotiate details of implementation.
International Efforts on Climate Change MitigationIrfan Mohammed
The document summarizes key international conferences and agreements related to climate change mitigation efforts since 1979. It outlines the creation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 to assess scientific information on climate change. Major agreements included the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which established legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries. Subsequent COP meetings addressed implementing and strengthening the global response to climate change through 2020.
2.1b nap sdg i frame overview june 2018 set 2NAP Events
The document presents an Integrative Framework for aligning National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It describes how the objectives of NAPs and the global goal on adaptation in the Paris Agreement relate to sustainable development. The framework identifies SDG targets related to climate change adaptation and classifies them as high-level objectives, specific outcomes, or guiding principles. It then outlines steps to develop a country-specific list of development goals and targets from the SDGs and other frameworks to assess systems vulnerable to climate hazards and implement adaptation actions that achieve both development and adaptation goals.
84th ICREA colloquium 'Carbon pricing and energy use pathways for staying wit...ICREA
'Parallel tracks towards a post-Paris treaty on carbon pricing'
Stopping climate change has turned out to be an immense challenge. Although denial of the problem seems to weaken somewhat, a serious hurdle to a solution is that many scientists and politicians are insufficiently focused on ultimate effectiveness of policies. We quantify the magnitude of the decarbonization challenge and discuss general solution strategies and policy instruments. We then look into the carbon emissions involved in a renewable energy transition, assess the effects of recessions on carbon emissions and discuss the trade-offs between economic growth and reducing carbon emissions. We zoom in on carbon pricing, listing classic and heterodox arguments in favor of it, dealing with effectiveness, efficiency, equity, national and international feasibility, and systemic effects. Complementary instruments and the reasons for their use are mentioned as well. On the basis of this, implications for the policy trajectory after the Paris international climate agreement are formulated.
This document summarizes discussions from the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) in Glasgow. It acknowledges the urgent need to strengthen climate action and support for developing countries based on the latest science. Key points include: recognizing that impacts are already occurring at 1.1°C of warming; stressing the need to scale up adaptation funding and actions; welcoming increased pledges but noting more is needed, especially to double adaptation funding; and reaffirming commitments to limit warming to 1.5°C through deep global emissions reductions.
International cooperation and development: a conceptual overviewIra Tobing
Any credible claim to implement an agenda for global development – such as currently discussed in the post-2015 process – will require integrating the broader framework of
international cooperation into this effort. A wide, but vague consensus that global framework conditions matter for development has already existed in past development debates. However, good resolutions such as MDG 8 for a global partnership have shown insufficient progress in practice. This paper reviews key aspects of the relationship between international cooperation and development at a conceptual level. Drawing on a distinction between domestic and global public goods as enablers and goals of development, the paper first illustrates the role of international cooperation and its interdependence with domestic action. The framework identifies contact points in the relationship between global and domestic action and goals with the categories of provision, support, access and preservation. The second part of the paper reviews key concepts of patterns of international cooperation that represent the elements of the global governance framework to which a broadening development agenda needs to link up more strongly. Overall, the conceptual review underlines that the question of how international cooperation works has moved to the centre of development studies. Yet, an even bigger challenge than achieving cooperation in the first place might be to steer the complex architecture and processes of international cooperation towards contributing to a global agenda for development.
New agreement and key considerations (Paris climate agreement)IIED
This is a presentation by IIED principal researcher Dr Achala Abeysinghe that summarises the draft Paris climate package and key considerations at country level.
The presentation was made at the UNEP Southeast Asia Network of Climate Change Offices (SEAN-CC) workshop in Bangkok and the UNEP Central Asia Pre-COP workshop in Almaty on 2 and 5 November 2015 respectively.
More details: http://www.iied.org/helping-vulnerable-countries-achieve-equitable-solutions-climate-law-policy-making-processes
A presentation by IIED principal researcher Dr Achala Abeysinghe giving an introduction to the Paris Agreement on climate change.
The presentation was made at the ecbi Training And Support Programme’s Asian regional training workshop for junior climate negotiators from developing countries, in Dhaka, Bangladesh on 14-15 April 2016.
More details: http://www.iied.org/workshops-build-climate-negotiators-capacity-european-capacity-building-initiative-training-support
The document summarizes the key components and next steps of the Copenhagen Accord on climate change. The Accord includes commitments from over 100 countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and billions of dollars pledged for climate financing. It establishes mechanisms for nationally appropriate mitigation actions by developing countries and adaptation programs in Africa. It also creates a High Level Panel and Copenhagen Green Climate Fund to mobilize $100 billion annually by 2020 for developing country needs. The Accord represents the first steps in ongoing UN negotiations to agree on a post-Kyoto climate framework.
The document provides information about several English-speaking countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. It discusses facts about each country such as their flags, coats of arms, mottos, capitals, currencies, and official languages. It also engages the reader in an imagined role play activity where they take on the identity of teenagers from different parts of the UK meeting at an international conference.
Mahesh Pisal is seeking a position that offers challenges and growth. He has 4 years of experience in quality control and inspection. His experience includes working as a quality engineer for Bajaj Power Equipment and quality engineer for Om Sai Engineering Works, where he performed inspection, analyzed rejections, and ensured compliance. He has a MBA in Production and Materials Management and a BE in Mechanical Engineering. He is proficient in Microsoft Office, SAP, and AutoCAD. His hobbies include chess, cricket, and reading.
What have you learnt about technologies from the.pptx evalllMaisiesmith16
The document summarizes what the group learned about technologies from constructing a media product. They learned how to use various software like Adobe Premiere, Photoshop, and Blogger. They also learned how to use equipment like cameras, microphones, and Mac computers. Through completing pre-lim tasks and their final product, all of their skills improved immensely over the course as they gained experience using the different technologies. Areas they identified wanting to improve included camera skills, Photoshop skills for posters, and further exploring editing techniques.
Robust Digital Image Watermarking Technique in DWT domain based on HVS and BPNNCSCJournals
Most of the data distribution or redistribution occurs on the internet either by means of images, documents, videos, etc. But to claim the ownership and copy right protection, some extra information which cannot be removed by intruders is necessary to provide security. Such a security is provided by Watermarking. In this paper, a robust Digital Image watermarking algorithm is projected in Discrete Wavelet Transform domain using back propagation neural networks and Human Visual System Parameters like Luminous sensitivity and Texture sensitivity. Neural Networks are used in embedding and extracting the watermark. The proposed method is more protected and robust to several attacks like: Resizing, Median filtering, Row-Column copying, Low pass filtering, JPEG Compression, Rotation, Salt and Pepper Noise, Cropping, Bit Plane Removal, Blurring, Row-Column blanking, Intensity Transformation, etc. Outstanding experimental outcomes were perceived with the suggested method over a method proposed by Qiao Baoming et al. in terms of Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR) and Normalized Cross Correlation (NCC).
Implementing GASB 72: Fair Value Measurement and ApplicationDonald E. Hester
In this session, we identify the impacts of GASB 72 for financial statement presentation purposes and be exposed to updated footnote tables and other pertinent footnote disclosures. Other topics include: valuation techniques, reporting requirements and definitions related to the Statement. Presenters Cody Smith, CPA, Audit Supervisor and Amy Myer, CPA, Audit Partner
2016 Maze Live Changes in Grant Management and How to Prepare for the Single ...Donald E. Hester
Are you ready for the new Single Audit rules and requirements? In this session, we will go over the new Uniform Guidance to Federal Awards with a high level background and overview on the latest updates on the new single audit requirements. We will discuss how the Uniform Guidance will affect the planning considerations for year-end single audits. We will also discuss how you can successfully prepare for the single audit and comply with the new Uniform Guidance for Federal Awards.
Presenters Nikki Apura, Audit Supervisor and Mark Wong, CPA, Audit Partner
CAMBRIDGE AS GEOGRAPHY REVISION: ROCKS AND WEATHERING - 3.2 WEATHERING AND ROCKSGeorge Dumitrache
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks through chemical and mechanical processes. There are two main types of weathering: chemical weathering involves changes to a rock's mineral composition, while mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their composition. The rate and type of weathering depends on factors like climate, rock type, and rock structure. Limestone is particularly susceptible to weathering due to its permeability and solubility, which can form distinctive karst landscapes.
Road to Lima is a summary of preparations for COP20, the 20th session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and the 10th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol, which will be held Dec. 1-12 in Lima, Peru.
International Efforts on Climate Change MitigationIrfan Mohammed
The document summarizes key events and outcomes in international efforts to address climate change mitigation from 1979 to 2011, including:
1) The establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 to assess scientific information on climate change.
2) The adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 and entry into force in 1994, establishing a framework for international cooperation.
3) The adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which legally bound developed countries to emission reduction targets, and subsequent Conferences of the Parties to negotiate details of implementation.
International Efforts on Climate Change MitigationIrfan Mohammed
The document summarizes key international conferences and agreements related to climate change mitigation efforts since 1979. It outlines the creation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 to assess scientific information on climate change. Major agreements included the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which established legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries. Subsequent COP meetings addressed implementing and strengthening the global response to climate change through 2020.
2.1b nap sdg i frame overview june 2018 set 2NAP Events
The document presents an Integrative Framework for aligning National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It describes how the objectives of NAPs and the global goal on adaptation in the Paris Agreement relate to sustainable development. The framework identifies SDG targets related to climate change adaptation and classifies them as high-level objectives, specific outcomes, or guiding principles. It then outlines steps to develop a country-specific list of development goals and targets from the SDGs and other frameworks to assess systems vulnerable to climate hazards and implement adaptation actions that achieve both development and adaptation goals.
84th ICREA colloquium 'Carbon pricing and energy use pathways for staying wit...ICREA
'Parallel tracks towards a post-Paris treaty on carbon pricing'
Stopping climate change has turned out to be an immense challenge. Although denial of the problem seems to weaken somewhat, a serious hurdle to a solution is that many scientists and politicians are insufficiently focused on ultimate effectiveness of policies. We quantify the magnitude of the decarbonization challenge and discuss general solution strategies and policy instruments. We then look into the carbon emissions involved in a renewable energy transition, assess the effects of recessions on carbon emissions and discuss the trade-offs between economic growth and reducing carbon emissions. We zoom in on carbon pricing, listing classic and heterodox arguments in favor of it, dealing with effectiveness, efficiency, equity, national and international feasibility, and systemic effects. Complementary instruments and the reasons for their use are mentioned as well. On the basis of this, implications for the policy trajectory after the Paris international climate agreement are formulated.
This document summarizes discussions from the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) in Glasgow. It acknowledges the urgent need to strengthen climate action and support for developing countries based on the latest science. Key points include: recognizing that impacts are already occurring at 1.1°C of warming; stressing the need to scale up adaptation funding and actions; welcoming increased pledges but noting more is needed, especially to double adaptation funding; and reaffirming commitments to limit warming to 1.5°C through deep global emissions reductions.
International cooperation and development: a conceptual overviewIra Tobing
Any credible claim to implement an agenda for global development – such as currently discussed in the post-2015 process – will require integrating the broader framework of
international cooperation into this effort. A wide, but vague consensus that global framework conditions matter for development has already existed in past development debates. However, good resolutions such as MDG 8 for a global partnership have shown insufficient progress in practice. This paper reviews key aspects of the relationship between international cooperation and development at a conceptual level. Drawing on a distinction between domestic and global public goods as enablers and goals of development, the paper first illustrates the role of international cooperation and its interdependence with domestic action. The framework identifies contact points in the relationship between global and domestic action and goals with the categories of provision, support, access and preservation. The second part of the paper reviews key concepts of patterns of international cooperation that represent the elements of the global governance framework to which a broadening development agenda needs to link up more strongly. Overall, the conceptual review underlines that the question of how international cooperation works has moved to the centre of development studies. Yet, an even bigger challenge than achieving cooperation in the first place might be to steer the complex architecture and processes of international cooperation towards contributing to a global agenda for development.
New agreement and key considerations (Paris climate agreement)IIED
This is a presentation by IIED principal researcher Dr Achala Abeysinghe that summarises the draft Paris climate package and key considerations at country level.
The presentation was made at the UNEP Southeast Asia Network of Climate Change Offices (SEAN-CC) workshop in Bangkok and the UNEP Central Asia Pre-COP workshop in Almaty on 2 and 5 November 2015 respectively.
More details: http://www.iied.org/helping-vulnerable-countries-achieve-equitable-solutions-climate-law-policy-making-processes
A presentation by IIED principal researcher Dr Achala Abeysinghe giving an introduction to the Paris Agreement on climate change.
The presentation was made at the ecbi Training And Support Programme’s Asian regional training workshop for junior climate negotiators from developing countries, in Dhaka, Bangladesh on 14-15 April 2016.
More details: http://www.iied.org/workshops-build-climate-negotiators-capacity-european-capacity-building-initiative-training-support
The document summarizes the key components and next steps of the Copenhagen Accord on climate change. The Accord includes commitments from over 100 countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and billions of dollars pledged for climate financing. It establishes mechanisms for nationally appropriate mitigation actions by developing countries and adaptation programs in Africa. It also creates a High Level Panel and Copenhagen Green Climate Fund to mobilize $100 billion annually by 2020 for developing country needs. The Accord represents the first steps in ongoing UN negotiations to agree on a post-Kyoto climate framework.
The document provides information about several English-speaking countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. It discusses facts about each country such as their flags, coats of arms, mottos, capitals, currencies, and official languages. It also engages the reader in an imagined role play activity where they take on the identity of teenagers from different parts of the UK meeting at an international conference.
Mahesh Pisal is seeking a position that offers challenges and growth. He has 4 years of experience in quality control and inspection. His experience includes working as a quality engineer for Bajaj Power Equipment and quality engineer for Om Sai Engineering Works, where he performed inspection, analyzed rejections, and ensured compliance. He has a MBA in Production and Materials Management and a BE in Mechanical Engineering. He is proficient in Microsoft Office, SAP, and AutoCAD. His hobbies include chess, cricket, and reading.
What have you learnt about technologies from the.pptx evalllMaisiesmith16
The document summarizes what the group learned about technologies from constructing a media product. They learned how to use various software like Adobe Premiere, Photoshop, and Blogger. They also learned how to use equipment like cameras, microphones, and Mac computers. Through completing pre-lim tasks and their final product, all of their skills improved immensely over the course as they gained experience using the different technologies. Areas they identified wanting to improve included camera skills, Photoshop skills for posters, and further exploring editing techniques.
Robust Digital Image Watermarking Technique in DWT domain based on HVS and BPNNCSCJournals
Most of the data distribution or redistribution occurs on the internet either by means of images, documents, videos, etc. But to claim the ownership and copy right protection, some extra information which cannot be removed by intruders is necessary to provide security. Such a security is provided by Watermarking. In this paper, a robust Digital Image watermarking algorithm is projected in Discrete Wavelet Transform domain using back propagation neural networks and Human Visual System Parameters like Luminous sensitivity and Texture sensitivity. Neural Networks are used in embedding and extracting the watermark. The proposed method is more protected and robust to several attacks like: Resizing, Median filtering, Row-Column copying, Low pass filtering, JPEG Compression, Rotation, Salt and Pepper Noise, Cropping, Bit Plane Removal, Blurring, Row-Column blanking, Intensity Transformation, etc. Outstanding experimental outcomes were perceived with the suggested method over a method proposed by Qiao Baoming et al. in terms of Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR) and Normalized Cross Correlation (NCC).
Implementing GASB 72: Fair Value Measurement and ApplicationDonald E. Hester
In this session, we identify the impacts of GASB 72 for financial statement presentation purposes and be exposed to updated footnote tables and other pertinent footnote disclosures. Other topics include: valuation techniques, reporting requirements and definitions related to the Statement. Presenters Cody Smith, CPA, Audit Supervisor and Amy Myer, CPA, Audit Partner
2016 Maze Live Changes in Grant Management and How to Prepare for the Single ...Donald E. Hester
Are you ready for the new Single Audit rules and requirements? In this session, we will go over the new Uniform Guidance to Federal Awards with a high level background and overview on the latest updates on the new single audit requirements. We will discuss how the Uniform Guidance will affect the planning considerations for year-end single audits. We will also discuss how you can successfully prepare for the single audit and comply with the new Uniform Guidance for Federal Awards.
Presenters Nikki Apura, Audit Supervisor and Mark Wong, CPA, Audit Partner
CAMBRIDGE AS GEOGRAPHY REVISION: ROCKS AND WEATHERING - 3.2 WEATHERING AND ROCKSGeorge Dumitrache
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks through chemical and mechanical processes. There are two main types of weathering: chemical weathering involves changes to a rock's mineral composition, while mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their composition. The rate and type of weathering depends on factors like climate, rock type, and rock structure. Limestone is particularly susceptible to weathering due to its permeability and solubility, which can form distinctive karst landscapes.
Wollen Sie als Sprachdozent zu einem Netzwerk von über 12.000 lizenzierten Prüferinnen und Prüfer gehören und dabei den Erfolg Ihrer Sprachschule und Kursteilnehmer fördern? In dieser Präsentation erfahren Sie, welche Vorteile die telc Prüferqualifizierung bietet, welches Angebot für Sie geeignet ist und wie eine Lizenzierung funktioniert.
Melden Sie sich für unseren Newsletter an: https://www.telc.net/kontakt.html
BC3 Policy Briefing Videos Series: Reports that synthesise the research work carried out by the team from the Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3). This content is intended to be of use for the agents involved in decision-making on climate change.
This Policy briefing was authored by Ibon Galarraga and Mavi Román.
BC3 Policy Briefing Videos Series:
Reports that synthesise the research work carried out by the team from the Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3).
This content is intended to be of use for the agents involved in decision-making on climate change.
BC3 Policy Briefings [2016-01-Special Issue]: "The Paris Summit: The beginning of the end of the carbon economy"
Key points
- The Paris Agreement is the basis for increased, transparent and coordinated action of all countries.
- The key of the success was the extraordinary transparency and confidence throughout the process.
- While the Kyoto protocol covered 14% of emissions, 98% of emissions are covered by the new regime.
- Countries will increase ambition every 5 years for closing a gap of, currently, 15 gigatonnes.
- The goal of mobilizing $100 billion per year for climate aid will be revised onwards from 2025.
Reed Smith - The Paris Agreement – leading the pathway to a low carbon econom...Nicholas Rock
The document summarizes key aspects of the Paris Agreement on climate change. It was adopted in December 2015 by 195 countries to limit global warming to well below 2°C by rapidly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The agreement aims to guide countries' climate actions through non-binding commitments and transparency in reporting, while allowing flexibility for different national circumstances. It establishes a long-term goal of achieving a balance between emissions and removals by sinks in the second half of this century through actions that will be progressively strengthened by each country.
This document provides a summary of key outcomes and issues from COP20, the 2014 UN climate change conference in Lima, Peru. The main points are:
- COP20 adopted the "Lima Call for Climate Action" to guide negotiations toward a 2015 agreement in Paris. It established a process for countries to submit climate action plans and enhance pre-2020 ambition.
- Momentum was growing heading into COP20 due to new climate commitments from the EU, US, and China. However, submitted country commitments are still not sufficient to close the emissions gap identified by the UN.
- There was discussion of enhancing the long-term vision to achieve net zero emissions globally by 2050, but no agreement was reached
The document summarizes a student's research paper on strategies for the upcoming COP21 climate conference in Paris. It discusses the failures of the Kyoto Protocol to meaningfully reduce global emissions due to lack of participation from major emitters like the US and China. The student argues COP21 should focus on creating voluntary, specific emission guidelines for all countries to encourage widespread adoption and pressure the US to participate. This may elevate the agreement to a universal law.
The Paris Agreement is a landmark international accord that aims to strengthen the global response to climate change. It was adopted in 2015 and entered into force in 2016. Key points:
- Nearly every country agreed to cut greenhouse gas emissions and take climate action to limit global temperature rise. They submitted voluntary national plans (NDCs) to reduce emissions.
- The goal is to hold warming well below 2°C and pursue efforts for 1.5°C to significantly reduce climate risks and impacts.
- Countries will update their climate actions every 5 years, with more ambitious targets over time based on the principle of progression.
- While a historic step, critics argue the voluntary nature lacks enforcement and current policies still fall
Wicked problems like climate change are complex issues with contradictory information and differing views that make them difficult to resolve. Climate change negotiations have been slow and uneven, but the upcoming COP21 conference in Paris aims to reach a robust global agreement. While opinions still differ on key issues, climate diplomacy has evolved over time to incorporate pragmatic approaches like voluntary commitments instead of binding limits, engagement with major emitters, pursuing climate action through multiple channels, and separating divisive issues to allow progress in other areas. These flexible approaches seek to avoid stalemates and facilitate ongoing efforts to address climate change, one of the most challenging wicked problems.
The document provides an overview of the Paris Climate Accord, including its key goals and mechanisms. The Accord aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C by requiring countries to establish emission reduction targets through nationally determined contributions. It also establishes a transparency and review process to track progress. While an important step forward, some criticisms note the Accord's non-binding nature and lack of sanctions for non-compliance may limit its effectiveness in achieving long-term temperature goals.
The Paris Agreement is an agreement within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in 2020. 194 countries have signed it, with 127 ratifying it, and it went into effect in November 2016. The agreement aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C by reducing emissions through nationally determined contributions that are reported every 5 years. However, the contributions are not legally binding and there is no enforcement if countries do not meet their targets.
Expectations for the 16th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Fra...tchagutah
1) Expectations for the COP16 climate summit in Cancun are low given the failure of the 2009 Copenhagen summit to reach a binding agreement.
2) Most observers expect a modest outcome in Cancun focused on operationalizing existing commitments rather than new emissions targets. The goal is incremental progress through agreeing on specific issues.
3) Developing countries are pushing for commitments from developed nations on emissions reductions and financing. However, expectations of a comprehensive legally-binding deal in Cancun are diminished. The focus is on making headway on individual issues.
Report on Warsaw is a summary of the negotiations that transpired at COP19, the 19th session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and the 9th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol, which was held Nov. 11-22, 2013 in Warsaw, Poland.
This document proposes broadening engagement in climate negotiations and action by incorporating commitments from non-nation state actors like mayors, governors, and CEOs. It recommends a Paris Agreement that 1) highlights commitments from these actors, 2) encourages and tracks their commitments through new metrics, and 3) scales up clean energy finance to support widespread action. Taken together, these measures could energize negotiations, advance solutions, and build momentum for broad climate action after Paris. The document outlines the rationale for broader engagement and provides examples of leadership already underway from subnational groups.
This document proposes reforms to the UN COP process to shift the focus from negotiations to delivery of climate goals and commitments. It argues that the current consensus-based structure has led to slow incremental progress, taking years to finalize agreements, while emissions and temperatures continue rising. The summary proposes restructuring COP meetings to focus on reporting, accountability, and working sessions, with smaller annual meetings and more frequent intersessional meetings. It also calls for establishing delivery themes and accountability mechanisms to ensure countries' plans align with scientific targets and benchmarks. The document is signed by climate experts in support of reforming COP to prioritize implementation and a just global transition.
The Parliamentary Yearbook is currently gathering news items for major features on sustainable energy and climate change in the next edition and will be monitoring progress following the Rio+20 conference “towards a greener future”
The document discusses the Kyoto Protocol, an international treaty aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It was adopted in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and has been ratified by over 190 countries. The key points are:
- The Protocol sets mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions for industrialized nations that collectively aim to reduce emissions by 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2012.
- The United States initially participated but withdrew from the treaty in 2001, citing economic concerns and the lack of participation of developing nations.
- The Kyoto Protocol represents an international effort to address the issue of global climate change through legally binding emissions reduction targets.
A presentation on the social-political background to the Paris climate talks, a 'mapping' of the climate regime, a summary of outcomes, and the full text highlighted and explained.
This report analyzes global climate ambition ahead of the 2020 deadline set by the Paris Agreement. It finds that 112 nations representing 53% of emissions intend to revise their climate plans, with 75 aiming to enhance ambition on mitigation and/or adaptation. Meanwhile, 53 countries are preparing long-term strategies for carbon neutrality by mid-century. However, current climate plans still put the world on track for a 10.7% rise in emissions by 2030, underscoring the need for bolder action. The UN Secretary-General is calling for commitments at the September 2019 Climate Action Summit to halve emissions by 2030 and achieve net-zero by 2050.
The document provides updates on climate change negotiations and policies. It discusses:
1) The findings of the UN's first global stocktake report under the Paris Agreement, which concluded the world is not on track to meet its goals of limiting warming to 2°C.
2) Details agreed for the new Loss and Damage Fund for developing countries, including that it will be hosted by the World Bank for 4 years.
3) Stakeholder consultations being held by India's Bureau of Energy Efficiency on draft rules for implementing its domestic carbon market.
4) Key policies adopted by China to revamp its national carbon market, including stricter monitoring and a unified trading platform.
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that commits industrialized nations to limit and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It introduced mechanisms for emissions trading and financing climate projects in developing countries. While it represented progress in addressing climate change, the Kyoto Protocol only bound developed countries to reduce emissions and did not achieve full participation. The Paris Agreement built on the Kyoto Protocol by engaging all countries in setting emissions reduction targets.
Similar to Reed Smith - Anticipating the outcome of the 2015 Paris Climate Change Conference - September 2015 - low-res (20)
2. Why choose Reed Smith
reedsmith.com
The 21st Conference of the Parties (“COP”) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (“UNFCCC”) meets in Paris at the end of this year1
to seek to achieve the vaulted ambition set
by the Durban Platform2
of “developing a protocol or other legal instrument or agreed outcome with legal
force under the Convention applicable to all Parties”3
on climate change within the specified deadline of
2015. In terms of the world’s response to the challenges posed by climate change and the likelihood of
any potential success of that response, a great deal will turn on the positions negotiated and reached
(or not) over the course of the two weeks in Paris. The EU Council’s conclusions on the preparations for
COP21 describe this meeting as of “critical importance” and “a historic milestone for enhancing global
collective action”.4
Ever since the climate change negotiations in Copenhagen in 2009 collapsed under the weight of inflated
hype and expectation, everyone involved in the process launched by the Durban Platform has sought to
limit, temper and manage expectations for the new agreement. This approach has been so successful that
today, on the eve of one of the most significant international global treaty negotiations, the question being
asked is just what meaningful impact can follow from the little that may be achieved in Paris?
In this client paper, we therefore explore what may follow when little is expected.
INTRODUCTION
30-second overview
• The international climate change meeting in Paris is likely to lead to a new international agreement.This agreement
will replace the Kyoto Protocol and is to take effect from 2020. In contrast to the previous attempt in Copenhagen
in 2009, this time China and the U.S. are active supporters of the new “bottom up approach” which invites action to
address climate change from all 196 countries to the UNFCCC.
• Although reaching such an agreement in Paris will not be without challenges, these challenges are capable of
being overcome. Some of the key challenges to be overcome include (a) the legal form and length/tenure of the
agreement, (b) the role of the pre-notified intended national contributions, (c) the accounting measures to gauge
impact of the collective efforts and to judge cooperative arrangements adopted by various countries, and (d) the role
of finance to assist developing countries bring about the necessary change and to adapt to the adverse impacts of
climate change.
in30sec
3. 1
BACKGROUND
It is not a given that an agreement will be reached
in Paris. However, unlike Copenhagen, there are
key differences that support a more positive
outcome this time. These include:
• The inclusive nature of the new agreement –
the active participation in combating climate
change by all country parties (“Parties”), and
not just by the few OECD and other developed countries ensures there is more ‘skin in the game’.
• The “bottom-up” approach of the new agreement enables each Party to offer up what it can do toward
combating the adverse effects of climate change in a less prescriptive form than the last time around in
Copenhagen.
• Flexibility to recognise local politically constrained domestic policies – by not insisting the new agreement
should take the form of a legally binding treaty – frees up countries such as the United States to make
commitments that do not necessarily require formal national legislative ratification.
• China and the U.S. are vocal, active and highly engaged participants in the Durban Platform process. Given
that these two key greenhouse gas emitting countries made a joint announcement in November 2014
regarding their respective post-2020 climate change ambitions in the hope that “they can inject momentum
into the global climate negotiations and inspire other countries to join in coming forward with ambitious
actions as soon as possible”, there has been a demonstrable material shift in position since 2009.
A number of other significant events have also helped to create momentum towards Paris. Recognising, since
Copenhagen, the importance of mobilizing a broad circle of influence within and outside the UN negotiation
process, the following announcements5
support a swing towards climate change making it back towards the
top of the political agenda.
• The release of the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5)6
which concludes that it “is extremely likely7
that
human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century.”8
• The G7 Leaders Summit Declaration9
regarding the phasing out of fossil fuels by the end of the century.
• The UN Climate Summit in New York 2014 to create a platform for dialogue outside of the formal UNFCCC
process in advance of Paris.10
• The Obama administration’s release of the final Clean Power Plan setting emission guidelines for each state
to use in developing plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from existing fossil fuel-fired power plants
from 202211
.
• Pope Francis’ encyclical calling for action to curb climate change, in which it states climate change is
caused by human activities12
.
• China’s 27 September 2015 announcement of the introduction of a sector-wide emissions trading scheme
from 2017.
The question, however, remains despite the attempts at mobilising a broad circle of influence, whether the
challenges remaining for Paris can be overcome.
in30sec
Key reasons why a more positive outcome is expected in Paris,
compared to Copenhagen in 2009:
• The “bottom-up” approach of the new agreement gives each Party
more flexibility in choosing how it wants to combat climate change.
• China and the U.S., each key greenhouse gas emitting countries,
are vocal, active and highly engaged in the new agreement process.
• A broad circle of influence has been mobilized within and outside
the UN negotiation process to help bring climate change back
toward the top of the political agenda.These include the UN Climate
Summit in New York 2014 that created a platform for dialogue
outside of the formal UNFCCC process and the release of the IPCC’s
Fifth Assessment Report concluding that it is 95–100% certain that
human influence has been the dominant cause of warming.
4. 2
The challengeS for paris
There are a number of political, economic, legal and practical challenges that may thwart the efforts of the
negotiating Parties in Paris. There is already a lot of literature available on what these are; therefore, we
highlight those that are more legal in nature.
The legal form of the agreement
One of the largest legal stumbling blocks awaiting negotiators in Paris is the question of the form that the
international agreement will take. The criteria prescribed by the Durban Platform does provide the Parties
with options (e.g. a protocol, other legal instrument or agreed outcome with legal force) but the reality is that,
irrespective of the title applied to the document, it will need to meet the criteria for a treaty under the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties. Otherwise, the Paris agreement may not inspire the confidence that
commitments will be met or that real action will be required by greenhouse gas emitters in light of the Paris
agreement. The determination of the Paris agreement as a treaty would turn on whether it was intended to
create legal obligations on Parties and whether those Parties expressed consent to be bound. Therefore, the
provisions in the Paris agreement relating to the conditions for its entry into force will be a significant aspect
of these negotiations. Neither the current draft negotiating text for the Paris agreement circulated following the
ADP13
meeting in Geneva (the “Geneva Text”) nor the ADP co-chairs consolidated version text of the Geneva
Text14
circulated in July (the “Co-chairs Tool”) seeks to resolve this issue or even reduce some of the options.
The role of INDCs under the Paris agreement
Following on from the 2013 COP meeting in Warsaw (“COP19”), Parties were invited to specify their intended
nationally determined contributions (“INDCs”) in the context of the Paris agreement so that the UNFCCC
secretariat could prepare, by 1 November 2015, a synthesis report on the aggregate effect of the INDCs
communicated by Parties by 1 October 2015. As of the end of September 2015, 125 countries of the
196 countries (or +75% of global greenhouse gas emissions) has submitted their INDC to the secretariat.
Assuming all countries submit their necessary INDC in time for the secretariat’s synthesis report (the
“Synthesis Report”), the status of these INDCs vis-a-vis the Paris agreement remains unclear.
For example, if the Synthesis Report indicates the collective levels of contribution from the INDCs are insufficient
to achieve the target to limit the increase of average global temperatures to 2 degrees Celsius (the “2°C Target”),
will there be attempts in Paris to renegotiate further contributions to the efforts, making the pre-Paris published
INDCs merely a starting point for those discussions? Have the Parties submitted INDCs knowing they need
to keep something in reserve to ‘give-up’ during the negotiations? For example, the EU’s INDC provides “at
least” a 40% cut against 1990 levels by 2030, suggesting that more cuts could follow depending on the actions
of other Parties. If there is to be no haggling over contributions in Paris, then clearly the Paris agreement
may need to provide a process that caters for voluntary increases of INDCs post-Paris or requires the INDCs
submitted pre-Paris to be subjected to additional review further down the line. The answers to these questions
may influence the location, under the Paris agreement, of these INDCs (although not their legal character); for
example, in an annex to the agreement, in an INF document, in a list or website maintained by the UN, etc.
The question of whether the respective INDCs emerging from Paris will be binding on the Parties will turn on
the way in which the Paris agreement treats them. For example, does the agreement seek to ‘lock-in’ the pre-
5. 3
Paris INDCs (so that no one can do less than the stated commitment) or merely create obligations by reference
to an INDC? The Geneva Text and the Co-chairs Tool suggests there is a lot to negotiate around this in Paris.
The term of the Paris agreement
The term or duration of the Paris agreement is currently unsettled. It is likely to turn on a number of factors,
such as the role of the INDCs, whether the agreement has a sufficient framework to address the necessary
interplay between other instruments such as the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism and the
various institutions of the UNFCCC, and whether it provides the required enabling framework to allow all the
Parties to take the steps or implement their efforts in the manner they wish. Given that the Kyoto Protocol was
negotiated in 1997 and had to carry relatively unambitious actions of the Parties until 2020, logic dictates that
the Paris agreement will need to underpin international, national and sub-national efforts on climate change
until at least 2040, if not 2050 and beyond. Optimistically, the Geneva Text and Co-chairs Tool includes the
negotiating option of “durable forever,” which is an unlikely outcome.
As the various Parties journey down their respective pathways of development, the depth of their INDCs
will need to change and if the Paris agreement framework facilitates this change through a review or INDC
update process, then the durability of the Paris agreement becomes more realistic. In particular, if the level of
aggregate commitment in Paris from 2020 to 2030 is weak in the context of the 2°C Target, then the existence
of a dynamic (but practical and effective) process within the Paris agreement to ratchet up that commitment
level will be essential to the agreement’s durability.
The accounting mechanism
Although the nature of the accounting mechanism
under the Paris agreement is not a legal issue, it
is fundamental to the success of Paris that the
agreement enshrines an enabling framework that
allows the various national and sub-national efforts
of the Parties to count towards the common
intended outcome. It is all good and well for each
Party to go off and do its own thing, as is likely to
be allowed within reason by the Paris agreement,
but if there is no way to ascertain whether those
efforts are real, adequate and ultimately taking
us collectively towards the 2°C Target, then all
will be for naught and it may be too late before
that is discovered unless the tools are in place
from the outset. Hence the importance of clear,
shared accounting systems that are supported
by robust, transparent monitoring and reporting
requirements.
in30sec
• Whatever the form of the Paris agreement, its treatment as a treaty
will turn on whether it was intended to create legal obligations on
Parties and whether those Parties expressed consent to be bound.
• How the Paris agreement treats the country INDCs will determine
whether they are binding on the Parties and therefore, the status of
INDCs vis-à-vis the Paris agreement may influence their location
within the agreement.
• Because the Paris agreement will need to underpin international,
national and sub-national efforts on climate change until at least
2040, if not 2050 and beyond, it’s term should reflect that.
• The durability of the Paris agreement becomes more realistic if the
framework facilitates changes in the depth of the INDCs through a
review or INDC update process.
• Clear, shared accounting systems that are supported by robust,
transparent monitoring and reporting requirements are important
to the fundamental success of the Paris agreement.
• The accounting methodology needs to enable consistency so that,
for example, standards can be applied for setting credible reference
levels of benchmarks for calculating emission reductions.
6. 4
To have common accounting tools is not the same as saying that the Parties are subject to compliance
scrutiny – a thorny topic for many of the key Parties to the negotiations including both the U.S. and China.
The accounting methodology needs to enable consistency so that, for example, standards can be applied for
setting credible reference levels or benchmarks for calculating emission reductions, inaccuracies from fraud or
error can be addressed in a similar manner, and that allowances can be made for divergence from standards
in acceptable circumstances, common registry and unit issuance systems, etc. These accounting principles
will be needed where new market mechanisms (“NMM”) under the authority of the COP are developed (e.g.
REDD+) but also where domestic market mechanisms that are linked with other jurisdictions are developed
to help the compliance obligations of those jurisdictions (presumably under the Paris agreement) via the
framework for various approaches (“FVA”).
However, although it isn’t necessary that the details of these accounting principles are agreed on in Paris,
it is important that the necessary mandate to put them in place is given by the Paris agreement, whether
by subsequent decisions of the COP or through multilateral common standards acknowledged and agreed
to outside of the UNFCCC framework (but recognised by it). That said, pre-2020 action by parties is to be
encouraged and therefore, it is important to adopt a stepped approach to the accounting standards early to
enable that progress to be made so that the absences of some pieces do not hold up the others.
Other non-legal challenges:
Even though this paper does not focus on the non-legal challenges to the success of the Paris agreement,
those challenges are too large to not be mentioned. The key topics are:
• Dealing with the differentiation of Parties with respect to legal form, commitment type, stringency, timing,
and compliance as reflected in their respective commitments, including the mechanism for evolution of
those commitments over time or compliance periods.
• Determining how the COP19 mechanism of ‘loss and damage’ is reflected as a tool within the agreement.
• Ensuring that the necessary finances for developing countries for adaptation and mitigation of the adverse
effects of climate change are effectively and efficiently: (i) mobilised, (ii) leveraged, (iii) distributed and
(iv) utilised. Currently the Green Climate Fund is the main vehicle for this but other vehicles and instruments
may be needed.
• The engagement of private sector capital in the climate change efforts to help raise the above mentioned
finances and the role of markets to facilitate low cost abatement. The consensus among observers is that
the Paris agreement must not prohibit the use of markets but should, at the same time, not simply remain
silent on the point. The Geneva Text included six market related options, but in the Co-Chairs Tool, [most
of] these currently appear in the third section entitled “Provisions whose placement requires further clarity
among Parties in relation to the draft agreement or draft decision”. In other words, in the ‘too difficult to get
consensus ahead of Paris’ box.
7. 5
What will the agreement tell us
The saying that “a week is a long time in politics” does not apply
to the politics associated with the COP negotiations. However,
the outcome of the two week negotiation process in Paris is likely
to have a long lasting impact for the future. Therefore, predicting
the outcome of this COP is particularly challenging. That said, the
following outcomes are quite possible to envisage when an output
document becomes available in the early hours of 13 December.
(a) There will almost certainly be a new international agreement
but it will not be very long or very detailed. This will consist of a
‘core agreement’ under the umbrella of the UNFCCC, followed by a series of decisions aimed at facilitating
the operationalization of the agreement from 2020.
(b) The new international agreement will likely not be in the form of a Protocol (this will be difficult for the U.S.
to ratify) but may fall into the category of “an agreed outcome with legal force”.
(c) The term of the agreement will most likely be until at least 2030 but possibly until 2050 if it has built into it
a method for the INDCs, submitted in advance of the Paris meeting, to be reviewed and adjusted upwards.
One method for doing this may be to adopt the ‘Dynamic Contribution Cycle’ approach proposed by Brazil
during the last COP in Lima. Under this approach, the INDCs would have a 10-year cycle with a 5-year
contribution and a further 5-year indicative contribution. The purpose of the second cycle would be to enable
the party to confirm or adjust upward its contribution of the period. For example, the 2015 INDC would
have to be confirmed or adjusted upward by 2020 for the period of 2020-25 and offer a further indicated
contribution for 2025-30. Prior to the end of the 2025 period (e.g. by 2023) the Party would confirm or
adjust its 2025-30 contribution and propose its 2030-35 contribution. The merit of such an approach is
appealing when it is recognised that the 2015 INDC levels (as seen so far) will not be sufficient to meet the
2°C target and further that no Party will be in a position in Paris to review upwards their INDC levels.
(d) The need to ratchet up the INDC levels means that they are likely to be contained outside the ‘core
agreement’; for example, in an ‘information’ (INF) document (as was the Copenhagen Decision). However,
just because the INDCs rest outside the core agreement, it will not necessarily prevent them from being
binding commitments on the Parties concerned. This will turn on whether the core agreement requires
the Parties to achieve their INDCs. Certainly it will be easier for Parties to agree to do so where they have
a shorter term binding commitment (e.g. the first 5 years of the 10-year cycle in the Dynamic Contribution
Cycle) than if there was an attempt to tie them into longer term commitments. It is notable that this
mechanism is also reflected in the EU Council’s conclusions on the preparations for COP21.
(e) On the question of an accounting mechanism, it is likely that the Paris agreement will create a process
to elaborate or establish those (e.g. via SBSTA ) through subsequent decisions of the COP in the years
between 2015-20. Whether these amount to a common set of accounting rules applicable to all Parties or
merely high level principles for each Party to abide by may be reflected in the core agreement in Paris.
Predicting the outcome
in30sec
• It is very likely that there will be a new
international agreement in Paris.
• The agreement may not be a Protocol but it
may be “an agreed outcome with legal force”.
• INDC levels are likely to be contained outside
the ‘core agreement’; for example, in an
‘information’ document.
• The Paris agreement will likely create a
process to elaborate or establish an accounting
mechanism through subsequent decisions of
the COP in the years between 2015-20.
8. 6
Although the Paris agreement will not have legal force until 2020, the published INDCs of the various countries
that are expected to be referenced by the Paris agreement will set the scene for the minimum efforts that are
likely to be enshrined in the national laws of the country concerned in the lead up to that date. This may be the
first time that some countries will publish laws relating to climate change which will therefore impact business
and industry in such countries. Under the Kyoto developed/developing country divide, many businesses and
industries (as well as multinationals with a carbon footprint in those developing countries) did not have to
concern themselves with legal restrictions on their greenhouse gas emissions. Depending on that country’s
INDC, that position may change sooner than expected. This is what the Paris agreement is likely to tell us in the
most immediate term.
The Paris agreement should also give a boost to climate finance, particularly through the contribution of the
private sector via instruments such as the Green Climate Fund. If so, this will provide much needed assurance
to the investor community regarding the overall regulatory framework within which their investments rest. The
question of whether market mechanisms will also form part of the core agreement is quite thorny. However,
most recent discussions are trending towards the use of markets at least receiving a mention in the core
agreement.
Should this be the outcome in Paris, most seasoned climate change observers with a memory of the debacle in
Copenhagen will regard Paris as a considerable success.
CONCLUSIONS
9. 7
1
Between 30 November and 11 December 2015
2
Decision 1/CP.17 “Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action”
3
Article 2 Decision 1/CP.17
4
11926/15 Council conclusions on the preparation for the 21st session of the Conference of the Parties (COP21), at Para 1
5
Please note this is a non-exhaustive list and does not include or reference many other complementary and parallel efforts aimed
at developing consensus and support for a new international agreement.
6
In particular, the work of Working Group 1, which was tasked with an assessment of new evidence of climate change based
on many independent scientific analysis from observations of the climate system, paleoclimate archives, theoretical studies of
climate processes and simulations using climate models.
7
AR5 adopts a methodology of quantitatively describing the likelihood, or probability of some well-defined outcome having
occurred or occurring in the future and assigns 95–100% for “extremely likely”.
8
Working Group I, 5th Asessment Report, Summary for Policy Makers, Section D.3, 2.2, 6.3, 10.3-6, 10.9
9
Leaders’ Declaration G7 Summit, 7–8 June 2015
10
Held on 23 September 2014 to “raise political momentum for a meaningful universal climate agreement in Paris in 2015 and
to galvanize transformative action in all countries to reduce emissions and build resilience to the adverse impacts of climate
change”.
11
The Environment Protection Agency: Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources: Electric Utility
Generating Units, 3 August 2015.
12
In the Papal Letter released on 18 June 2015 named ‘Laudato Si’.
13
The Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (“ADP”)
14
Scenario note on the tenth part of the second session of the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced
Action; Note by the Co-Chairs, 24 July 2015
15
The first draft of the Paris agreement for further negotiation in advance of COP 21 is due on 1 October 2015 with the last ADP
session scheduled for 19-23 October.
16
The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, a permanent body of the UNFCCC.
NOTES/REFERENCES
10. 8
At Reed Smith we recognize that differing global perspectives on climate change mean that no one
approach or viewpoint can be considered as final or definitive.
We understand that although climate change is an environmental issue, the measures taken to address it,
whether adaptation or mitigation, are essentially finance driven.
In some countries, including the UK and the United States, this will require significant capital expenditures.
Capital will also be required in the non-industrial sectors in many countries, with increased investment in
soil sequestration, avoided deforestation, bio-fuels and bio-diversity initiatives, and others.
A multi-disciplinary approach is needed to manage the complex interplay of assets and liabilities
generated by climate change. By turn, the legal support required by a dynamic industry of constant and
often mercurial change, must provide skill sets that are cross-border, cross-practice and sector focused.
As a leading international law firm, with a dedicated climate change team, Reed Smith is strongly
positioned to advise on the global regulatory framework and risks, together with the associated
opportunities linked to climate change.
We assist clients on matters that span the climate change spectrum, whether transactional, environmental,
corporate, regulatory, or dispute related.
Our lawyers are available to assist clients throughout our offices in Europe, the United States, the
Middle East and Asia.
OUR CLIMATE CHANGE PRACTICE
11. 9
UK/EU
Peter Zaman
+44 (0)20 3116 3686
pzaman@reedsmith.com
Nicholas Rock
+44 (0)20 3116 3685
nrock@reedsmith.com
United States
Todd O. Maiden
+1 415 659 5918
tmaiden@reedsmith.com
Jennifer Smokelin
+1 412 288 3016
jsmokelin@reedsmith.com
China/Asia
Michael Fosh
+86 10 6535 9566
mfosh@reedsmith.com
Katherine Yang
+86 10 6535 9537
kyang@reedsmith.com
Will Barber
+852 2507 9823
wbarber@reedsmith.com
OUR TEAM
12. About Reed Smith
Reed Smith is a global relationship law firm with more than 1,800 lawyers in 26 offices
throughout the United States, Europe, Asia and the Middle East. Founded in 1877, the firm
represents leading international businesses, from Fortune 100 corporations to mid‑market
and emerging enterprises. Its lawyers provide litigation and other dispute resolution services
in multi-jurisdictional and other high-stakes matters; deliver regulatory counsel; and
execute the full range of strategic domestic and cross-border transactions. Reed Smith is
a preeminent advisor to industries including financial services, life sciences, health care,
advertising, entertainment and media, shipping and transport, energy and natural resources,
real estate, manufacturing and technology, and education.
To see how Reed Smith can be the firm for all of your legal needs, visit reedsmith.com.