This document summarizes research on 10 fruit plant species mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith. It discusses Citrullus lanatus (watermelon), Cucumis sativus (cucumber), Cydonia oblonga (quince), Ficus carica (fig), Olea europea (olive), Phoenix dactylifera (date palm), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Salvadora persica (toothbrush tree), Vitis vinifera (grape vine), and Zizyphus mauritiana. For each species, it provides the botanical name, family, parts used, medicinal uses cited from Islamic sources, and references from

2. American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009
ISSN 1818-6769
© IDOSI Publications, 2009
Fruit Plant Species Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and
Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Importance
1
Sarfaraz Khan Marwat, 1Mir Ajab Khan, 2Muhammad Aslam Khan,
1
Mushtaq Ahmad, 1Muhammad Zafar, 3Fazal-ur-Rehman and 1Shazia Sultana
1
Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad
2
Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
3
Faculty of Pharmacy Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
Abstract: In view of the importance of this study comprehensive detailed data was collected from Holy Quran,
Ahadith`s books and books written on the Islamic medicines. Present findings confined to 10 fruit plant species
belonging to 10 genera of 9 families. The plant species are: Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai,
Cucumis sativus L., Cydonia oblonga Mill. Ficus carica L., Olea europea L., Phoenix dactylifera L.,
Punica granatum L., Salvadora persica L., Vitis vinifera L. and Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. mentioned in
Holy Quran and Ahadith. Complete macro & microscopic detailed morphological features of these species were
discussed. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by English
name, Arabic name, family, habit and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran
and, Ahadith. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethnobotanical importance of fruits
in the light of Islam. A table comprising, distribution in world, flowering period and chemical constituents, is
given.
Key words: Ethnomedicinal study % Pakistan % Holy Quran % Ahadith
INTRODUCTION Fruits, eaten raw or consumed as fresh juice, are
excellent ways to retain and balance the moisture level in
Fruits are one of the oldest forms of food known to the body. The low level of sodium in fruits plays an
man. There are many references to fruits in ancient important role for people who would like to avail of a salt-
literature. Vedas state that the fruits form the base of the free diet. Dry fruits like apricots, raisins and dates are
Food of Gods. According to Qur’an, the fruits like grape, storehouses of calcium and iron, essential for the
date, fig, olive and pomegranate are gifts and heavenly strengthening of bones and maintaining good blood,
fruits of God. The people in ancient times regarded fruits respectively. Custard apple too is an excellent calcium
to be endowed with magic or divine properties. They gave source. If you are unwell, consume fruits in the form of
them due reverence and dedicated them to their gods and fresh juice only. One or two fruits a day cleans the
goddesses. They also used their designs in decorating digestive tract and aids easy bowel action [2].
temples, vestments or ceremonial garments and sacred Plants are an essential component of the universe.
vessels. Fresh and dry fruits are the natural staple food of Human beings have used plants as medicine from the very
man. They contain substantial quantities of essential beginning of time. After various observations and
nutrients in a rational proportion. They are excellent experimentations medicinal plants were identified as a
sources of minerals, vitamins and enzymes. They are source of important medicine, therefore, treatment
easily digested and exercise a cleansing effect on the through these medicinal plants, began in the early stages
blood and the digestive tract. Persons subsisting on this of human civilization [3]. Approximately 70% of the
natural diet will always enjoy good health. Moreover, the homeopathic drugs are prepared from the fresh plants.
ailments caused by the intake of unnatural foods can be Similarly more than 90% of tibbi medicines are prepared
successfully treated by fruits. Fresh and dry fruits are from herbs. Pakistan is very rich in plants of medicinal
thus not only a good food but also a good medicine [1]. value [4].
Corresponding Author: Sarfaraz Khan Marwat, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad
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In Islam diseases are cured in two ways, first the cure vegetable, medicinal and industrial products. Data
of soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments inventory constitutes botanical name, family, Quranic
through medicines. The Holy Quran is one of the name, English name, local names, Arabic name, habit and
reference books describing the importance of plants used habitat, parts used, medicinal uses and references cited
for different ailments in various Surahs. The Holy Quran from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith. A table
says: And the earth He has put down (laid) for the comprising S. #., botanical name, distribution in world,
creatures. Theirin are fruits, date palms producing flowering and fruiting period and chemical constituents,
sheathed fruit-stalks (enclosing dates). And also corn, is given at the end.
with (its) leaves and stalks for fodder and sweet-scented
plants. Then which of the blessings of your lord will you Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai
both (jinn and men) deny? [5]. English Name: Water Melon
Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used Local Name: Tarbooz
certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants Arabic Name: Bitteekh
for cure of common diseases. The Prophet (Sallallaho Family: Cucurbitaceae
Alayhi Wasallam) frequently commented upon the nature Habit & Habitat: Annual climber or trailer, cultivated.
and value of various foods and spices. These comments Part used: Fruit and seeds.
were noted by his wives and companions (Radiallaho Medicinal uses: Kidney pain clears the urine and
Anhum) and remain available to us today [6]. stomach, facial beauty, increase
Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal immunity, jaundice and have cold
flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work effects.
was conducted to investigate ethnobotanical uses and
create awareness about the fruit plant species enlisted in References from Ahadith
Holy Quran, Ahadith for the welfare of human C Narrated Sahl bin Sad Al-Sadi (Radiyallahu Anhu):
communities throughout the world. Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate ripe
dates with water melon [7].
MATERIALS AND METHODS C Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas (Radiyallahu Anhu )
narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam)
The research work was conducted by reviewing the said, “Water melon is diet as well as drink. It washes
Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and purifies the urinary bladder. It increases the
and detailed information about 10 fruit plant species of sexual power [8].
ethnobotanical importance mentioned in the Holy Quran C Hazrat Aisha (Radiyallahu Anha) narrates that
and Ahadith were collected from these sources. Plants Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate water
species were arranged in systematic order of botanical melon with fresh dates [8].
names in alphabetic order followed by family, Quranic
name, Arabic name, English name, habit and habitat, part Cucumis sativus L.
used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy English name: Cucumber
Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Correct botanical Local name: Khira
names, their families and identification of plants were Arabic name: Qissa, Khiarun
done by using flora of Pakistan. Family Name: Cucurbitaceae
Habit and Habitat: Annual trailer or climber, cultivated
RESULTS herb.
Parts used: Fruit
Present findings were confined to 10 fruit plant Medicinal uses: Cooling, diuretic, tonic and
species belonging to 10 genera of 9 families enlisted in vermifuge, diuretic, purgative.
Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The plant
species are: Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis sativus., References from Holy Quran
Cydonia oblonga. Ficus carica Olea europea, Phoenix C Sûrah 2. Al-Baqarah, Verse. # 61: And (remember)
dactylifera, Punica granatum, Salvadora persica, when you said, “O Mûsâ (Moses)! We can not
Vitis vinifera and Zizyphus mauritiana which are used endure one kind of food. So invoke your Lord for us
throughout the world for various aspects such as food, to bring forth for us of what the earth grows, its
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4. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009
herbs, its cucumbers, its Fûm (wheat or garlic), its diseases of the heart and makes the babies
lentils and its onions.” [5]. handsome” [8].
References from Ahadith Ficus carica L.
C Narrated Abdullah bin Ja'far (Radiyallahu Anhu ): I English Name: Figs
saw Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) Local Name: Anjeer
eating fresh dates with cucumber [Bukhari, Muslim, Arabic Name: Teen
Tirmizi, Ibne Maja [9]. Family: Moraceae
C Abdullah bin Ja'far (Radiyallahu Anhu ) reported: I Habit & Habitat: A small tree cultivated in poor soil
saw Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) Part used: Bark, leaves, Milk
eating cucumber with fresh dates [8]. Medicinal uses: Remove kidney and urinary bladder
C Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin (Radiyallahu stone, release intestinal pain, pile,
Anha): My mother intended to make me fat to send dyspepsia and anorexia.
me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho
Alayhi Wasallam). But nothing which she desired References from Holy Quran
benefited me till she gave me cucumber with fresh C Surrah Teen, Verse. #. 1-4: By the fig and the olive.
dates to eat. Then I became very fat [9]. By mount Sinai. By this city of security
(Makkah).Verily,We created man in the best
Cydonia oblonga Mill. stature(mould) [5].
English Name: Quince
Local Name: Bahi References from Ahadith
Arabic Name: Safarjal C Hazrat Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anho) narrates that
Family: Rosaceae Rasullullah (Sallallhu Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Eat fig,
Habit & Habitat: Small tree (shrub) found in dry rocky for it cures the piles and is useful for rheumatism” [8].
places, foothills and cultivated on C Hazrat Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anho) narrates that
the plains. someone presented the Prophet a plate of figs and he
Medicinal uses: Heart diseases, diarrhea, said, “Eat figs! If I would say a certain type of fruit
endocarditis, pericarditis, dysentery was sent down to us from the heavens I would say
it’s a fig because it has no seeds. It ends (cures) the
References from Ahadith piles and is useful for rheumatism.”[10]
C Hazrat Talha bin Ubaid Ullah (R.A) narrated that
Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said: This Olea europea L.
(Quince) makes the heart strengthen, makes the English Name: Olive
breath pleasant and relieves (removes) the burden of Local Name: Zaitoon
the chest [8]. Arabic Name: Zaitoon
C Hazrat Jabir bin Abdullah (R.A) narrated that Family: Oleaceae
Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Eat Habit & Habitat: An erect branched cultivated tree.
the Quince (Safarjal) because it cure the heart attack Part used: Fruit and oil
and relieves(removes) the burden of the chest” Medicinal uses: Strengthen body muscles, slow
[8]. down aging, clear the blood, remove
C Hazrat Anus bin Malik (R.A) narrated that the measlesspot, piles, tuberculosis,
Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said: the eczema, baldness, kidney pain,
burden of the heart is removed by eating of the pancreas pain, maleness, common
Quince [8]. cold, stomach and respiratory
C The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, diseases.
"Eat quince, for it sweetens the heart. For Allah has
sent no prophet as His messenger without feeding References from Holy Quran
him on the quince of Paradise [8]. C Surah 6. Al-An‘âm, Verse. # 99: And out of the date-
C Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Feed palm and its spathe come forth clusters of dates
your pregnant women on quince, for it cures the hanging low and near and gardens of grapes, olive
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5. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009
and pomegranates, each similar (in kind) yet different Wasallam) that we should treat the Pleurisy with
(in variety and taste). Look at their fruits when they Qust-e-Behri (Qust Sheerin) and olive oil.” [12].
begin to bear and the ripeness thereof. Verily! In
these things there are signs for people who believe Phoenix dactylifera L.
[5]. English Name: Date palm
C Surah 16. An-Nahl, Verse. # 11: “With it He causes to Local Name: Khajoor
grow for you the crops, the olives, the date-palms, Arabic Name: Balah
the grapes and every kind of fruit. Verily! In this Family: Arecaceae
isindeed an evident proof and a manifest sign for Habit & Habitat: Cultivated tree, may be found self
people who give thought” [5]. grown.
C Surah 24. An-Nûr, Verse. # 35: “Lit from a blessed Part used: Fruit
tree, an olive, neither of the east (i.e. neither it gets Medicinal uses: Heart diseases, skin diseases,
sun-rays only in the morning*) nor of the west (i.e. it antidote, swelling of kidney,
gets sun-rays in the afternoon*), whose oil would intestinal pain, heart attack, wound
almost glow forth (of itself), though no fire touched healer, diarrhea, labour pain, sexual
it.” [5]. weakness, stomach pain, piles,
*According to Yousa Ali [11], this olive tree is not physical strengthing, shrill the
localized. It is neither of the east nor of the west. It is voice, liver disorders.
universal, for such is Allah’s light.
C Surrah Teen, Verse. #. 1-4: (see under the reference of References from Holy Quran
Ficus). C Surah Al-Bakara, Verse 266: Would any of you
wish to have a garden with date-palms and vines
References from Ahadith [5].
C Hazrat Abu huraira (R.A.) narrated that Rasullullah C Surah 16. An-Nahl, Verse. # 11: (see under the
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said “Eat the olive oil references of Olea).
and massage it over your bodies since it is a holy C Surah-An-Nahl, Verse 67: And from the fruits of
(mubarak) tree.” [8] date-palms and grapes, you drive strong drink and
C Hazrat Alqama Bin Amir (R.A) narrates that Prophet goodly provision [5].
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “There is olive oil C Surah Israa,Verse 91: “ Or you have a garden of
for you, eat it, massage over your body, since it is date-palms and grapes and cause rivers to gush forth
effective in Heamorrhoids (Piles).” [8]. in their midst abundantly.” [5].
C Hazrat Aqba Bin Amir (R.A) narrates that the Prophet C Surah Al-Mumenoon, Verse 19: Then We brought
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) stated, “You have the forth for you therewith gardens of date-palms and
olive oil from this Holy (mubarak) tree, treat yourself grapes, wherein much fruit is for you and whereof
with this, since it cures the Anal fissure (Basoor).” you eat [5].
[7]. C Surah Yaseen, Verse 34: And we have made therein
C Hazrath Abu Hurairah (R.A) narrates that the Prophet gardens of date-palms and grapes and we have
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) stated, “Eat the olive oil caused springs of water to gush forth therein [5].
and apply it (locally), since there is cure for seventy C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. # 99: (see in the references of
diseases in it, one of them is Leprosy.” [8, 12]. Olea).
C Khalid Bin Saad (R.A.) narrates, “I came to Madinah C Surah Ar-Ra‘d. Verse. # 4: and date-palms, growing,
with Ghalib Bin Al Jabr. Ghalib became ill during the into two or three from a single stem root, or otherwise
journey. Ibn Abi Ateeq came to see him and told a (one stem root for every palm), watered with same
narration from Hazrat Aisha(R.A.) that the Prophet water [5]. .
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) told about the cure in C Surah 19. Maryam, Verse. # 25: “And shake the trunk
Kalonji. We crushed a few seeds of Kalonji and mixed of the date-palm towards you, it will let fall fresh
it with olive oil and dropped in both nostrils, after ripe-dates upon you.” [5].
which Ghalib became healthy.” [12]. C Surah Yaseen. Verse: 34: And We have made therein
C Hazrat Zaid Bin Arqam (R.A ) narrates, “ We have gardens of date-palms and grapes and We have
been directed by the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi caused springs of water to gush forth therein [5].
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C Surah 55. Ar-Rahmân, Verse. # 11-28: Therein are References from Holy Quran
fruits, date-palms producing sheathed fruit-stalks C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. # 99: (see under references of
(enclosing dates) [5]. Olea )
C Surah 80. ‘Abasa, Verses. # 27-29: And We cause C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. # 141: (see under references
therein the grain to grow and grapes and clover of Olea )
plants (i.e.green fodder for the cattle) and olives and C Surah Ar-Rahman Verse. # 68-69: (see under
date-palms [5]. references of Olea )
References From Ahdith References from Ahadith
C Hazrat Abdullah bin Umar (Radiyallahu Anhuma) C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (Radiyallahu Anhu) narrated
narrated that The Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said,
Wasallam) said, "There is a tree among the trees "There is not a pomegranate which does not have a
which is similar to a Muslim (in goodness). Its leaves pip from one of the pomegranates of the Garden (of
do not fall. What is that tree? The Prophet (Sallallahu Jannah) in it." [8, 12].
Alayhi Wasallam) himself said, “that is the date palm C Hazrat Ali bin Abi Talib (Radiyallahu Anhu) narrated
tree.” [8, 12]. that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wassallam) said,
C Hazrat S’ad bin AbiWaqas (R.A) narrated that "Pomegranate and its rind strengthen digestion
Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, "He (stomach)" [12].
who eats seven dates of Madina (Ajwa dates) every
morning, will not be affected by poison and magic on Salvadora persica L.
the day he eats them." [8, 12]. Family: Salvadoraceae
C Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbass (Radiyallahu Anhuma) Quranic Name: Khamt
narrated that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Arabic Name: Shajar-e-Miswak, Al-arak, Khardal
Wasallam) said, “The ‘Ajwah is from Paradise and it English name: Tooth brush tree, Mustard tree
Local names: Jhal (Saraiki) Playman (Pashto),
is an antidote against poison. The Kamah (truffles) is
Pilu(Urdu).
a type of Manna and its water (extract) cures the eye
Tibb name(s): Pilun, Jhal
[7, 8].
Habit and Habitat: Shrub or small tree found in rocky
C Abdullah ibn Jaafar radiyallahu anhu says, “I saw
slopes and sandy area.
Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) eating
Parts used: Whole plant.
*Qith’a (cucumbers or snake cucumber) with fresh
Flowering period: March-June.
dates.” [8,13].
Folkmedicinal uses: Useful in rheumatism and scurvy,
C Hazrat Aisha (Radiyallah Anha) reports that,
antidote to poison. Useful in
“Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) ate
biliousness, asthma and cough,
watermelon with fresh dates.” [8].
poultice for tumour and pile. Fruit
* In Arabic the word “Qitha” is used for both
edible, carminative, diuretic and
‘cucumber-khira’ and ‘snake cucumber-kakri’. deobstruent.
Punica granatum L. References from Qur’an
English Name: Pomegranate C Sura Saba, Verse. # 16: But they turned away (from
Local Name: Anar the obedience of Allah), so we sent against them
Arabic Name: Rumman Sail Al-‘Arim (flood released from the dam) and we
Family: Punicaceae converted their two gardens into gardens producing
Habit & Habitat: Tree, cultivated in the area. bitter bad fruit and tamarisks and some few lote-trees
Part used: Fruit [5].
Medicinal uses: Stomach cough, hepatitis, muscle
pain, heart and liver diseases, piles, References from Ahadith
eye diseases, dental problems, oral C Hazrat Jabbir Bin Abdullah (Radiyallah Anhu)
diseases, diarrhea and dysentery. narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi
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7. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009
Wassallam) said, “The black coloured Kapas (fruit of C Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, “You
Salvadora) is the best (finest) one” [13, 8]. have resaisins (Munaqqa) which make the colour of
C Hazrat Aaisha (Radiyallah Anha) narrates that the face handsome and remove the phlegm” [7, 8].
Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, C Narrated Abdullah bi Abbass (R.A): Raisins were
“Miswak purifies the mouth and is a cause of Allah’s soaked for Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam).
pleasure” [Bukhari (13,8]. He used to drink this syrup that day, the next day
C Hazrat Abu-Hizat-us-Sabahi (Radiyallah Anhus) and sometimes the third day [8].
narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam)
gave him a twig of Salvadora (Al-Arak) and said, Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.
“Use it as miswak” [8]. Quranic Name: Sidar
C Hazrat Abu Zaidul-Ghafqi (Radiyallah Anhus) Arabic Name: Nabaq, Sidar
narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) English Name: Indian jujube
said, “Miswak is of three types. If Salvadora is not Local Name: Ber, Bera.
available then (use) Anum and Batum [8]. Family: Rhamnaceae
Habit and Habitat: Wild and cultivated found in dry
Vitis vinifera L. area and rocky places.
English Name: Grapes Parts used: Fruit, leaves, wood.
Local Name: Munaka Folkmedicinal uses: Treatment of abscesses and
Arabic Name: Inab wounds, anodyne and tonic, styptic
Family: Vitaceae and purifying blood
Habit & Habitat: Perennial vine, cultivated for fruit
purposes. References from Quran
Part used: Fruit juice C Sura Saba, Verse. # 16: ( see under reference
Medicinal uses: Common cold, relax body and brain Salvadora).
muscles, stomach diseases, cooling C Surah 53. An-Najm, Verses 13, 14: And indeed he
effects on body, cough, kidney and (Muhammad Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) saw him [
urinary bladder pain, liver and lung Jibril (Gabriel)] at a second descent (i.e. another time).
disorders, dog bite, remove weary, Near Sidrat-ul-Muntaha (a lote-tree of the outmost
clear the face and cancer. boundary over the seventh heaven beyond which
none can pass). Near it is the Paradise of Abode.
References from Holy Qur’an When that covered the lote-tree which did cover it
C Surah Al-Bakara, Verse 266: (see under the reference [5].
of Phoenix). C Sura Waqiya, Verse. # 27, 28: And those on the Right
C Surah-An-Nahl, Verse 67: (see under the reference of hand-how (fortunate) will be those on the Right
Phoenix). Hand? (They will be) among thornless lote-tree [5].
C Surah Israa,Verse 91: (see under the reference of
Phoenix). References from Ahadith
C Surah Abasa, Verses 27, 28: (see under refereces of C Hazrat Ahmad Zahbi (Rahmatullah ALayhi) narrates,
Phoenix.) “The first fruit eaten by Hazrat Adam (Alayhi
C Surah l-Mumenoon, Verse 19: (see under the Sallam)” after His descent on the earth, was the fruit
reference of Phoenix). of the Zizyphus [8, 14].
C Surah Yaseen, Verse 34: (see under the reference of C Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbas narrates that Rasulullah
Phoenix). (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, Wash (pointing
C Surah An-Naba, Verses 31,32: Verily, for the towards a person who died at Arafat) him with water
Muttaqun, there will be a success (Paradise), Gardens and leaves of sidar [8].
and vineyards (5). Ibn Al-Qaeem considers its fruit very useful for the
treatment of diarrhea and weakness of the stomach
References from Ahadith [9].
C Narrated Abu Huraira (R.A): The Prophet said, "Don't Note: There is contradiction about the plant (Cidar)
call the grapes Al-Karm, (because) Al-Karm is the mentioned in the Holy Qur’an. According Farooqi [8,
heart of the Mumin” [8]. 15] and Chughtai [14] the word ‘Sidar’ does not mean
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Zizyphus sp. (ber in urdu) but it is used for another what is that? Prophet Muhammad (Sallallaho Alayhi
plant Cedrus sp.(Labnani deodar in hindi and urdu). Wasallam) said ‘Old age’ [12].
While the commentators of the Quran and Ahadith Citrullus lanatus (water melon-bittikh) has many
consider it Zizyphus mauritiana (ber or beri). As references in Ahadith. Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas
there exists difference of opinions, therefore, it needs (Radiyallahu Anhuma) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho
further investigation. Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Water melon is a diet as well as
drink. It washes and purifies the urinary bladder. It
DISCUSSION increases the sexual power [8].
Sahl bin S’ad Al-S’adi (Radiyallahu Anhu) Narrates
Fruits have highly beneficial natural effect on the that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate ripe date
human system. Taking of fruits or fruit juice is the most with water melon [Ibne Maja, Tirmizi (Ghaznavi, 1991)]. In
pleasant way of hydrating the organism. The water Tirmidhi and other narrations, in explaining this, Sayyidina
absorbed by sick persons in this manner has an added Rasoolullah sallallahu alaihe wasallam also said, “The cold
advantage of supplying sugar and minerals at the same effect of one removes the heat of the other and the heat of
time. Clinical observations have shown that potassium, one removes the cold effect of the other.” [12, 14].
magnesium and sodium contents of the fruit act as a The seed of Citrullus lanatus (Water melon-battikh)
diuretic and dieresis-frequency of urination is is demulcent, diuretic, pectoral and tonic. It is sometimes
considerably increased when fruits and fruit juices are used in the treatment of the urinary passages and has
taken. They lower the urine density and thereby been used to treat bed wetting. It is a good vermifuge and
accelerate the elimination of nitrogenous waste and has a hypotensive action. A fatty oil in the seed, as well
chlorides. Fruits furnish minerals to the body. Dried fruits as aqueous or alcoholic extracts, paralyze tapeworms and
such as apricots, raisins and dates are rich in calcium and roundworms. The fruit, eaten when fully ripe or even
iron. These minerals are essential for strong bones and when almost putrid, is used as a febrifuge.It is diuretic,
good blood respectively. The fibrous matter in fruits, being effective in the treatment of dropsy and renal
cellulose, aids in the smooth passage of the food in the stones. It contains the substance lycopine (which is also
digestive tract and easy bowel action. The sugars and found in the skins of tomatoes). This substance has been
organic acids contained in fruits also increase their shown to protect the body from heart attacks. The rind of
laxative effect. Hence, regular use of fruits prevents and the fruit is prescribed in cases of alcoholic poisoning and
cures constipation [2]. diabetes [18].
Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always Cucumis sativus (Cucumber-qitta') is another plant
a salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching. Islamic that has many references in Holy Qur’an and Ahadith.
medicine started from Hazrat Adam (Alayhi Salam) and The ripe cucumbers dispel heat and are diuretic. Eating
was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallahu Alayhi dates with green cucumber is said to cause weight gain
Wasallam) but search and compiling of these medicines is [18].
still continued through out the world [16]. The Holy Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin (Radiallaho Anha):
Quran is the eternal and everlasting basis of Islam. It My mother intended to make me fat to send me to the
cotains signs and verses which have been leading people (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi
of different ages and of different academics and Wassallam). But nothing which she desired benefited me
intellectual background to believe in Islam. The Holy till she gave me cucumber with fresh dates to eat. Then I
Quran from the very start has a claim that it covers every became fat as she desired [9].
The seed is cooling, diuretic, tonic and vermifuge.
aspect of life and is full of wisdom. It speaks “We have
25-50 grams of the thoroughly ground seeds (including
neglected nothing in the Book” [17].
the seed coat) is a standard dose as a vermifuge and
Imam Ahmed narrated that Usamah bin
usually needs to be followed by a purgative to expel the
Shuraik(Radiallaho Anhuma) said: “I was with the Prophet
worms from the body. A decoction of the root is diuretic
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) when the Bedouins came to [9].
him and said ‘O messenger of Allah, should we seek It is believed that cucumber helps in reducing
medicine?’ He said, ‘Yes, O slaves of Allah seek medicine, swelling around the eyes or the big dark circles under
for Allah has not created a disease except that he has also your eyes. This is world-wide treatment which is being
created its cure, except for one illness’ they said ‘And used to its maximum extent.
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9. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009
Cydonia oblonga (Quince-safarjal) is said that to eat saturated with oil and covered with emery is used as a
quince on an empty stomach is good for the soul. Cold substitute for a hone [18]. .
and dry, quince is astringent to the stomach and it checks Olea europea (Olive-zaytun) is another plant that has
excessive menstrual flow. A few seeds placed in water many references in Holy Quran and Ahadith. Almighty
will, after a few minutes, form mucilage which is an Allah has said, "By the Fig and Olive; By Mount Sinai
excellent remedy for cough and sore throat, especially in and By this land which is made safe. Surely we created
the young. Quince is also excellent for pregnant women, man of the best stature” [17]. In Ahadith it is said that
gladdening their hearts. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho “eat the olive oil and applied it on the body, it is cure of
Alayhi Wassallam) said, "Eat quince, for it sweetens the seventy diseases”. The saying of Holy Prophet (Sallallaho
heart. For Allah has sent no prophet as His messenger Alayhi Wasallam) about medicines are spread over 200
without feeding him on the quince of Paradise. For quince books in the world [9].
increases the strength up to that of forty men." [18]. No doubt , the “Olive” is a very useful tree. Its name
The fruit is antivinous, astringent, cardiac, has been mentioned in most of the holy books like
carminative, digestive, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, “Tourat” and “Injeel”. This tree is found in Syria and its
pectoral, peptic, refrigerant, restorative, stimulant and bordering countries as well as in some parts of the world.
tonic. The unripe fruit is very astringent, a syrup made A renowned scholar Shabir Ahmad Usmani states that
from it is used in the treatment of diarrhoea and is since the trees of Olive and Fig have many advantages,
particularly safe for children. The fruit and its juice, can be they have some thing common with biology of man. So
used as a mouthwash or gargle to treat mouth ulcers, gum the creator has mentioned the names of Man, Fig and
problems and sore throats. Olive together in the Quran. In this context, the holy
The leaves contain tannin and pectin. Tannin can be Prophet (PBUH) has said: “Use the Olive Oil in your meals
used as an astringent whilst pectin has a beneficial effect and also use it for massage. For this Oil is obtained from
on the circulatory system and helps to reduce blood a tree full of blessings”. It is so remarkable that the Holy
pressure [18]. Prophet (PBUH) had stressed the use of Olive Oil and the
Ficus carica (Fig-teen) In the first Qur’anic verses in recent medical research has proved that the substitution
Sura al Teen, the medicinal advantages of the fig are of saturated fats with unsaturated fats lowers the serum
discussed-the Qur’an says: “I swear by the Fig and the cholesterol level, due to the direct cholesterol lowering
Olive” (Sura no. 95: verse no. 1). Fig plant is one of the effects of unsaturated fats. Other workers have also noted
only five plants mentioned in the Quraan, along with that unsaturated oil (including olive oil) has more
olives, grapes, pomegranate and dates. Hadith literature beneficial potential than the saturated vegetable oil and
provide us with an event related to the fig: According to butter fat. Furthermore, among the unsaturated edible oils,
Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anhu) someone presented figs to olive oil is more beneficial than corn oil as regards the
the prophet Muhammed (God's blessing and peace be serum lipid profile. Considerable evidence has led to the
upon him) and he began distributing it among his suggestion that a diet high in olive oil is particularly
followers. He said: “Eat it as it cures various diseases”. beneficial with regard to increasing high density
According to Ibn Seereen, a scholar in the science of lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) levels which is a protective
dreams, figs, if seen in dreams, denote wealth and agent against atherosclerosis and ischemic heart disease.
prosperity. The benefits I have restricted myself to Many workers have proved that increased intake of olive
mentioning here is an indication of the compassion, Allah oil icreased HDL level. The function of HDL is to pick up
feels for human beings [19]. the cholesterol from periphery and to take it to the liver
The fruit is mildly laxative, demulcent, digestive and and to excrete it through bile. Now a days olive oil is
pectoral. The unripe green fruits are cooked with other advised by the physicians in cases of stroke, hemiplegia
foods as a galactogogue and tonic. The roasted fruit is and paraplegia [17]. The massage of olive oil over the
emollient and used as a poultice in the treatment of body tones up the muscles and organs, it relieves
gumboils, dental abscesses etc. The fruit is often dried for muscular pains. It relieves the Sciatic and arthritis. It is a
later use and this dried fruit is a major item of commerce. good Diuretic, hence is used in Ascites. It also removes
Syrup of figs, made from the fruit, is a well-known and the kidney stones. [12].
effective gentle laxative that is also suitable for the young Phoenix dactylifera (Date-Nahal) The date palm is
and very old.Wood-pliable but porous and of little value. playing an important role in the history of mankind. Its
It is used for hoops, garlands, ornaments etc. When importance and versatility are borne out by the fact that
291

10. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009
this fruit and its blessed palm find mention in the Holy The rind of the pomegranate fruit is greatly
Quran more than 20 times. Starting with verse 23, there are responsible for its good keeping quality. The fruit can be
three references to it in Sura Maryam alone. Verse 25 and kept for up to six months [12].
a part of verse 26 of Maryam read as: “And shake towards All parts of the plant contain unusual alkaloids,
thyself the trunk of the date palm tree, it will let fall fresh known as 'pelletierines', which paralyse tapeworms so that
ripe dates upon thee (25). So eat and drink and cool they are easily expelled from the body by using a laxative.
your eyes (26).” The fruit is a mild astringent and refrigerant in some fevers
This verse has a tremendous scientific significance as and especially in biliousness. It is also cardiac and
dates are reported to yield three times more energy than stomachic. The dried rind of the fruit is used in the
cereals. [20]. treatment of amoebic dysentery, diarrhea etc. It is a
Experiments have also shown that dates contain specific remedy for tapeworm infestation [18].
some stimulants that strengthen the muscles of the uterus Miswak (tooth brush) is one of the products of
in the last months of pregnancy. This helps the dilation of Salvadora persica as mentioned in its ethnobotanical
the uterus at the time of delivery on one hand and reduces uses. The use of Miswak is one of the sunnah of the Holy
the bleeding after delivery on the other. Dieticians Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam). The Prophet
consider dates as the best food for women in confinement (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) himself used it frequently at
and those who are breast-feeding. This is because dates various occasions such as when entering and leaving the
contain elements that assist in alleviating depression in home, reciting the Holy Qur’an, before and after sleeping,
mothers and enriching the breast-milk with all the on Friday, when Fasting and before every prayer. Abu
elements needed to make the child healthy and resistant Hurairah (R) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi
to disease. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) has Wasallam) said: 'Was it not for my fear of imposing a
difficulty on my Ummah I would have ordered that the
emphasized the importance of dates and their
Miswaak be used for every Salaat [10].
effectiveness in the growth of the fetus. He has also
The dentists and gastro-entrologists agree that oral
recommended they be given to women [12].
hygiene helps in the prevention of most of the diseases of
Modern dietary institute now recommends dates to
oral cavity and gastro-intestinal tract (GIT). According to
be given to children suffering from a nervous nature or
the report of the research done in Cape Town S. Africa
hyperactivity. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam)
Miswak contains large amount of tannic acid (Tannins).
has also recommended dates as a medicine for heart
The tannins prevent the adherence of the bacteria to the
troubles. Modern science has also proved the
teeth. It is an established fact that Streptococcus viridans
effectiveness of date, in preventing diseases of the
attacking the heart valves and damaging them come from
respiratory system.
the mouth. So the use of Miswak is a preventive measure
Dates are also important in keeping up the health of against many diseases of the teeth, G.I.T. and heart [17].
eyes. It is quite effective in guarding against night- The research conducted recently by dentist Almas K.
blindness. In the early years of Islam, dates served as proved that Chlorhexidine gluconate CHX 0.2% and
food for Muslim warriors. They used to carry them in miswak extract 50 % had a similar effect on dentin in the
special bags hung at their sides. They are the best control group. “Bacterial plaque is solely responsible for
stimulant for muscles and so the best food for a warrior the initiation and progression of periodontal diseases.
about to engage in battle [12]. There different mechanical and chemical methods
Punica granatum (Pomegranate-rumman) is a good available for the maintenance of oral health through
food and a medicine of great value. It is a tonic for heart plaque control. Tooth brushes and miswak (chewing
patients, highly efficacious in the inflammation of the sticks) are widely used for the mechnical removal of
stomach and effective to check heart pain. The juice of the plaque. Chlorhexidine gluconate (CHX) is one the best-
fruit is an excellent cooling beverage and allays thirst. It proven anti plaque agents.
acts as a good medicine for both diarrhea and dysentery. It is said that CHX 0.2% and miswak extract 50% had
For many ailments such as colitis, anemia, jaundice, high similar effect on dentin in the control group. Miswak
blood pressure, piles and arthritis, its juice is an effective extract removed more smear layer as compared to CHX.
medicine. When given with honey, it reduces biliousness. Further research is needed in vivo to compare the effects
Pomegranate fruit is also prescribed in many disorders of CHX and miswak extract on periodontally involved
under the Homeopathic medicine system. teeth and teeth with dentinal hypersensitivity” [21].
292

11. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009
The dried fruits of grapes (Vitis vinifera) are the 2. Hopkins, S., 2006. Importance Of Fruits In Diet.
raisins, sultanas and currants of commerce. Different Available at: http://www.home-remedies-for-
varieties producing the different types of dried fruit. you.com/
Grapes are a nourishing and slightly laxative fruit that can 3. Malik, H.MA., 2001. Treatment Through Herbs. In:
support the body through illness, especially of the gastro- Medicinal Plants of Pakistan, pp: 21.
intestinal tract and liver. Because the nutrient content of 4. Nasreen, U. and M.A. Khan, 2001. Some
grapes is close to that of blood plasma, grape fasts are Problematical Medicinal Plants of Pakistan, pp: 117.
recommended for detoxification. 5. Al-Hilali, M.T. and M.M. Khan, 1985. The Noble
The fresh fruit is antilithic, constructive, cooling, Quran: English Translation of the meaning and
diuretic and strengthening. A period of time on a diet commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of
based entirely on the fruit is especially recommended in Holy Quran. Madinah, K.S.A., pp: 13.
the treatment of torpid liver or sluggish biliary function.
6. Anonymous, 2009. Food of the Prophet (Sallallaho
The fruit is also helpful in the treatment of varicose veins,
Alayhi Wasallam). Dar-ul-Iman healing. Available at:
haemorrhoids and capillary fragility. The dried fruit is
http://chishti.org/foods_of_the_prophet.htm.
demulcent, cooling, mildly expectorant, laxative and
Accessed March 23, 2009.
stomachic. [18]. Dried grapes (raisins) were ranked second
in scientific tests to identify the most antioxidant rich 7. Ghaznavi, K., 1991. Tibb-e-Nabvi and Modern
fruits and vegetables. On this basis, raisins have to be an science. Al-Faisal Nasheeran Wa Tajeeran-e-Kutab.
excellent 'protective-value-for-money' choice. Urdu Bazar Lahore, Pakistan, 1: 50, 334.
Interestingly, recent tests on the anti-oxidant 8. Farooqi, I., 1998. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat,
effectiveness of various commercial fruit put fresh red Adwiya Aur Ghizain. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers, 9-lower
grapes at number six in anti-oxidant effectiveness against Mall, Aqab Mian Market, Urdu Bazar Lahore,
damaging oxidative processes in cells [22]. pp: 151-152, 168.
The fruit of Indian lote tree (Zizyphus mauritiana) is 9. Ghaznavi, K., 2000. Tib-i-Nabvi and Modern science.
very useful for human beings. It is eaten in fresh and dried Al-Faisal Nashiran Wa Tajiran- i-Kutab. Urdu Bazar
form in Pakistan. Lahore, Pakistan. 2: 276, 321.
Muhammad Ahmad Zahbi (Rahmat ullah Alayhi) 10. Al-jozi (Al-Jawzyiyya), Ibn-al-Qayyim. (Tibb-Nabbi
narrates the following hadith: “The first fruit eaten by Arabic) Almaktaba Al-Saudia (Trans.Urdu by A’zami
Hazrat Adam (Alayhi Sallam) after His descent on the A.R. and M.M. Ahmad., 1985. Tibb-Nabvi. Kutab
earth, was the fruit of the Zizyphus” [14]. Khana Shan-e-Islam. Rahat Market Urdu Bazar
Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbas (Radiallahu Anhu) Lhore. P. 379.
narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, 11. Ali, A.Y., 1989. The Holy Qur‘an: English Translation
Wash (pointing towards a person who died at Arafat) him of the meaning and commentary. King Fahd Complex
with water and leaves of sidar [8]. for the printing of Holy Quran. Madinah, K.S.A. ,
Ibn Al-Qaeem considers its fruit very useful for the pp: 1016.
treatment of diarrhea and weakness of the stomach [9]. 12. Al-Qadr, 2007. Prophetic medicine.Available at:
The folkmedicinal uses of Zizyphus mauritiana in http://www.ummah.com/forum/showthread.php.
Pakistan are: the leaves are useful to treat scabies and
Accessed March 20, 2009.
other skin diseases. Fruits are mucilaginous, pectoral
13. A’zami, M.Z.B., 1985. Tafheem Al-Bukhari urdu
styptic, considered to purify blood and improve digestion.
translation of Al-Sahih Al-Bukhari. Dar-ul-Isha’t.
These are cooling, astringent and useful in bilious
Maulavi Musafir Khana, Urdu Bazar Karachi,
affections [23].
1: 426, 869.
It is concluded that herbal medicines are being widely
used in the world because of better cultural accept ability, 14. Chughtai, T.M., 2000. Nabatat-e-Qurani Aur Jadid
least injurious with none or much reduced side effects. Science. Dar-ul-Isha’t. Urdu Bazar Karachi,
pp: 101, 449.
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in our Diet. Available at: http://www. 16. Nasr, S.H., 1976. Islamic Science-An illustrated study.
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13. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009
Table 1: Phytogeography and Chemical constituents of Fruits
Distribution Flowering
Botanical names in world Period Chemical constituents
1.Citrullus lanatus Native of the Kalahari region, Jan-May Fruit contains citrullin, carotene and pectin. Vitamin C, Nacin, Riboflavin,
cultivated throughout Tropics Thiamine, minerals also present Juice also contains alenine, arginene, glutamic
acid, glycine, leucine and valine. Sucrose is the major sugar present. A honey
like syrup is prepared from juice [8].
2. Cucumis sativus Cultivated throughout Almost Fruit contains enzyme erepsin, proteolytic enzymes, ascorbic acid, oxidase, succinic
the tropical and subtropical through and malic dehydrogenases. Odorous constituents also present. Iron, Vit. B1 also
countries of the world. out the year present. Seeds contain fatty oil with 40% linoleic acid and 38% oleic acid [8].
3. Cydonia oblonga S. Europe-Mediterranean. April-May Fruit contains glucoside, malic acid, tartaric acid, uronic acid. Seed kernel contains
Ei; Europe; France; Iraq; amgydalin tannin and mucilage, 19% fixed oil containing 42% oleic acid, 40%
Jerusalem; Spain; Turkey; Us. linoleic acid. Mucilage is composed of 33% larabinose, uronic acid and xylose
[8].
4. Ficus carica Mediterranean Region and Feb.-Mar. Fruits contains pentose, amino acid, tyrosin, enzyme, cravin, lipase, protease and
S.W.Asia.: Afghanistan; sugar.
Pakistan and India. Australia; By chromatographic methods, about 30 groups of various lipid compounds
Senegal; South Africa; Spain; belonging to the classes of neutral lipids, glycolipids and phospholipids have
Turkey; Us; Venezuela been identified from the fruit of the fig tree. The main groups are triacylglycerols,
free and esterified sterols, mono-and digalactosyldiglycerides, ceramide
oligosides, cerebrosides, esterified sterol glycosides and phosphatidylglycerols.
In the fatty acid composition, linoleic, linolenic, oleic and palmitic acids
predominated (>90%) [24]. It was found that the major flavonoids in Ficus are
quercetin and luteolin [25].
5. Olea europea Afghanistan, Pakistan April-May In leaves and fruits of the olive tree, a phenolic seco-iridoid called oleuropein is
and Kashmir found; it is the hypotensive principle. The mesocarp (of fruit) contains about
55% of oil. Olive oil is composed, like all vegetable oils of fatty acids bound to
the alcohol glycerol. Typically, the following fatty acids are found in olive oil:
66% oleic acid, 12% linoleic acid, 9% palmitic acid, 5% eicosenoic acid and 5%
palmitoleic acid. Olive oil may contain up to 1.5% of an acyclic triterpene
hydrocarbon, squalene.
The desired flavour of olive oil is dominated by aldehydes (hexanal and 2-
hexenal). Furthermore, higher aldehydes, primary alcohols (mainly C6
compounds like hexanol, 2-hexene-1-ol, 3-hexene-1-ol) and their acetic acid
esters contribute to the characteristic olive oil aroma. Lastly, hemiterpenoid
volatiles were found (3-methyl butanal, 4-methoxy-2-methyl-butanethiol, ethyl
esters of 2-and 3-methyl butyric acid). The flavour components, however, depend
on variety and geographic origin of the oil [26].
6. Phoenix dactylifera N.Africa, India Mar-April Vitamin A, B, C, pectin, sugars in fruit Oxalic acid from seeds (stones) [8]. When
(Rajistan, Maharashter), dates are mature, they contain reasonable amounts of vitamins A, B1, B2 and
Iraq, S.Arabia, Pakistan. niacin. Dates are a good source of potassium, calcium and iron and also contain
chlorine, copper, magnesium, sulphur and phosphorous. The sugar content of
ripe dates is about 80%; the remainder consists of protein, fat and mineral
products including copper, sulphur, iron, magnesium and fluoric acid. Dates are
high in fiber and an excellent source of potassium [27].
7. Punica granatum S.E. Europe to April-July Sugars, Vit. C and Iron from fruit juice. Tannic acid from rind. Alkaloid
E. Asia-Himalayas. pelletierine from bark [8].
(China; Egypt; Ethiopia; The major class of phytochemical present in pomegranate is the polyphenols and
Europe; India; Iraq; Israel; includes flavonoids, condensed tannins and hydrolysable tannins. Hydrolysable
Java; Malaya; Mexico; tannins are predominant polyphenols found in pomegranate juice and account
Kurdistan; Peru; Spain; for 92% of its antioxidant activity. Pomegranate seeds are rich in sugars,
Turkey; Us; Venezuela) polyunsaturated (n-3) fatty acids, vitamins, polysaccharides, polyphenols and
minerals and have high antioxidant activity. When crushed and dried, the seeds
produce an oil with 80% punicic acid, the 18-carbon fatty acid, along with the
isoflavone genistein, the phytoestrogen coumestrol and the sex steroid estrone.
The seed coat of the fruit contains delphinidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3,5-
diglucoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, pelargonidin-3-
glucoside and pelargonidin-3,5-diglucoside with delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside
being the major anthocyanin in pomegranate juice[28].
8. Salvadora persica Pakistan, India and Arabia. March-June. Root and twigs contain alkaloid trimethyl amine, inorganic salts. Resin and
tannin [8]. They contain salvadorine, chlorides, fluorides in large amount, silica,
sulphur, Vit. C and small quantities of tannins, saponins, flavenoids and sterol
[29].
9.Vitis vinifera France, Germany, Spain, May-July Fruits contain oxalic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid and racemic acid. High
Pakistan and India percentage of sugar is present in fruits. Vit. B, carotene, Vit. P, also present.
Vit. P is responsible for checking the bleeding. Invertase, hexodinase, catalase,
ascorbic acid oxidase and peroxidase also reported [8].
10. Zizyphus mauriiana India, Ceylon, Pakistan, July-Sept. Sugars and vitamins [8].When in blossom, Zizyphus mauritiana, emanates a strong
Afghanistan, China, fecal odour. The substances responsible for this scent were analysed, which showed
Australia, benzaldehyde as major constituent. Minor benzenoids, aliphatic carboxylic acids,
Trop. Africa. aldehydes, hydrocarbons and oxygenated monoterpenes were also observed. It
was also found that skatole (3-methyl-indole) is responsible for the fecal odour
and vanillin for the sweety odour [30]. The cyclopeptide alkaloids,mauritine-K
and sativanine-K have been isolated from the root bark of Zizyphus mauritiana
and their structures established by spectral and chemical evidences.Mauritine-K
is a new cyclopeptide alkaloid and sativanine-K is the first report from Z.
mauritiana.Mauritine-K exhibited significant antifungal activity [31].
295

14. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009
ISSN 1680-5194
© Asian Network for Scientific Information, 2009
Aromatic Plant Species Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and
Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Importance
Sarfaraz Khan Marwat1, Muhammad Aslam Khan2, Fazal-ur-Rehman3 and Inayat Ullah Bhatti3
1
University Wensam College, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
2
Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
3
Faculty of Pharmacy, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
Abstract: In view of the importance of this study comprehensive detailed data was collected from Holy Quran,
Ahadith`s books and books written on the Islamic medicines. Present findings confined to 15 Aromatic plant
species belonging to 14 genera of 10 families. The plant species are: Acorus calamus L., Artemisia maritima
L., Boswellia carterii Birdw., Boswellia serrata Birdw., Cinnamomum camphora L., Citrus spp., Commiphora
molmol Engl. ex Tschirch, Crocus sativus L., Cymbopogon schoenanthus Spreng., Dryobalanops aromatica
Gaertn. F., Lawsonia inermis L., Majorana hortensis Moench. Ocimum basilicum L., Origanum vulgare L. and
Thymus serpyllum L. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed
by English name, Arabic name, family, parts used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and
Ahadith. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethno medicinal uses and create
awareness about the Aromatic plant species mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith for the welfare of
human communities throughout the world.
Key words: Ethno medicinal study, Aromatic plants, Holy Quran and Ahadith
INTRODUCTION aspect of life and is full of wisdom. It speaks “We have
Aromatic plants possess odorous volatile substances, neglected nothing in the Book” (Khan et al., 1994). Our
which occur as essential oil, green exudates, balsam Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain
and oleoresin in one or more parts, namely root, wood, herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for
stem, leaf, flower and fruit. The term essential oil is cure of common diseases. His recommendations were
concomitant to fragrance or perfumes because these noted by His Wives (Radiallaho Anhuma) and
fragrances are oily in nature and they represent the Companions (Radiallaho Anhum) and remain available
essence and active constituents of plants (Skaria et al., to us today (Dar-ul-Iman healing, 2000).
2007). An essential oil is the actual aroma which is Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal
extracted and it is this aroma which is used in flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work
aromatherapy to treat a number of ailments (Falsetto, was conducted to investigate ethnomedicinal uses and
2008). The essential oils which impart the distinctive create awareness about the Aromatic plant species
aromas are complex mixtures of organic constituents mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith for the welfare
(Simon, 1990). There are about three hundred essential of human communities throughout the world.
oils in general use today by professional practitioners,
but the average household could fulfill all its likely needs MATERIALS AND METHODS
with about ten (Belt, 2009a). The research work was conducted by reviewing the Holy
Plants are an essential component of the universe. Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and
Human beings have used plants as medicine from the detailed information about 15 Aromatic plant species
very beginning of time (Marwat et al., 2009a). An mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith were collected
estimated 50,000-70,000 plant species are used in from these sources. Plants species were arranged in
traditional and modern medicine throughout the world. systematic order of botanical names in alphabetic order
These species make an essential contribution to followed by family, Quranic name, Arabic name, English
healthcare and along with species used more for their name, habit and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and
aromatic properties, in herbal products, references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic
pharmaceuticals and fragrances (Medicinal Plant books.
Specialist Group, 2007).
In Islam diseases are cured in two ways, first the cure of RESULTS
soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments Present findings were confined to 15 Aromatic plant
through medicines (Marwat et al., 2009b). The Holy species belonging to 14 genera of 10 families enlisted
Quran from the very start has a claim that it covers every in Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The plant
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species are: Acorus calamus L., Artemisia maritima L., References from Ahadith:
Boswellia carterii Birdw., Boswellia serrata Birdw., C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho)
Cinnamomum camphora L., Citrus spp., Commiphora narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe
molmol Engl. ex Tschirch, Crocus sativus L., Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Olibanum (lubban) and
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Spreng., Dryobalanops Sage brush (Karmala, Afsanteen) in your houses”
aromatica Gaertn. F., Lawsonia Inermis L., Majorana (Farooqi, 1998).
hortensis Moench., Ocimum basilicum L., Origanum C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhiallaho Anho)
vulgare L. and Thymus serpyllum L. which are used narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe
throughout the world in number of perfumery, flavouring Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala,
and pharmaceutical compounds. Data inventory Afsanteen), Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in
constitutes botanical name, family, English name, local your houses” (Farooqi, 1998).
names, Arabic name, parts used, medicinal uses and
references cited from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith. Botanical name : Boswellia carterii Birdw.
Family : Burseraceae
Botanical name : Acorus calamus L. English name (s) : Olibanum, Indian Frankincense,
Family : Acoraceae Arabic Frankincense, Salai
English name (s) : Calamus, Sweet flag guggal
Local name : Zareera Arabic name : Labban
Arabic name (s) : Zareera, Oudulwaj Local name : Lubban
Flowering period : May-July Parts used : Dried resin, collected from
Parts used : Leaves and rhizome. stems and trunk.
Medicinal uses : Rhizome: Emetic, antispasmodic, Medicinal uses : Burseraceae plant family
carminative, analgesic, stomachache, insectifuge, nerve members (Boswellia carteri etc.) possess the medicinal
tonic. Given in dyspepsia, colic, remittent fever, epilepsy property of being expectorant and therefore particularly
bronchial, granular tumours and snake-bite. Useful helpful in treating bronchitis; they are also useful in
against moths and lice. Also employed for kidney and healing wounds and ulcers and reducing scar tissue.
liver troubles, rheumatism and eczema.
References from Ahadith:
References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho)
C Hazrat Aisha (Radhi Allaho Anha) narrates that I narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe
myself applied the perfume of Grass Mytle (Zareera) Wasallam) said, “Fumigate your houses with
to the Holy Prophet at the time of wearing and Olibanum (lubaan, labaan) and Thyme (Sa’tar)”
removal of Ihram (unstitched, preferably white, (Farooqi, 1998 and Ghaznavi, 1991).
pieces of cloth) during the Farewell Hajj (Farooqi, C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho)
1998; Al Qadr, 2007). narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe
C One of the Holy Wives (Radhi Allaho Anha) of The Wasallam) said, “Fumigate your houses with
Holy Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, Olibanum (lubban) and Sage brush (Karmala,
“One day the Holy Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Afsanteen)” (Farooqi, 1998 and Ghaznavi, 1991).
Wasallam) came to me and there was pimple on
my finger. He asked, have you grass mytle? I told, Botanical name : Boswellia serrata Birdw.
yes. He (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, apply it Family : Burseraceae
on the pimple (Farooqi, 1998). Engish name (s) : Indian Bedellium, frankicense
Loal name (s) : Gogle Guggal, Salai Guggal,
Botanical name : Artemisia maritima L. Sallaki
Family name : Compositae (Asteraceae) Arabic name : Kundar
English name (s) : Sage brush, Santonica, Worm Parts used : The most important derivative of
seed, ajvain. Boswellia serrata tree is the
Local name (s) : Kirmala, Afsanteen Boswellia Gum Resin.
Arabic name : Afsanteen Medicinal uses : Diaphoretic, diuretic, astringent,
Flowering period : August-September. emmenagogue. Used in nervous diseases,
Parts used : Seeds, floral buds and leaves. rheumatism, skin eruption. Chiefly used in incense.
Medicinal uses : Artemisia (Karmala, Afsanteen) is Ingredient of ointments.
used as antiperiodic, deobstruent, stomachache, tonic
and anthelmintic. It is given internally in dyspepsia, References from Ahadith:
jaundice, flatulence and worms. It is used externally as C Hazarat Abdullah bin Abbas (Radhi Allaho Anho)
antiseptic. narrated that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe
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16. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009
Wasallam) soaked Kundar at night. He mixed Arabic name (s) : Utraj, Turanj
brown sugar in it and drank. He said, it is the best Flowering period : Spring season
remedy for memory and urine problem (Farooqi, Medicinal uses : Fruits-Nutritive, cardiotonic,
1998). refrigerant, carminative, stomachic, appetizer. Cures
C Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrated, catarrh, urinary calculus. Leaves and peel are highly
‘Some one complained to Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe medicinal.
Wasallam) against his memory. He (Salallaho
Alaihe Wasallam) said, take kundar (Boswellia References from Ahadith:
serrata) and soak it in water and drink that water C Lemon has many benefits for you. It strengthens the
early in the morning. It is a useful phytotherapy for heart and prevents heart failure (Farooqi, 1998).
memory (Farooqi, 1998). C Hazrat Abu Musa Ashari (Radhi Allaho Anho)
narrated that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe
Botanical name : Cinnamomum camphora L. * Wasallam) said: “The example of a mo’min
Family : Lauraceae (believer) who reads the Qur’an is like that of
English name (s) : Camphor Tree, camphor laurel,
‘Turanj’ which has a pleasant smell and a sweet
gum camphor
taste” (Farooqi, 1998).
Local name : Kafoor
Arabic name : Kafoor
Botanical name :Commiphora molmol Engl. ex
Part used : Leaves and branches
Medicinal uses : Sedative, anodyne, antiseptic, Tschirch
diaphoretic, anthelmentic, stimulant, carminative. Used Family : Burseraceae
as insecticide. Toxic causing headache, nausea, English name : Myrrh
excitement, confusion and delirium. Local name : Murmukey
Arabic name : Mur
References from Holy Qur’an Parts used : Gum of stem
Surah 76. Al-Insan or Ad-Dahr, Verse #. 5: Verily, the Medicinal uses : Germicides, wound healer, old
Abrar (the pious and righteous), Shall drink of a cup (of cough, oral fragrance, baldness, swelling of urinary
wine) mixed with (water from a spring in Paradise bladder.
called) Kafur (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1996).
References from Ahadith:
References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho)
C Hazrat Umm-e-Attiah Ansariah (Radhi Allaho Anha) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe
narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “Fumigate your houses with Sage
Wasallam) came to us, when His Daughter (Radhi brush (Karmala, Afsanteen), Myrrh (murmuki) and
Allaho Anha) died. He said, give Her a bath three or Thyme (Sa’tar)” (Farooqi, 1998).
five times and it will be better to use cedar (beri)
leaves and water for a bath and apply camphor after Botanical name : Crocus sativus L.
that (Farooqi, 1998).
Family : Iridaceae
English name (s) : Saffron, Meadow crocus, Saffron
Note: Two types of plants of different families have been
crocus.
a source of camphor from ancient time. One of these is
Local name : Zaffron
a tree of Malaysia (Dryobalanops aromatica) of family
Dipterocarpaceae and the other one is a tall tree of Arabic name : Zaffron
China and Japan (Cinnamomum camphora) of family Parts used : Rhizome
Lauraceae. The camphor of Malaysia is obtained from Medicinal uses : As a medicinal plant, saffron has
the bark of Dryobalanops aromatica while that of traditionally been considered an anodyne, aphrodisiac,
Chinese camphor is obtained from the wood of antispasmodic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant
Cinnamomum camphora (by freezing the essence of its and sedative. The plant has been used as a folk remedy
wood). The substance camphor-Kafoor (said to be used against scarlet fever, smallpox, colds, insomnia,
in funeral rites) mentioned in the above and other asthma, tumors and cancer. Given to promote eruptions
Ahadith, is actually the name of Itar-e-Hinna (perfume of in measles. In over doses, saffron is toxic.
Lawsonia inermis) and correct pronunciation Kafoor is
Qafoor (Farooqi, 1998). References from Ahadith:
C Hazrat Ibne Umar (Radhiallaho Anho) narrates that
Botanical name : Citrus spp. one person asked Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe
Family : Rutaceae Wasallam) what a muhrim should wear? He said
English name (s) : Lemon, Citron (replied), “do not wear clothes (ihram) dyed with
Local name (s) : Narangi, lemu, mita lemu etc. waras and saffron” (Farooqi, 1998).
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17. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009
C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates Wasallam) came to us, when His Daughter (Radhi
that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) Allaho Anha) died. He said, give Her a bath three or
forbade men to apply saffron (Farooqi, 1998). five times and it will be better to use cedar (beri)
leaves and water for a bath and apply camphor after
Botanical name : Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) that (Farooqi, 1998).
Spreng
Family : Poaceae Note: See Note under Cinnamomum camphora L.
English name : Camel Grass
Local name : Izkhir Botanical name : Lawsonia inermis L.
Arabic name : Izkhir Family : Lythraceae
Parts used : Leaves, stems and rhizomes English name : Egyptian Privet-Henna
Medicinal uses : Tonic, antispasmodic, febrifuge, Local name : Mehandi
intestinal disinfectant, antimalaria and against Guinea Arabic name : Henna, Faghia (Kalli)
worm, antispasmodic, diuretic, to treat the cough of Parts used : Leaves
infants and children. Also used as astringent and Medicinal uses : Henna has been used for
febrifuge. Oil is used in rheumatism and neuralgia. astringent, antihemorrhagic, intestinal antineoplastic,
cardio-inhibitory, hypotensive and sedative effects,
References from Ahadith: amoebiasis, headache, jaundice and leprosy. Its
C Hazrat Abu Huraira (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates extracts show antibacterial, antifungal and ultraviolet
that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said light screening activity, antifertility activity in animals and
about Makkah, “Its thorn must not be plucked. Its may induce menstruation.
trees might not be cut” Some one among the
Quraish begged (wanted) permission of cutting References from Ahadith:
Camel grass (izkhar) to use it in their homes and C Whosoever complained of pain in legs, the Prophet
shrines. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) advised him to apply
Wasallam) permitted, “yes, yes, except izkhar, Henna (on the legs)." (Farooqi, 1998).
except izkhar” (Farooqi, 1998). C Umm Salamah (Radi Allaho Anha) as commenting;
C Hazrat Khabab (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates, When "The Prophet (Sallallaho Alayi Wasallam) never
Hazrat Mus’ab bin ‘Umair (Radhi Allaho Anho) was suffered from a wound or a thorn without putting
killed in the battle of Uhud and we found such a Henna on it" (Mutmainaa, 2003).
sheet for a shroud (coffin) which was too short for C Jahzma (Radi Allahu Anho), the wife of Bashir Bin
his size. When it was drawn to cover the head, the Khasasia (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates, "I saw
feet would be exposed and when it was drawn to Prophet Muhammad (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam)
cover the feet, the head would become uncovered. coming out of the house. He was coming after
The Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said: taking bath; therefore, he was shaking his hairs.
“Cover his head with the sheet and his feet with the The colour of Henna was visible on his head."
‘Izkhir’ leaves” (Farooqi, 1998). (Mutmainaa, 2003).
C Abdullah bin Burayda (Radi Allahu Anho) narrates
Botanical name : Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn.
that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) said,
F. "the lord of sweet-smelling blossoms in this world
Synonym : Dryobalanops camphora Colebr. and the next is Henna blossom" (Farooqi, 1998).
Family : Dipterocarpaceae C Hazrat Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) also relates that the
English name : Borneo camphor, Malayan Prophet (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) loved sweet-
camphor, Sumatra camphor. smelling blossoms, especially that of Henna
Local name : Kafoor (Mutmainaa, 2003).
Arabic name : Kafoor
Medicinal uses : Sedative, anodyne, antiseptic, Botanical name :Majorana hortensis Moench.*
diaphoretic, anthelmentic, stimulant, carminative. Used Family :Lamiaceae/Labiatae
as insecticide. Toxic causing headache, nausea, English name :Marjoram
excitement, confusion and delirium. Local name (s) :Marva khusa, Marzanjosh
Arabic name (s) :Mardaqoush, Mardaqush,
References from Holy Qur’an: Marzanjush; Zatar, Satar (M.
Surah 76. Al-Insan or Ad-Dahr, Verse #. 5: See under syriaca)
Cinnamomum camphora L.* Parts used : Whole plant
Medicinal uses : Whole plant-stimulant, tonic,
References from Ahadith: rubefacient. Given in colic, diarrhea, hysteria,
C Hazrat Umm-e-Attiah Ansariah (Radhi Allaho Anha) rheumatism, toothache and earache. Useful in
narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe gynaecological disorders.
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References from Ahadith: that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said,
Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that “there is Marzanjosh (Marjoram) for you. It is very
Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “there is effective medicine for cold” (Ghaznavi, 1991).
Marzanjosh (Marjoram) for you. It is very effective * Two types of Marzanjosh are found in Egypt and Arabia.
medicine for cold” (Ghaznavi, 1991). One is known as Wild Marzanjosh (Origanum vulgare L.)
and the other one as Halu Marzanjosh (Majorana
Botanical name : Ocimum basilicum L. hortensis Moench). Both are medicinal herbs containing
Family : Lamiaceae pleasant aromatic oil like thyme (Ghaznavi, 1991).
English name : Sweet Basil
Local name : Rehan, Niazbo Botanical name : Thymus serpyllum L.
Arabic name : Rehan Family : Labiatae (Lamiaceae)
Parts used : Leaves and seeds English name (s) : Thyme, Wild thyme
Medicinal uses : Fever, cough, common cold, Local name (s) : Sattar Ban-ajwain, Jangli Podina
eczema, baldness, vaginal swelling, pemples, arthritis, Arabic name (s) : Sa’tar, Za’tar
muscles pain, antidote, pain killer, tuber closes, asthma, Part used : Leaves
piles, hepatitis, consception, malaria and heart Medicinal uses : The whole plant is anthelmintic,
diseases. antioxidant, strongly antiseptic, antispasmodic,
carminative, deodorant, diaphoretic, disinfectant,
References from Holy Quran expectorant, sedative and tonic. Internally, it is taken in
Surah Ar- Rahman, Verse #. 12, 13: Therein are fruits, the treatment of bronchitis, catarrh, laryngitis, flatulent
date-palms producing sheathed fruit-stalks (enclosing indigestion, painful menstruation, colic and hangovers.
dates). And also corn, with (its) leaves and stalk for Externally, it is applied to minor injuries, mastitis, mouth,
fodder, and sweet-scented plants (Al-Hilali and Khan, throat and gum infections.
1996).
References from Ahadith:
Surah Al-Waqi‘a, Verse #. 88, 89: Thus, then, if he be of C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho)
those Nearest to Allah, (there is for him) rest and narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe
satisfaction and a Garden of Delight (Ali, 1989). Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala,
Afsanteen), Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in
References from Ahadith: your houses” (Farooqi, 1998).
C Hazrat Abu Usman (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho)
Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe
“Whom Ocimum is offered, might not refuse” Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Olibanum (lubaan,
(Farooqi, 1998). labaan) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in your houses”
C Hazrat Abi Na’m (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that (Farooqi, 1998 and Ghaznavi, 1991).
Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said,
“These (Hazrat Hassan and Hazrat Hussain Radi DISCUSSION
Allaho Anhomaa) are ocimum (fragrance or fragrant Aromatic plants (having an aroma; fragrant or sweet-
flowers) for me in the world” (Farooqi, 1998). smelling) synthesize and preserve a variety of
biochemical products, many of which are extractable and
Note: Rehan (O. basilicum) is considered to be Tulsi (O. useful as chemical feed stock or raw materials for
sanctum) by some people, but it is incorrect. Both are various scientific investigations. Many secondary
different species (Farooqi, 1998). metabolites of plants are commercially important and
find use in number of perfumery, flavouring and
Botanical name : Origanum vulgare L.* pharmaceutical compounds. Hence aromatic plants are
Family : Lamiaceae/Labiatae generally referred to as ‘natural-biochemical-factories’ or
English name : Marjoram ‘chemical goldmines’ (Skaria et al., 2007).
Local name : Jungli Marzanjosh The essential oils which impart the distinctive aromas
Arabic Name : Marzanjosh are complex mixtures of organic constituents (Simon,
Parts used : Leaves 1990). They are nearly all comprised of some
Medicinal uses : Essential oil from leaves and combination of alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones,
flowering tops used for toothache, sprains, stiff and acids, esters, oxides, lactones, coumarins and
paralysis. Seeds and leaves useful as remedy for colic. furocoumarins. The result of this means that most
essential oils are anti-inflammatory; anti-viral; anti-
References from Ahadith: fungal; detoxifying; circulatory; anti-spasmodic;
C Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates analgesic and decongestant (Falsetto, 2008).
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As early as 4000 BC the great Sumerian civilization had Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates
discovered that most aromatic plants and shrubs have that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said,
powerful antiseptic properties, making them natural “Fumigate your houses with Olibanum (lubaan, labaan)
healers for external wounds and skin infections and as and Thyme (Sa’tar)” (Farooqi, 1998; Ghaznavi, 1991).
infusions for internal ailments (Highet, 1999). Artemisia maritima (Karmala, Afsanteen), leaves and
A close look at checklist of aromatic plant species tells flowers are antispasmodic, stimulant, cardiac, tonic and
us that these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy anthelmintics. Decoction or infusion of leaves is used in
Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam), gave the “ague” intermittent and remittent fever. Locally the fresh
references of such plants that are not only grown in Arab leaves are soaked in water kept over night and the water
countries but exist through out the world. This shows is taken as vermifuge (Amhrwo, 2001). The flowering
that the Holy Prophet was light for the entire world. The tops are used in indigenous medicine as anthelmintic,
Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) liked deobstruent and stomachic. The drug santonin obtained
perfume (aroma) very much. The Holy Prophet from the flowering tops is specific for round worms. It is
(Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “From your world, also used for removing thread worms from the small
women and Taib (perfume) were made beloved to me intestine (Zaman and Khan, 1970).
and the comfort of my eye is the prayer” (Al Qadr, 2007). Boswellia carterii and B. serrata (Frankincense-luban)
Narrated Hazrat 'Aisha (Radi Allaho Anha): I used to belong to family Burseraceae. Plants of this family
perfume Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) possess the medicinal property of being expectorant
with the best scent available till I saw the shine of the and are, therefore, particularly helpful in treating
scent on his head and shine beard. Narrated Hazrat bronchitis. They are also useful in healing wounds and
'Azra bin Thabit Al-Ansari (Radi Allaho Anho): When I ulcers and reducing scar tissue (Falsetto, 2009).
went to Thumama bin 'Abdullah, he gave me some Frankincense was used by doctors, dentists, chemists
perfume and said that Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) would and beauticians since as early as 3000 BC and some of
not reject the gifts of perfume. Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) the biggest buyers of this highly prized resin were the
said: The Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) used embalmers (Highet, 1999).
Cinnamomum camphora L. has occasionally been used
not to reject the gifts of perfume (Al Qadr, 2007). Our Holy
internally in the treatment of hysteria, but in modern day
Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain
herbalism it is mainly used as the essential oil and
herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for
internal use is not advised. The wood and leaves are
cure of common diseases (Farooqi, 1998).
analgesic, antispasmodic, odontalgic, rubefacient,
The Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam)
stimulant. An infusion is used as an inhalant in the
recommended Acorus calamus (zareera) for the
treatment of colds and diseases of the lungs. The plant
treatment of pimple (Abscess). One of the Wives (Radi
is more commonly used in the form of the essential oil
Allaho) of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said,
which can be obtained by distillation of the chipped
“Once the messenger of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi
branches, trunk and wood of the tree, or from the leaves
Wasallam) came by when I had a pimple on my finger.
and twigs. Wood 24-40 years old is normally used. The
He said: “Do you have a Tharirah (arum)’ I said, yes. He
essential oil is anthelmintic, antirheumatic,
said, place it on the pimple. He then said, Say, O Allah
antispasmodic, cardiotonic, carminative, diaphoretic,
who transforms the big to small and small to big, make
sedative and tonic. It is used externally in liniments for
what I am suffering small” (Farooqi, 1998; Al Qadr, treating joint and muscle pains, balms for chilblains,
2007). In addition to its use as perfume the Zareera has chapped lips, cold sores, skin diseases etc and as an
numerous medicinal uses as well. It is useful in inhalant for bronchial congestion (Plants For a Future,
whooping cough and sciatica. In Arab Zareera was also 2008).
used as fragrance at the time of Hazrat Musa Alayi Citrus spp. Lemons are just one example of the simple
Salam (Farooqi, 1998). bounties Allah has provided us with. In addition to their
Artemisia maritima (Karmala, Afsanteen), Boswellia spp. nutritional benefits, lemon (its oil) is used in
(Olibanum, Frankincense-Luban), Commiphora molmol aromatherapy, as a muscle relaxant and a skin and
(Myrrh-murmuki) and Thymus serpyllum (Thyme-Sa’tar) circulation stimulant. Rubbed on the face, lemons open
are other aromatic and medicinal plants which have up the pores releasing heat and refreshing the skin.
been recommended by the Holy Prophet (Salallaho Eaten during pregnancy, lemons help build the
Alaihe Wasallam) for fumigation in the houses. developing baby's bones. Lemons also aid in the
Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhiallaho Anho) narrates digestion of heavy meals and in the assimilation of
that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, protein, calcium, zinc and vitamins. Lemons also have
“Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala, Afsanteen), Myrrh cholesterol-lowering properties, thus preventing hair
(murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in your houses” (Farooqi, loss and even causing hair regeneration. They
1998). counteract cases of anxiety and depression; stimulate
1477

20. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009
the liver and the gall bladder, causing a release in cleansing the digestive tract of all noxious substances
congestion; stimulate the formation of valuable as well as function as a remedy for common
leukocytes in the fight against viral and infectious detoxification and anti-inflammation. This quality of myrrh
diseases and stimulate the lymphatic system in cases is especially useful in treating arthritis, rheumatism as
of cellulite and obesity (Al Qadr, 2007). well as gout (GmbH, 2008).
Henna (Lawsonia inermis) is another aromatic plant Sweet marjoram (Majorana hortensis Moench.) is
mentioned in Ahadith. Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallaho considered as highly medicinal like other members of
Alaihe Wasallam) informed us of the beneficial the same family such as mint, basil etc. It is considered
elements contained in Henna over 1400 years ago. One expectorant, carminative and tonic. It is reported to be
tradition of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) useful in asthma, hysteria and paralysis. Its oil is used
cited in At-Tirmidhi, records Umm-e-Salamah (Radi as an external application for sprains, bruises, stiff and
Allahu Anho) as commenting; "The Prophet (Sallallaho paralytic limb and toothache. It is also used for hot
Alaihe Wasallam) never suffered from a wound or a fomentation in acute diarrhea. Leaves and seeds are
thorn without putting Henna on it" Another tradition reported to provide a ready remedy for colic (Indian food,
mentioned in As-Sahih Bukhari and Abu Dawud Sharif 2009).
says, "Whenever somebody came to Prophet Ocimum basilicum (Sweet basil-Raihan) acts principally
Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) with on the digestive and nervous systems, easing
complaints of headache, he directed him to undergo flatulence, stomach cramps, colic and indigestion. The
cupping and whosoever complained of pain in legs, was leaves and flowering tops are antispasmodic, aromatic,
advised to apply Henna." The Perfume made from carminative and digestive, galactogogue, stomachic and
henna flowers is very sweet and strong. In a well known tonic. The mucilaginous seed is given in infusion in the
hadith, cited in As-Suyuti's 'Tibb an-Nabi' it is recorded treatment of gonorrhoea, dysentery and chronic
that Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, "the diarrhoea. It is said to remove film and opacity from the
lord of sweet-smelling blossoms in this world and the eyes. Extracts from the plant are bactericidal (Plants For
next is Henna blossom" (Mutmainaa, 2003). The actual a Future, 2008).
Henna plant is sometimes called the "Magic Plant" Oregano (Origanum vulgare) has a beneficial effect
because it has great healing effects. It contains upon the digestive and respiratory systems and is also
ingredients to be antibacterial, anti-fungal and anti- used to promote menstruation. The leaves and flowering
hemorrhagic. Henna is useful is healing athlete's foot, stems are antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue,
fungal skin infections, headaches, burning of the soles diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, stimulant,
and palms and local inflammation. The leaves and stomachic and mildly tonic. The plant is taken internally
seeds act as cooling agents for the head and body in the treatment of colds, influenza, mild feverish
(Mutmainaa, 2003). illnesses, indigestion, stomach upsets and painful
Izkhir (Cymbopogon schoenanthus) leaves, stems or the menstruation. This plant is one of the best natural
rhizomes are used in the therapeutic traditional ones, as antiseptics because of its high thymol content (Plants
well of internal use, like tonic, antispasmodic, febrifuge, For a Future, 2008).
intestinal disinfectant, as external, like disinfecting Thyme (Thymus serpyllum) has been used by mankind
funerary, antimalaria and against Guinea worm. In since pre-recorded times. Ancient Greeks derived its
Egyptian this plant has a good reputation to be an name from one of its many uses: "to fumigate." During
antispasmodic and a renal diuretic. It has been the period of the Black Plague, doctors wore "nose gays"
established by various authors that the active ingredient and masks that included thyme when visiting sick rooms
responsible for the antispasmodic activity is a and clinics. Thyme was used as incense in religious
sesquiterpenediol, the cryptomeridiol. A recent ceremonies and as a funeral herb. The dried flowers are
ethnobotanic study shows that this plant is used in also used to repel moths from clothing (Belt, 2009b).
traditional pharmacopoeia in Burkina Faso to treat the The antiseptic abilities found in the volatile phenolic
cough of infants and children (Yentema et al., 2007). compounds, thymol and carvacrol, in thyme make it ideal
Myrrh (Commiphora molmol is thick, yellow, gummy in combating bad breath, gum disease, gastric
resin extracted from a shrub. Essential oils like myrrh problems caused by viruses or bacteria, eczema, burns,
have considerable medicinal properties as ancient ringworm, psoriasis, parasitic infections, sore throats
Egyptian physicians surmised. Myrrh was extensively and body odour. However, thyme should not be used by
used to embalm the dead (Highet, 1999). The herb is pregnant women or by children as it can act as a uterine
particularly beneficial for treating bronchitis, asthma, stimulant and is toxic in high doses (Burns, 2000).
cold and catarrh or running nose. It acts against all viral
and bacterial infections, all other diseases as well as REFERENCES
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herb’s action to augment digestion also helps in the meaning and commentary.
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Al-Hilali, M.T. and M.M. Khan, 1996. The Noble Quran: Khan, A.S, M.A. Khan, H.A. Din, H.U. Khan and M. Tayyab,
English Translation of the meaning and 1994. Some Scientific Facets of Quran and Sunnah
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Al Qadr, 2007. Prophetic medicine. Available at: Marwat, S.K., M.A., Khan, M.A. Khan, M. Ahmad, M. Zafar,
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Amhrwo, 2001. Artemisia maritima Alpine Medicinal
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F.U. Rehman and S. Sultana, 2009b. Salvadora
Belt, M., 2009a. Essential oils nature direct 2u 45
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essentialoils.htm. Quran and Ahadith and Their Ethnobotanical Uses
Belt, M., 2009b. Mother of Thyme: Thymus serpyllum. in North Western Part (D.I. Khan) of Pakistan. Pak.
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naturedirect2u.com/Medicinal%20herbs/motheroft Medicinal Plant Specialist Group, 2007. International
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Burns, K., 2000. Herbs In Hadith, Part Two of Three: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP). Version
Kitchen Herbs http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/ 1.0. Bundesamt für Natur-schutz (BfN),
Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1157365863368&page MPSG/SSC/IUCN, WWF Germany and TRAFFIC,
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Falsetto, S., 2008. The Properties of Essential Oils. Plants For a Future, 2008. Edible, medicinal and useful
Physical and Therapeutic Properties Common to All plants for healthier world. Available at: http://www.
Aromatherapy Oils. Available at: http://aromatherapy. pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Accessed November
suite101.com/article.cfm/the_properties_of_ 16, 2008.
essential_oils Accessed on March 13, 2009.
Simon, J.E., 1990. Essential oils and culinary herbs. p.
Falsetto, S., 2009. Medicinal Properties of Aromatic Plant
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Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland,
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Farooqi, I., 1998. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat, Adwiya Skaria, B.P., P.P. Joy, S. Mathew, G. Mathew, A. Joseph
Aur Ghizain. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers, 9-lower Mall, and R. Joseph, 2007. Aromatic Plants In: Peter, K.V.
Aqab Mian Market, Urdu Bazar Lahore. pp: 151-152, and M.S. Swaminathan. Hurticulture Science Series
168. -1. Kerala Agricultural University Aromatic and
Ghaznavi, K., 1991. Tibb-e-Nabvi and Modern science. Medicinal Resaerch Station, Odakki Asmannoor
Al-Faisal Nasheeran Wa Tajeeran-e-Kutab. Urdu Post Ernakulam District, Kerala, India, pp: 1.
Bazar Lahore, Pakistan, 1: 50, 334. Yentema, O., Q. Alioune and S.A. Dorosso, 2007.
GmbH, C.E.R., 2008. Myrrh. Available at: http://www. Chemical composition and physical Characteristics
herbs2000.com/herbs/herbs_myrrh.htm. Accessed of the Essential Oil of Cymbopogon schoenanthus
March 27, 2009. (L.) Spreng. of Burkina Faso. J. Appl. Sci., 7: 503-
Highet, J., 1999. The perfumes of Arabia. The Middle 506.
East. Available at: http://www.africasia.com/archive/ Zaman, M.Z. and M.S. Khan, 1970. Hundred Drug Plants
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indianetzone.com/1/marjoram.htm. Accessed March
31, 2009.
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ISSN 1818-6769
© IDOSI Publications, 2009
Useful Medicinal Flora Enlisted in Holy Quran and Ahadith
1
Mushtaq Ahmad, 1Mir Ajab Khan, 1Sarfaraz Khan Marwat,
1
Muhammad Zafar, 2Muhammad Aslam Khan, 1Tamoor Ul Hassan and 1Shazia Sultana
¹Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
²Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research Gomal University, Dera Ismail, Khan, Pakistan
Abstract: The present research work is a part of check list of medicinal flora and their uses enlisted in Holly
Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The main aim of this study is to establish how the different parts or
aspects of plant based Islamic medicines (Tibb) such as use of medicinal plants, health principle, hygiene,
practice, thought and culture when taken together, demonstrate both wholeness as a system and systematic
nature of plant based Islamic medicines. In view of the importance of this study comprehensive and detailed
data was systematically collected from Holly Quran, Ahadith`s books, Islamic history and books written on the
Islamic medicines. Present findings confined to 32 medicinal plants species belonging to 30 genera of 23 families
of plant kingdom. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by
English name, Arabic name, family, habit and habitat, distribution, part used, medicinal uses and references
cited from Holly Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. It is concluded that herbal medicines are being used by
about 80% of the world population, mainly developing countries for primary health care because of better
cultural acceptability, better compatibility with human body and lesser side effects. It is recommended that plant
based industries should be developed in the light of Islamic teaching and research.
Key words: Medicinal flora % Checklist % Uses % Holly Quran and Ahadith
INTRODUCITON Almustaghfri, Zia uddin Almukadasi, Shams uddin Albali,
Kahal ibne Tarkhan, Muhammad bin Ahmed Zahabi,
Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always Muhammad Abu Baker Alkaim, Jalal uddin Alseuoti and
a salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching. Islamic Abdul Razzaq Bin Mustafa Altanki did a great work in this
medicine started from Hazrat Adam (Alaihe Salaam.) and field. The books written in this era “Alnabvi fee Mannafal
was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Makalat” by abdul Razzaq Altanki is a good one. The
Wasallaam) but search and compiling of these medicine is other book which is best and still available is “Kanzulamal
still continued after the death of Holy Prophet Muhammad Fee Sanan Walakwal” also provide us much more
(Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallaam) through out the world. information about medicines of Holy Prophet (Sallallaho
Al-Quran is one of the best reference book describing Alaihe Wasallaam) [2].
the importance of plants in different Surahs as in The climax of Islamic medicines started from Abu Bin
Al-Momeenoon, Al-Rehman, Al-Bakra and Al-Inaam. Our Zakria Alrazi. He wrote his famous book “Haddi Kabeer”
Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallaam) used and while the book “Kamal-ul-Sannat” by Ali Bin Abbas is
recommended medicinal plants for various ailments and also a good one [3] These medicinal plants continue to be
food [1]. extensively used as major source of drugs for the
The history of Islamic medicine started form second treatment of many ailments. There is now growing
century of Hijra, Abdul Malik Bin Habib Undlasi compiled awareness to encourage indigenous production and
his first book “Tib-e-Nabvi”. In third century of Hijra processing of these plants used in different cultures and
Muhammad Bin Abu Bakar Ibne Ulsani and Abu Naeem religious. Present investigation does not mean that the
Isphani compiled their books on this topic. In the same era plant and plant parts which are described in Holy Quran
other Muslim scholars like Ali bin Mossa Raza and Imam for medicinal purposes but described for other purposes.
Kazim Bin Jaffar also worked on Islamic medicines. In the But in this study emphasis was on medicinal uses as used
fourth century of Hijra Muslims Scholars like Abi Jaffar in different cultures, traditions and religions. In this
Corresponding Author: Mushtaq Ahmad, Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
126

23. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
research medicinal uses of these plants are experience of alphabetic order followed by English name, Arabic name,
different communities of world. Holy Quran is considered family, habit and distribution, part used, medicinal uses
to be the reference for the citation of these plants. Honey and references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and
which is the product of different plant species is Islamic books. Correct botanical names, their families and
described for medicinal purpose in the Holy Quran. identification of plants were done by using of available
Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal flora literature [4-8]. Correct botanical nomenclature was
and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work was also confirmed by comparing with already known
conducted to prepare checklist, investigate medicinal uses specimens of herbarium of Quaid-i-Azam Univeristy,
and create awareness about the medicinal flora enlisted in Islamabad-Pakistan.
Holy Quran, Ahadith, Islamic literature and culture for the
welfare of human communities throughout the world. RESULTS
MATERIALS AND METHODS Present findings were confined to 32 plant species
belonging to 30 genera of 23 families enlisted in Holly
The research work was conducted by reviewing Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. These plants are
the most acceptable literature given in Holly Quran, not only used in Islamic countries but also throughout the
Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and detailed world for various aspects such as medicinal, food and
information about medicinal plants were collected from industrial products. Data inventory constitute botanical
these sources. The notation given in the Islamic books name, English name, local names, Arabic name, family,
were also cited and confirmed from Holly Quran and habit and distribution; parts used, medicinal uses and
Ahadith. Check list and medicinal inventory of plants references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic
was arranged in systematic order of botanical names in books.
1. Acorus calamus L.
English Name: Sweet flag
Local Name: Zareea
Arabic Name: Zareera, Oudulwaj
Family: Acoraceae
Habit and Habitat: Perennial herb found in marshy places and along riverbanks.
Distribution: N. and C. America, Europe, Asia.
Part used: Roots
Medicinal uses: Eye diseases, stomach pain, liver and intestinal disorder, heart diseases,
conception, eczema, paralysis, asthma, hysteria, madness, malaria and arthritis
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari (Ravia: Hazrat Ayesha Siddiqa) Kitabul-libas [9].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
2. Agaricus campestris L.
English Name: Mushroom
Local Name: Khunbii
Arabic Name: Esh El-Ghorab
Family: Agaricaceae
Habit and Habitat: Fleshy fungus found in terrestrial and moist habitat.
Distribution: Cosmopolitan
Part used: Whole part
Medicinal uses: Eye diseases, clear eyes, physical strength, germicide, arthritis, paralysis, parkensis,
muscle pain, headache and dizziness
127

24. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari (Ravi: Saeed Bin Zaid) [9].
C Sahih-Al-Muslim. Ravi: Saeed bin Zaid. Kitabul Ashraba[12].
C Ibne-Majja. Ravi: Saeed Bin Zaid [11].
3. Allium cepa L.
English Name: Onion
Local Name: Piaz
Arabic Name: Basal
Family: Alliaceae
Habit and Habitat: Cultivated annual herb
Distribution: Pakistan, India, China, Russia, America and European countries
Part used: Bulb, leaves and seeds.
Medicinal uses: Antidote, Stomach diseases, cholera, Diarrhoea, throat infection, common cold,
cough, fever, influenza, ear pain, improve sperm production, clear face and skin
spots, appetizer, headache, hepatitis, piles, eye diseases, baldness, constipation,
menstruation and intestinal diseases.
References from Holy Qurn Verse #. 68, Surah Baqra [13]
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari (Ravi: Jabir bin Abdullah) Kitabut-Tib [9]
C Muslim (Ravi: Jabir Bin Abdullah) Chap. Abwab ul Attamah [12].
C Ibne Maja (Ravi: Mahdan Bin Abu Talah) [11]
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]
4. Allium sativum L.
English Name: Garlic
Local Name: Lahson
Arabic Name: Soom
Family: Alliaceae
Habit and Habitat: Annual cultivated erect herb
Distribution: Egypt, Italy, France, Pakistan, China, India and USA
Part used: Bulb
Medicinal uses: Antidote, wound healer, dog bite, paralysis, digestive problems asthma, parkensis,
intestinal pain worms, cough, hysteria, headache, tuberculosis.
References from Holy Quran Verse #. 61, Surah Baqra [13].
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari (Ravi: Hazrat Anas), Kitab ul Tamaih [9]
C Muslim (Ravi: Abu Ayub) [12].
C Ibne Majja (Ravi: Umer bin Alkhitab) [11].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]
128

25. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
5. Beta vulgaris L.
English Name: Beet roots
Local Name: Choqandar
Arabic Name: Silq, banjar
Family: Chenopodiaceae
Habit and Habitat: Annual or perennial cultivated vegetable.
Distribution: India, North Africa, Europe, Ireland and Pakistan
Part used: Roots and leaves
Medicinal uses: Eczema, baldness, liver infection, muscle weakness, skin disease, hepatitis, arthritis,
kidney pain, headache, womb diseases and vaginal pain
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari. Ravi: Sahal bin Sahad. Kitabul-Athama [9].
C Ibne Majja. Kitabut-Tib [11].
6. Boswellia carterii Birdw.
English Name: Indian frankincense
Local Name: Lobban
Arabic Name: Leeban
Family: Buseraceae
Habit and Habitat: Tree
Distribution: Somalia, Ethopia, Oman, Yemen
Part used: Gum of stem
Medicinal uses: Germicide, stomach pain, wound healer, throat swelling and infection, eczema,
cough, tuberculosis, arthritis and insecticide.
References from Ahadith
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim, Tibb-e-Nabvi [10].
C Baihaqi [14]
7. Boswellia serrata Birdw.
Engish Name: Frankincense
Loal Name: Gogle
Arabic Name: Kundur
Family: Burseraceae
Habit and Habitat: An armed shrub or tree common on stony grounds and hillocks.
Distribution: India and Pakistan
Part used: Gum of stem
Medicinal uses: Increase memory, clear urine, diarrhea, oral wounds, tongue infection, throat
diseases, piles, clear the blood blocking, lungs infections, testes and anus swelling,
and baldness.
References from Ahadith
C Tibe-Nabvi and Jadeed Science(Ravi: Ans Bin Malik (R.A) [2].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim, Tibb-e-Nabvi [15].
129

26. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
8. Cassia senna L.
English Name: Senna
Local Name: Sana, sanamakki
Arabic Name: Sanamakki
Family: Caesalpiniaceae
Habit and Habitat: A perennial herbaceous plant usually found on sandy grounds.
Distribution: Pakistan, India, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Sudan, Eriteria, Somalia Republic, Saudi
Arabia, Kenya and Mozambique
Part used: Leaves and fruit
Medicinal uses: Cold effect on body, intestinal pain, remove the poisonous material from stomach,
piles, waist pain, arthritis and eczema. Plant is also used as laxative and stimulant.
References from Ahadith
C Ibne Majja (Ravi: Abu bin Um-e-Haram) [11].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
9. Cichorium intybus L.
Engish Name: Chicory
Loal Name: Kasni
Aabic Name: Hind-Baa
Family: Asteraceae
Habit and Habitat: Cultivated annual herb or may be found as weed in Trifolium field.
Distribution: Europe, New Zealand, Pakistan, and India
Part used: Leaves, flower, roots and seeds.
Medicinal uses: Cough, antidote, cold effect on body, eye diseases, hepatitis, liver diseases, remove
the blockage of kidney and urethra, headache, throat disease, kidney stones and
diarrhea
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari. Ravi: Mohd Bin Abu Bakar Al-Kaim [9].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
10. Cinnamomum camphora L.
English Name: Camphor tree
Local Name: Kafoor
Arabic Name: Kafoor
Family: Lauraceae
Habit and Habitat: Tree or shrub cultivated for ornamental and commercial purposes.
Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Japan and China
Part used: Leaves and branches
Medicinal uses: Tetanus, parkensis, hysteria, tuberculoses, headache, liver and kidney pains, oral
and teeth swelling, cholera, breast pain, inner wounds, sexual stimulant. Tropical
uses of camphor is stimulant and muscle relaxant.
130

27. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
References from Holy Quran Verse 15, 1, Surah Al insane.
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari, Chapt. Kitab ul Tib [9].
C Muslim (Ravi: Um-e-Atiya) Kitabul-Janayez [12].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
11. Citrulus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsumura:
English Name: Water melon
Local Name: Tarbooz
Arabic Name: Al Bataigh
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Habit and Habitat: Annual trailer, cultivated for fruit purposes.
Distribution: America, China, Africa, India and Pakistan.
Part used: Fruit and seeds.
Medicinal uses: Kidney pain, clear the urine and stomach, facial beauty, increase immunity, jaundice
and have cold effects.
References from Ahadith
C Ibne Majja. Ravi: Sahal bin Sahad. Kitabul-Al Athama [11].
C Trimzi (2nd Ed. Chap. Abwab ul Tamiah [14].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
12. Citrus aurantifolia L.
English Name: Lime
Local Name: Sangtra or Narangi
Arabic Name: Laymun
Family: Rutaceae
Habit and Habitat: A small fruit tree cultivated in the plains and foothills.
Distribution: India, Pakistan, Spain and America
Part used: Fruit, juice, bark and seeds
Medicinal uses: Antidote, remove spot from skin, piles, common cold, stomach disorder, ant
peristalsis, decrease, thrust, hepatitis, heart diseases, cough, liver infection, cholera,
diabetes, intestinal pain, pimples, skin depletion and leukoria
References from Ahadith Bukhari. Ravi: Abu Mussa Alasharri [9].
13. Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch:
Syn: C. myrrha Nees.
English Name: Myrrh
Local Name: Murmukey
Arabic Name: Murr
Family: Burseraceae
Habit and Habitat: Perennial plant
Distribution: Ethopia, Iran, Thailand and West- Arabia
Part used: Gum of stem
Medicinal uses: Germicides, wound healer, old cough, oral fragrance, baldness, swellingof urinary
bladder
131

28. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
References from Ahadith Baihaqi Shabalaiman. Ravi: Abdullah bin Jaffer. [14].
14. Cydonia oblonga Mill.
English Name: Quince
Local Name: Bahi
Arabic Name: Safarjal
Family: Rutaceae
Habit and Habitat: Wild tree found in foothills and cultivated on the plains.
Distribution: Pakistan, Burma, Indo-China, at ±1200 m alt.
Part used: Whole plant
Medicinal uses: Heart diseases, diarrohea, endocarditis, pericarditis, dysentery
References from Ahadith
C Ibne Majah. (Ravi: hazrat Talha). Kitabul Athama [11].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
C Hayat ul Hawan ul Kabri [16].
15. Ficus carica L.
English Name: Figs
Local Name: Anjeer
Arabic Name: Teen
Family: Moraceae
Habit and Habitat: A small tree cultivated in poor soil
Distribution: Mediterranean Region and S.W.Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.
Part used: Bark, leaves, Milk
Medicinal uses: Remove kidney and urinary bladder stone, release intestinal pain, pile, dyspepsia
and anorexia.
References from Holy Quran Verse #.1-4, Surrah Teen. [14]. 13
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari [9].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
16. Flemingia grahamiana Wight and Arn.
English Name: Memcylon (Tintura)
Local Name: Kamaila
Arabic Name: Warus
Family: Fabaceae
Habit and Habitat: Tree
Distribution: Sudan, Yemen and Sri Lanka
Part used: Leaves extract
Medicinal uses: Tuberculosis, throat infection, constipation, eczema, piles, leukoria, swelling,
germicides, kidney and urinary bladder stone and hysteria
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29. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
References from Ahadith
C Ibne Majja. Ravi: Zaid Bin Arkam [11].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
17. Hordeum vulgare L.
English Name: Barley
Local Name: Jao
Arabic Name: Shair
Family: Poaceae
Habit and Habitat: Annual cultivated herb
Part used: Fruit
Medicinal uses: Fever, weakness, increase immunity, heart diseases, kidney pain, intestinal ulcer,
maintain cholesterol level, jaundice and have cooling effect.
Distribution: India, Pakistan and America
References from Ahadith
C Trimzi [14]
C Bukhari [Ravia: Hazrat Ayesha (Chap; Haiz ul Shahir] [9].
C Bukhari. Ravia: Aisha. Kitabul-Athama [9].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
18. Lagenaria siceraria Standl.
English Name: Squash
Local Name: Kaddo
Arabic Name: Yakteen, Daba
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Habit and Habitat: Annual trailer, cultivated for vegetable.
Distribution: Found all over the world.
Part used: Fruit and leaves
Medicinal uses: Arthritis, Maleness, Headache, fever, Madness, Piles, lungs infection, common
cold, kidney and liver disorder and heart diseases.
References from Holy Quran Verse.# 48, Surah Younis
References fromAhadith
C Bukhari, Kitab ul Tamamiah [9]
C Ibn e Maja, Chap Bab ul Daba [11].
C Ibn e Maja. Ravi: Anas. Kitabul-athama [10].
19. Lawsonia inermis L.
English Name: Hina
Local Name: Mehndi
Arabic Name: Henna
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30. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
Family: Lythraceae
Habit and Habitat: Perennial fragrant shrub, widely cultivated.
Distribution: Africa and Asia.
Part used: Leaves, branches and flowers
Medicinal uses: Wound healer, headache, increase memory, cool effect, stimulator, protect the
rupture of skin, skin softer, heal the muscle and chicken pox wound, baldness,
constipation, vaginal pain, leuckoria
References from Ahadith
C Trimzi [14]
C Tib-e-Nabvi. Ravi: Hazrat Ayesha [2].
C Bukhari, Kitab ul Tib [9].
C Ibne Majja. Ravi: Salma, Kitbu-Tib [11].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
20. Lens culinaris Medic.
English Name: Lentils
Local Name: Masoor
Arabic Name: Adas
Family: Papilionaceae
Habit and Habitat: Small, annual herb, cultivated as pulse.
Distribution: Native country uncertain, widely cultivated in Europe, Asia etc.
Part used: Seeds
Medicinal uses: Maleness, measle, paralysis, common cold, parkensis, face clearness, eye infection,
digestive diseases.
References from Holy Quran Holy Quran, Verse #. 61, Surah Al Baqra [13].
References from Ahadith
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim, Tibb-e-Nabvi (Urdu Tans. by Hakim Azizur Rehman A’zmi and Mukhtiar
Ahmad Nadvi) [15].
21. Lepidium sativum L.
English Name: Water cress
Local Name: Hubbe-Rishad
Arabic Name: Habbul Rashad
Family: Brassicaceae
Habit and Habitat: Annual weed of both cultivated and wild habitat.
Distribution: Abyssinia, Afghanistan
Part used: Leaves and juice
Medicinal uses: Germicide, insecticide, body pain, arthritis, eczema, maleness, anorexia,
constipation, menstruation and digestive problems.
References from Ahadith Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [9].
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31. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
22. Nigella sativa L.
English Name: Black Seed
Local Name: Clongy
Arabic Name: Hubatul-sudda
Family: Ranunculaceae
Habit and Habitat: An annual erect herb.
Distribution: Turkey, Italy, India and Pakistan.
Part used: Seeds
Medicinal uses: Hysteria, common cold, asthma, constipation, urine blockage, anorexia, aerophagy,
flatulence, dyspepsia, gastric acute, gastro enteritis, dog bites, diabetes, kidney
stone, milk production, baldness, gas trouble, brain disorders, pneumonia, cough,
maleness, appendicitis, labor pain, facial clearness, pimples, fatness, typhoid,
parkensis, piles, swelling, weakness, eczema, diarrhea, malaria, digestive disorders,
allergy, wound healer, hearing problems, ear pain and swelling, memory increases,
paralysis, heart diseases, antiperistalsis, intestinal worms, liver pain, waist pain,
sexual weakness, common fever, ascities, menstruation, ulcerative colitis, crohan`s
diseases.
References from Ahadith
C Bukhri. Ravi: Abu Huraira (Chap. Kitab ul Tib) [9].
C Ibne-Majja. Ravi: Salum Bin Abdullah [11].
C Ibn-e-Maja. Ravi: Abu Hurrera. Kitabu-Tib [11].
C Tirmizi. Ravi: Abu Hurrera [14].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Abu Hurrera. Zadul Maad [10].
23. Ocimum basilicum L.
English Name: Sweet basil
Local Name: Rehan, Niazbo
Arabic Name: Rehan
Family: Lamiaceae
Habit and Habitat: An annual plant cultivated for ornamental purposes
Distribution: Grown in India, Malay Archipelago, Australia, W. Asia, Arabia.
Part used: Leaves and seeds
Medicinal uses: Fever, cough, common cold, eczema, baldness, vaginal swelling, pemples, arthritis,
muscles pain, antidote, pain killer, tuber closes, asthma, piles, hepatitis,
consception, malaria and heart diseases.
References from Holy Quran Verse #. 12, 13, Surah Al Rahman [13].
References from Ahadith
C Bukhri. Ravi: Abu Musa Al Asharii [9].
C Trimzi (Bab ul Tib) [14].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
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32. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
24. Olea europea L.
English Name: Olive
Local Name: Zaiytoon
Arabic Name: Zaiytoon
Family: Oleaceae
Habit and Habitat: An erect branched cultivated tree.
Distribution: Found in Central Asian countries
Part used: Fruit and oil
Medicinal uses: Strengthen body muscles, slow down aging, clear the blood, remove the
measlesspot, piles, tuberculosis, eczema, baldness, kidney pain, pancreas pain,
maleness, common cold, stomach and respiratory diseases.
References from Holy Quran
C Verse #.191, Surah Alanam; verse #. 99, Surah Alanam; verse #. 11, Surah Alnahal; verse #. 35, Surah Alnnor;
verse #. 1-4, Surah Teen [13].
References from Ahadith
C Bukhri, Ravi: Khalid Bin Sahad [9].
C Trimzi, Abwab ul Tamah [14].
C Ibne Majja, Ravi; Zahid Bin Arkum [11].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
25. Phoenix dactylifera L.
English Name: Date palm
Local Name: Khajoor
Arabic Name: Nahal, Balah, Tammar, Rutab, etc.
Family: Arecaceae
Habit and Habitat: Cultivated tree, may be found self grown.
Distribution: N.Africa, India (Rajistan, Maharashter), Iraq, S.Arabia, Pakistan.
Part used: Fruit
Medicinal uses: Heart diseases, skin diseases, antidote, swelling of kidney, intestinal pain, heart
attack, wound healer, diarrhea, labour pain, sexual weakness, stomach pain, piles,
physical strengthing, shrill the voice, liver disorders.
References from Holy Quran
Verse #.6, Surah Baqra; verse #. 99, Surah Al Anam; verse #. 4, Surah Al Rahad; verse #. 11, 27, Surah Al Nahal;
verse #. 91, Surrah Al Israa; verse #.36, Surah Al Kahaf; verse #. 23, 25, Surah Mariam; verse #.148, Surah Shurah;
verse #. 71, Surah Taha; verse #. 34, Surah Yaseen; verse #. 60, Surah Al Qamar; verse #. 11-28, Surah Rahman;
verse #. 7, surah Al Haqqa; verse #. 39, Surah Abbus [13].
References from Ahadith
C Ibne Majja. Ravi-Bussar (R.A) [11].
C Trimzi [14].
C Bukhri. Ravi – Ans Bin Malik [9].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Ibn-e Umer. Zadul Maad [10]
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33. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
26. Punica granatum L.
English Name: Pomegranate
Local Name: Anar
Arabic Name: Rumman
Family: Punicaceae
Habit and Habitat: Tree, cultivated in the area.
Distribution: Chilli, Iran, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan and European countries
Part used: Fruit
Medicinal uses: Stomach cough, hepatitis, muscle pain, heart and liver diseases, piles, eye diseases,
dental problems, oral diseases, diarrhea and dysentery.
References from Holy Quran
Verse #. 99, Surah-Al Anam; verse #. 141, Surah Al Anam; verse #. 69, Surah Rehman.
References from Ahadith Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
27. Salvadora persica L.
English Name: Tooth brush tree
Local Name: Peelu
Arabic Name: Arak
Family: Salvadoraceae
Habit and Habitat: Shrub or small tree found in rocky slopes and sandy area.
Distribution: Found in desert parts of the world.
Part used: Branches and roots
Medicinal uses: Dental diseases, arthritis, piles eczema, oral diseases, headache, antidote, diabetes,
digestive problems.
References from Ahadith
C Bukhri. Ravi: Jabbir Bin Abdullah (Chap. Kitab ul Tib) [9]
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Zadul Maad [10].
28. Saussurea lappa L.
English Name: Costus
Local Name: Kuth
Arabic Name: Kustul Bahri
Family: Asteraceae
Habit and Habitat: Annul wild herb
Distribution: European countries, In Pakistan (Kashmir and Northern Areas)
Part used: Roots
Medicinal uses: Phyrngitis, headache, maleness, remove swelling, common cold, good in parkansis,
constipation, vaginal pain, strengthen heart, liver, tuberculosis.
References from Ahadith Tib e Nabvi and modern Science [2].
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34. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
29. Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
English Name: Fenugreek
Local Name: Maithi
Arabic Name: Helba
Family: Papilionaceae
Habit and Habitat: Annual cultivated leafy vegetable
Distribution: Pakistan, Kashmir, India, S. Europe, Orient, Arabia, Ethiopia
Part used: Seeds and leaves.
Medicinal uses: Throat infection, swelling, body pain, cough, stomach pain, piles, dandruff,
baldness, breast pain, lungs infection, diabetes, ulcer, diarrhea and gas trouble.
Powerful tonic, back pain, seeds in powder form used for diabetes, lactogogue i.e.
to stimulate milk production in mammary glands.
References from Ahadith Tib-e-Nabvi.[( Ravi: Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman) [2].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Ahmed Zahbi, Zadul Maad [10].
30. Thymus serpylum L.
English Name: Wild thyme
Local Name: Sattar Ban - ajwain
Arabic Name: Zatar
Family: Lamiaceae
Habit and Habitat: Wild annual herb
Distribution: Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan
Part used: Leaves
Medicinal uses: Germicides, pain remove of stomach, liver, common cold, kill the insect of belly and
cough in strengthen lungs.
References from Ahadith
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Mohd Ahmed Zahbi.Tibb-e-Nabvi [16]
31. Vitis vinifera L.
English Name: Grapes
Local Name: Munaqqa
Arabic Name: Inab
Family: Vitaceae
Habit and Habitat: Perennial vine, cultivated for fruit purposes.
Distribution: France, Germany, Spain, Pakistan and India
Part used: Fruit juice
Medicinal uses: Common cold, relax body and brain muscles, stomach diseases, cooling effects on
body, cough, kidney and urinary bladder pain, liver and lung disorders, dog bite,
remove weary, clear the face and cancer.
References from Holy Quran
Verse #. 160, Surah- Al Nahal; verse #. 91, Surah Israa; verse #. 28, Surah-Abasa; verse #. 266 Surah-Al-Bakara;
verse #.11, 67, Surah-Al- Nahl; verse #. 32, Surah-Al-Kahf; verse #. 19, Surah-Al-Mumenon; verse #. 34, Surah-Yaseen;
verse #. 78, Surah-An-Naba and verse #. 99, Surah-Al-Anaam. [13].
138

35. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari Ravi: Ibne-Abbas [9].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Zadul Maad [10]
32. Zingiber officinale Roscoe.
English Name: Ginger
Local Name: Adrak or Sonth
Arabic Name: Zanjabil
Family: Zingiberaceae
Habit and Habitat: Cultivated herb with underground perennial stem.
Distribution: Bangladesh, Yaman, Oman, Seralone, India and Pakistan
Part used: Fruit
Medicinal uses: Intestinal pain, anorexia, dyspepsia, headache, diarrhea, constipation, intestinal
swelling, dog bite, stomach disorders, sexual weakness, digestive stimulant, cooling
effect on body, increase urine production.
References from Holy Quran Verse #. 68, Surah Al Baqra [13].
References from Ahadith
C Bukhari, Ravi-Abdullah Bin Jaffer (R.A) [9].
C Muslim, Ravi Abdullah Bin Jaffer (R.A) [12].
C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10].
DISCUSSION attacks. Up to 1959, the people of Dubai, Qatar, Abu
Dhabi and Saudi Arabia used to have breakfast with dates
History of Islamic medicine in its true context can and Khubus (bread). In ancient, dates were the major
thus be defined as a body of knowledge of medicine that source of food for the people of Middle East. In modern
was inherited by the Muslim in the early phase of Islamic times many products of food have been prepared from
history (40-247 AH/661-861 AD) from mostly Greek dates. In Holy Quran it is said “Your God is that who has
sources but to which became added medical knowledge made different kinds of orchids and gardens for you,
from, Persia, Syria, India and Byzantine. In Islam diseases those have colorful crops of Phoenix dactylifera, Olea
are cured in two ways, first the cure of soul through europea (olive) and Punica granatum (pome grenate).
prayers and second the cure of ailments through Their shapes and tastes are similar as well as different
medicines [17]. The Holy Quran is one of the reference also. Eat these fruit when ripen but keep the share of poor
books describing the importance of plants used for relatives and needy and do not waste them (Holy Quran:
different ailments in various Surahs. Our Holy Prophet 141, Surah- Al-Anam). Olea europea (olive) is another
used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plant that has many references in Holy Quran and
plants for cure of common diseases. He recommended Ahadith. And it is used for skin diseases baldness and
Hordeum vulgare (Barley) for heart diseases, constipation pain killer. In Ahadith it is said that “eat the olive oil and
and vigorous [18]. apply it on the body, it is cure of seventy diseases”
A close look at checklist of medicinal flora tells us (Abu Naeem. Ravi. Hazrat Abu Haraira). The saying of
that these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy Holy Prophet (PBUH) about medicines are spread over
Prophet (PBUH), gave the references of such plants that 200 books in the world [19].
are not only grown in Arab countries but exist through Now a days there is much interest in medicinal plants
out the world. This shows that the Holy Prophet was light through out the world including developed countries like
for the entire world. From this study it is found that China, Germany, France, Japan, USA and UK. Similarly in
Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm) has highest number of developing countries like Pakistan and India, the benefits
references in The Holy Quran. This plant is used for of modern medicines and health care reach only to small
digestive problems, piles, sexual diseases and heart percentage of population. These could hardly reach the
139

36. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009
large mosses living in the rural areas. Moreover in remote 7 Ali, S.I., 1977. Papilionaceae. In: E.Nasir and S.I.Ali,
areas of the world where per capita income of people is Flora of Pakistan, Karachi, pp: 38-320.
very low, it becomes more difficult to buy complicated and 8. Nasir, Y.J. and R.A. Rafique, 1995. Wild Flowers of
expensive prescriptions. Hence there is a need for the Pakistan. T.J. Roberts. Oxford University Press,
inclusion of herbal medicines at primary health care level, Karachi, pp: 298.
since there long standing use is plant drug reasonably 9. Al Bukhari, M.B.I., 1938. Sahi ul Bukhari. Noor
guarantee their medicinal efficacy and safety [20]. In this Muhammad Maalik Book Dept. Near Jamia Masjid
study an effort was also made to review the active Dehli-India. pp:105-107, 204,222, 245-248, 362, 817-
constituents of these medicinal plants [21]. 820, 836, 849-57.
The necessity for exploration for such useful data 10. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim, Zadul Maad,
from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books has long Nafees Academy, Karachi, pp: 314-585
been felt with the increasing need of drugs, medicines 11. Ibn-e-Maja, Abdullah Muhammad bin Yazid,
and other useful products. In this way present approach Kitabul Athama,Mehtab Co., Tajiran Kutab, Lahore.
of this study can be adopted to record the medicinal 3: 99, 118, 150, 151, 157, 445.
uses of plants for welfare of human beings. This study 12. Alhajaj, M.B., Sahih Muslim, Kitabul Ashraba,
is the logical and applicable step in directions towards Babul- Adab-u-Thaam, Maktaba Rehmania, Lahore,
the ultimate goal of development of natural plant based Pakistan, 5:183, 281, 326.
industry in the light of Islamic history through out the 13. Al-Hilali, M.T. and M.M. Khan, 1985. The Noble
world for prosperity and safety of the human beings. Quran: English Translation of the meaning and
commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Holy Quran. Madinah, KSA.
14. Farooqi, M.I.A., 1998. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor
Special gratitude is expressed to Khawaja Hafiz Peer Nabatat, Adwiya Aur Ghizain. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers,
Muhammad Abdul Haq, Darya Sharif District Attock- 9-lower Mall, Aqab Mian Market, Urdu Bazar Lahore,
Pakistan for their moral support in Islamic studies. pp: 39-230.
Authors are also grateful to Hafiz Qari Azhar Mehmood 15. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim.Tibb-e-Nabvi
and Muhammad Shakeel, Islamic Institute of Bangai (Urdu Tans. by Hakim Azizur Rehman A’zmi and
District Attock-Pakistan for fruitful suggestion and Mukhtiar Ahmad Nadvi) Kutab Khana Shan-e-Islam,
references during this research work. Urdu Bazar Lahore, pp: 488-489.
16. Musa, M.B., 1999. Hayat Ul Hawan. 2nd Ed. Tibatul
REFERENCES Jadidah. Mohaqiqah. Al Baroot, Lubnan. pp: 349.
17. Waiz, L.D., 2000. Tib-i-Nabvi. Azeem Sons
1. Nasr, S.H., 1976. Islamic Science-An illustrated Publishers, Lahore, Pakistan, pp: 9-15.
study. Westerham press, Ltd, Westerham, Kent 18. Ghaznavi, K., 1996. Holy Prophet as Psychologist.
(England), pp: 15. Alfaisal Printing Press Lahore, Pakistan, pp: 3.
2. Ghaznavi, K., 1987. Tib-i-Nabvi and modern science. 19. Ghaznavi, K., 2001. Ilaj-i-Nabvi and Jadid Science,
Al Faisal, Lahore, Pakistan, 1(2): 1-14. Pait ke Beemarian. 13th Ed. Alfaisal Publishers,
3. Qureshi, J.A., 2004. Kitab-e-Sahat. Mukhdoom Lahore, Pakistan, 3: 39-385.
Printing Press, Lahore, Pakistan, 1(1): 15-20. 20. Ahmad, M., M.A. Khan, M. Arshad and M. Zafar,
4. Jafri, S.M.H., 1966. The Flora of Karachi. The Book 2004. Ethnophytotherapical approaches for the
Corporation, Karachi, pp: 9. treatment of diabetes by the local inhabitants of
5. Qurashi, M.A. and S.A. Khan, 1972. Flora of District Attock (Pakistan). Ethnobotanical Leaflets.
Peshawar District and Khyber Agency. Volme II http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/phyto.htm
Part I (A). Pak. J. For. Pakistan Forest Institute, 21. Baquar, S.R., 1999. Medicinal and poisonous plants
Peshawar, 22(2): 153-220. of Pakistan. Karachi Pakistan, 1(1): 10-489.
6. Stewart, R.R., 1972. An Annotated Catalogue of the
Vascular Plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir”. In:
Flora of West Pakistan, Karachi, pp: 383-425.
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37. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8 (5): 530-538, 2009
ISSN 1680-5194
© Asian Network for Scientific Information, 2009
Vegetables Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their
Ethnomedicinal Studies in Dera Ismail Khan, N.W.F.P., Pakistan
Sarfaraz Khan Marwat1, Mir Ajab Khan1, Muhammad Aslam Khan2, Mushtaq Ahmad1,
Muhammad Zafar1, Fazal-ur-Rehman3 and Shazia Sultana1
1
Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
2
Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
3
Faculty of Pharmacy, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
Abstract: The present research work is based on nine herbaceous plant species: Agaricus campestris L.,
Allium cepa L., Allium sativum L., Beta vulgaris L. Citrulus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai, Cucumis sativus
L., Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley, Trigonella foenum-graecum L. and Zingiber officinale Roscoe.
mentioned in Holy Quran and Ahadith. These plants were collected from Dera Ismail Khan District, NWFP,
Pakistan, during 2007. This is a part of check list of medicinal flora and their uses enlisted in Holy Quran,
Ahadith and Islamic literature. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethnobotanical
importance of vegetables in the light of Islam. In view of the importance of this study related comprehensive
and detailed data was collected. Complete macro and microscopic detailed morphological features of these
species were discussed. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names,
family followed by Quranic name, Arabic name, English name, Local/vernicular name, habit and habitat, parts
used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and Ahadith. It is concluded that herbal
medicines are being widely used in the world because of better cultural acceptability, least injurious with
none or much reduced side effects.
Key words: Ethnomedicinal study, Pakistan, Holy Quran and Ahadith
INTRODUCTION medicines is an ancient and reliable practice (Arshad
Vegetables are those herbaceous plants whose part or and Rao, 2001).
parts are eaten as supporting food or main dishes and Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always a
they may be aromatic, bitter or tasteless. The nutrient salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching.
contents of different types of vegetables vary Islamic medicine started from Hazrat Adam (A.S.) and
considerably and they are not major source of was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (SAW) but search
carbohydrates compared to starchy foods which form the and compiling of these medicines is still continued
bulk of food eaten, but contain vitamins, essential amino through out the world (Nasr, 1976).
acids as well as minerals and antioxidants. Vegetables The Holy Quran is the eternal and everlasting basis of
are included in meals mainly for their nutritional values; Islam. It contains signs and verses which have been
however some are reserved for sick and convalescence leading people of different ages and of different
because of their medicinal properties (Mensah et al., academics and intellectual background to believe in
2008). Islam. The Holy Quran from the very start has a claim
that it covers every aspect of life and is full of wisdom. It
Pakistan is among those countries where traditional
speaks “We have neglected nothing in the Book” (Khan,
unani medicine is popularly practiced among a large
et al., 1994).
fragment of its population. Traditional unani medicine
History of Islamic medicine in its true context can thus be
originated in Greece, founded by ancient Greek
defined as a body of knowledge of medicine that was
philosophers and was used/documented by Muslims inherited by the Muslim in the early phase of Islamic
during the glorious period of Islamic civilization. It was history (40-247 AH/661-861 AD) from mostly Greek
brought to the Indo-Pak Subcontinent by Muslim sources but to which became added medical knowledge
scholars and practiced here for centuries (Hassan, from, Persia, Syria, India and Byzantine.
2001). Ahadith [the sayings of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad
Life and diseases go together where there is life, (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam)] have also described the
diseases are bound to exist. Dependency and importance of many plant species. Farooqi (1998) in his
sustainability of man and animal life has been revolving book “Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat, Adwiyah Aur
around plants through their uses as food, fibers and Ghizaen” in English “Plants, Medicines and Food
shelter, but also plants have been used to control and Mentioned in Ahadith” has reported about 70 plants and
ease diseases, therefore, the use of plants as plant products.
530

38. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009
Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal C Sa'id bin Zaid (R.A.) reported: I heard Allah's Apostle
flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) as saying: Truffles
was conducted to investigate ethnobotanical uses and are a kind of 'Manna' and their juice is a medicine
create awareness about the plant species enlisted for the eyes
in Holy Quran, Ahadith for the welfare of human C Sa'id bin Zaid (R.A.) reported Allah's Messenger
communities throughout the world. (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) as saying: Truffles
are a kind of 'Manna' which Allah the Glorious and
MATERIALS AND METHODS Exalted, sent down upon the people of Israil, and its
The research work was conducted by reviewing the Holy juice is a medicine for the eyes (Farooqi, 1998)
Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and
detailed information about 9 herbaceous vegetable
Hazrat Suhaib (R.A.) reported Rasulallah (may peace be
plants of ethnobotanical importance mentioned in the
upon Him) as saying: Truffles are a kind of 'Manna'
Holy Quran and Ahadith were collected from these
which Allah sent down upon Bani Israil and their juice is
sources. Plants species were arranged in systematic
a medicine for the eyes (Farooqi, 1998).
order of botanical names in alphabetic order followed by
Abu Huraira (R.A.) narrates: one day the companions of
family, Quranic name, Arabic name, English name, habit
Rasulullah (SAW) said to Him (SAW), “Truffles are the
and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and references
small pox of the earth”. Upon this Rasulullah (SAW)
cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books.
Correct botanical names, their families and identification said, “Truffles are 'Manna' and their juice is the medicine
of plants were done by using flora of Pakistan. for the eyes (Farooqi, 1998).
RESULTS Allium cepa L.
Present findings were confined to 9 herbaceous English Name : Onion
vegetable plant species belonging to 8 genera of 7 Local Name : Piaz
families enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic Arabic Name : Basal
literature. These plants are Agaricus campestris L., Family : Alliaceae
Allium cepa L., Allium sativum L., Beta vulgaris L. Habit and Habitat : Herbacous, cultivated in the field
Citrulus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. and Nakai, Cucumis Part used : Rhizome, leaves and seeds
sativus L., Lagenaria siceraria, Trigonella foenum-
graecum L. and Zingiber officinale Roscoe. which are Medicinal uses: Antidote, Stomach diseases, cholera,
used throughout Pakistan for various aspects such as Diarrhoea, throat infection, common cold, cough, fever,
vegetable, medicinal and industrial products. Data influenza, ear pain, improve sperm production, clear face
inventory constitutes botanical name, family, Quranic and skin spots, appetizer, headache, hepatitis, piles, eye
name, English name, local names, Arabic name, habit diseases, baldness, constipation, menstruation and
and habitat, distribution; parts used, medicinal uses and intestinal diseases.
references cited from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith.
References from Holy Qurn (Verse #. 61, Chapter #.1-
Agaricus campestris L. Surah Al Baqarah): And (remember) when you said, “O
English Name : Mushroom Mûsâ (Musa)! we cannot endure one kind of food. So
Local Name : Khumbi invoke your Lord for us to bring forth for us of what the
Arabic Name : Esh El-Ghorab earth grows, its herbs, its cucumbers, its Fûm (wheat or
Family : Agaricaceae garlic), its lentils and its onions.” He said, “Would you
Habit and Habitat : Fleshy fungus, terrestrial and moist exchange that which is better for that which is lower? (Al-
places Hilali and Khan, 1985).
Part used : Whole part
Medicinal uses : Eye diseases, clear eyes, physical References from Ahadith
strength, germicide, arthritis, C Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah: (R.A.) the Prophet said,
paralysis, parknesis, muscle pain, "Whoever has eaten garlic or onion should keep
headache and Dizziness away from us or should keep away from our
mosque (Farooqi, 1998)
References from Ahadith: C Narrated Mu'awiyah ibn Qurrah (R.A.): the Apostle of
C Saeed bin Zaid (R.A.) narrates that I heard the Allah (peace_be_upon_him) forbade these two
Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) saying, plants (i.e. garlic and onions) and he said: He who
"Truffles are like Manna (i.e. they grow naturally eats them should not come near our mosque. If it is
without man's care) and their water heals eye necessary to eat them, make them dead by cooking,
diseases."(Farooqi, 1998) that is, onions and garlic (Ahmad, 1988)
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39. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009
C Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin (R.A.): Khalid References from Ahadith:
(R.A.) said: Abu Ziyad Khiyar ibn Salamah (R.A.) C Narrated Sahl bin Sad (R.A.): there was a woman
asked Aisha (R.A.) about onions. She replied: The amongst us who had a farm and she used to sow
last food which the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Silq (a kind of vegetable) on the edges of streams
Alayhi Wassallam) ate was some which contained in her farm. On Fridays she used to pull out the Silq
onions (Ahmad, 1988) from its roots and put the roots in a utensil. Then
C Mahdan Bin Abu Talah narrates: Rasulullah she would put a handful of powdered barley over it
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, those who eat and cook it. The roots of the Silq were a substitute
onion and garlic should eat them in cooked form
for meat. After finishing the Jumua prayer we used
(Khan, 2001)
to greet her and she would give us that food which
we would eat with our hands and because of that
Note: He who eats onion should make its odour die by
cooking it well. meal, we used to look forward to Friday (Abdullah,
2005)
Allium sativum L. C Narrated Umm al-Mundhar bint Qays al-Ansariyyah:
English Name : Garlic the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam)
Local Name : Lahson came to visit me, accompanied by Ali who was
Arabic Name : Soom convalescing. We had some ripe dates hung up.
Family : Alliaceae The Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam)
Habit and Habitat : Annual cultivated erect herb got up and began to eat from them. Ali also got up
Part used : Rhizome to eat, but the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi
Medicinal uses : Antidote, wound healer, dog bite, Wassallam) said repeatedly to Ali: Stop, Ali, for you
paralysis, digestive problems, are convalescing and Ali stopped. She said: I then
asthma, parkensis, intestinal pain prepared some barley and beet-root and brought it.
worms, cough, histerea, The Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam)
headache, tuber closes then said: Take some of this, Ali, for it will be more
beneficial for you (Ahmad, 1988)
References from Holy Quran (Verse #. 61, Chapter # 1
- Surah Al Baqarah): “And when you said O’ Moses We
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsumura
will not have patience or We will not endure on food (of)
English Name : Water melon
one (kind) so you pray for us (to) your Lord he brings out
for us whatever sprouts or germinates (in) the earth of its Local Name : Tarbooz
vegetables or herbs and its cucumbers and its garlic Arabic Name : Al Bataigh
and its lentils and its onions” (Rafai, 1990). Family : Cucurbitaceae
Habit and Habitat : Shrub, Terrestrial
References from Ahadith: Part used : Fruit and seeds
C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (R.A.) narrated: the Prophet Medicinal uses : Kidney pain clears the urine and
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, "Whoever has stomach, facial beauty, increase
eaten garlic should not come to our mosque immunity, jaundice and have cold
(Farooqi, 1998) effects
Khalid (R.A.) said: Abu Ziyad Khiyar ibn Salamah (R.A.) References from Ahadith:
asked Aisha (R.A.) about onions. She replied: The last C Narrated Sahl bin Sad Al-Sadi (R.A.): Rasulullah
food which the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used to eat ripe date
Wassallam) ate was some which contained onions with water melon (Ghaznavi, 1991)
(Ahmad, 1988). C Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas (R.A.) narrates that
Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said,
Beta vulgaris L.
“Water melon is diet as well as drink. It washes and
English Name : Beet roots
Local Name : Chakandar purifies the urinary bladder. It increases the sexual
Arabic Name : Banjar power (Farooqi, 1998)
Family : Chenopodiaceae C Hazrat Aisha (R.A.) narrates that Rasulullah
Habit and Habitat : Cultivated vegetable, Terrestrial (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used to eat water
Part used : Roots and leaves melon with fresh dates (Farooqi, 1998)
Medicinal uses: Eczema, baldness, liver infection,
muscle weakness, skin disease, Cucumis sativus L.
hepatitis, arthritis, kidney pain, English name : Cucumber
headache, womb diseases and vaginal Local name : Khira
pain Arabic name : Qissa, Khiarun
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40. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009
Family Name : Cucurbitaceae C Narrated Anas (R.A.): I was a young boy when I once
Habit and Habitat : Trailing annual, terrestrial herb was walking with Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi
Distribution : Cultivated throughout the tropical Wassallam). Allah's Apostle entered the house of
and subtropical counties of the his slave tailor and the latter brought a dish filled
world with food covered with pieces of gourd. Allah's
Parts used : Fruit Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) started
Medicinal uses : Cooling, diuretic, tonic and picking and eating the gourd. When I saw that, I
vermifuge, diuretic, purgative started collecting and placing the gourd before him.
Then the slave returned to his work. Anas (R.A.)
References from Ahadith: added: I have kept on loving gourd since I saw
C Narrated 'Abdullah (R.A.) bin Ja'far bin Abi Talib Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) doing
(R.A.): I saw Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi what he was doing (Abdullah, 2005)
Wassallam) eating fresh dates with cucumber C Narrated Anas bin Malik (R.A.): a tailor invited the
(Abdullah, 2005) Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to a meal
which he had prepared and I went along with the
'Abdullah (R.A.) bin Ja'far reported: I saw Allah's Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). The tailor
Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) eating presented barley bread and soup containing gourd
cucumber with fresh dates (Farooqi, 1998). and cured meat. I saw the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi
Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin (R.A.): my mother Wassallam) picking the pieces of gourd from
around the dish and since then I have kept on liking
intended to make me fat to send me to the (house of) the
gourd (Ghaznavi, 2000)
Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). But
C Anas bin Malik (R.A.) reported: a tailor invited Allah's
nothing which she desired benefited me till she gave me
Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to a meal
cucumber with fresh dates to eat. Then I became very
which he had prepared. Anas bin Malik (R.A.) said:
fat (Ghaznavi, 2000).
I went along with Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho
Alayhi Wassallam) to that feast. He presented to
Lagenaria siceraria L.
Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam)
English Name : Squash
barley bread and soup containing pumpkin and
Local Name : Kaddo
sliced pieces of meat. Anas (R.A.) said: I saw
Arabic Name : Yakteen, Daba
Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam)
Family : Cucurbitaceae going after the pumpkin round the dish, so I have
Habit and Habitat : Prostrate with tendrils herb always liked the pumpkin since that day (A’zami and
Part used : Fruit and leaves Nadvi, 1985)
Medicinal uses : Arthritis, Maleness, Headache,
fever, Madness, Piles, lungs Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
infection, common cold, kidney English Name : Fenugreek
and liver disorder and heart Local Name : Maithi
diseases Arabic Name : Helba
Family : Papilionaceae
References from Holy Quran: (As-Saaffat, Chapter # Habit : Cultivated leafy vegetable
37, Verse # 146): And We caused a plant of gourd to Part used : Seeds and leaves
grow over him (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1985) Medicinal uses : Throat infection, swelling, body pain,
cough, stomach pain, piles, dandruff,
References from Ahadith: baldness, breast pain, lungs
C Narrated Ishaq bin 'Abdullah (R.A.) bin Abu Talha infection, diabetes, ulcer, diarrhea
(R.A.): I heard Anas bin Malik (R.A.) saying, "A tailor and gas trouble. Powerful tonic, back
invited Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi pain, seeds in powder form used for
Wassallam) to a meal which he had prepared.” diabetes, lactogogue i.e., to
Anas bin Malik (R.A.) said, "I accompanied Allah's stimulate milk production in
Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam0 to that meal. mammary glands
He served the Prophet with bread and soup made
with gourd and dried meat. I saw the Prophet References from Ahadith:
(Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) taking the pieces of C Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman (R.A.) narrates that
gourd from the dish." Anas (R.A.) added, "Since that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said,
day I have continued to like gourd" (Abdullah, 2005) “Seek cure by (using) fenugreek” (Ghaznavi, 1991)
533

41. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009
C In another hadith Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi through medicines. The Holy Quran is one of the
Wassallam) said, “If my followers (Ummat) knew reference books describing the importance of plants
the importance of the fenugreek then they will buy it used for different ailments in various Surahs. Our Holy
by gold of equal weight” (Ghaznavi, 1991). Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain
Zingiber officinale Roscoe herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for
English Name : Ginger cure of common diseases. He recommended Agaricus
Local Name : Adrak or onth campestris L (Mushroom-truffle) for eye diseases.
Arabic Name : Zangbeal Saeed bin Zaid (R.A.) Narrates that I heard the Prophet
Family : Zingiberaceae (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) saying, "Truffles are like
Habit : Cultivated herb with underground Manna (i.e., they grow naturally without man's care) and
perennial stem their water heals eye diseases "(Farooqi, 1998). Hazrat
Habitat and Abu Huraira (R.A.) collected the water of 3, 5 or 7
distribution : Terrestial and Bangladesh, Yaman, mushrooms and put it in a small bottle. He then gave it
Oman, Seralone, India and Pakistan to a bleared eye maid servant (laundi) to use it for the
Part used : Fruit said eye disease. She cured after using the water of
Medicinal uses : Intestinal pain, anorexia, dyspepsia, mushrooms (Chughtai, 2005). Allium cepa although
headache, diarrhea, constipation, rarely used specifically as a medicinal herb, the onion
intestinal swelling, dog bite, has a wide range of beneficial actions on the body and
stomach disorders, sexual when eaten (especially raw) on a regular basis will
weakness, digestive stimulant, promote the general health of the body. It is extensively
cooling effect on body, increase used as spice, condiment and vegetable in kitchen. The
urine production bulbs are stimulant, digestive expectorant and
aphrodisiac. Baked onions can be used as a poultice to
References from Quran: (Surah Ad-Dahr Chapter # 76, remove pus from sores. Fresh onion juice is a very
Verse # 17): “And they will be given to drink there of a useful first aid treatment for bee and wasp stings, bites,
cup (of wine) mixed with Zanjabil (ginger)” (Al-Hilali and grazes (Shahidullah, 2000). When warmed the juice can
Khan, 1985). be dropped into the ear to treat earache. The bulb are
anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispas-
References from Ahadith: modic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge,
C Abu Saeed Khudri (R.A.) narrated: The rular of hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, lithontriptic, stomachic and
Rome presented a basket of gingers in the honour tonic. When used regularly in the diet it offsets
of Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) as a tendencies towards angina, arteriosclerosis and heart
gift. He gave every one a piece of ginger. He also attack. It is also useful in preventing oral infection and
gave one piece of it to me (Farooqi, 1998) tooth decay (Plants for a Future, 2008).
Allium sativum L. has been held in high esteem for its
DISCUSSION health building qualities for centuries. It contains high
Vegetables are important protective food and highly percentage of minerals and vitamins. It also contains
beneficial for the maintenance of health and prevention traces of iodine, sulphur and chlorine. It is regarded as
of disease. They contain valuable food ingredients which a rejuvenator. It is found to remove toxins and revitalize
are essential for the proper functioning of the body. blood. The ethers in garlic juice is so potent and
Vegetables contain various medicinal and therapeutic penetrating that they help to dissolve accumulated
agents and are valued mainly for their high vitamin and mucous in the sinus cavities, in bronchial tubes and
mineral content. Faulty cooking and prolonged careless lungs. It has been found effective in Asthma. It has an
storage can however destroy these valuable elements. antiseptic effect (Husain, 2002).
To drive maximum benefits of their nutrients, vegetables Its bulbs are used as flavouring agent, spice,
should be consumed fresh as far as possible. Most carminative, aromatic and condiment. It is effective in
vegetables are best consumed in their natural raw state heart diseases and blood pressure. It dissolve fats. It is
in the form of salads (Husain, 2002). used in folklore and veterinary medicines locally. Its juice
From time immemorial humans have used plants to is mixed with milk to cure T.B., asthma and whooping
alleviate their sufferings from diseases. Approximately cough (Shahidullah, 2000).
70% of the homeopathic drugs are prepared from the Garlic contains a wealth of sulfur compounds; most
fresh plants. Similarly more than 90% of tibbi medicines important for the taste is allicin (diallyl disulphide oxide),
are prepared from herbs. Pakistan is very rich in plants which is produced enzymatically from alliin (S-2-
of medicinal value (Nasreen and Khan, 2001). propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide) if cells are damaged; its
In Islam diseases are cured in 2 ways, first the cure of biological function is to repel herbivorous animals.
soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments Allicin is deactivated to diallyl disulphide; therefore,
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42. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009
Table 1: Phytogeography and Key to the Identification of vegetables
Botanical
Names Distribution in world Distribution in Pakistan Flowering period Diagonstic characters
Agaricus Widely distributed and Found in all the provinces Season: June-Oct., Growing alone or gregariously in fields,
campestris L. common in North America of Pakistan occasionally in spring. meadows, lawns and grassy areas. Cap:
3-11 cm; convex occasionally nearly flat;
whitish; smooth and glossy to fibrous to
nearly wooly or scaly. Gills: Free from the
stem (stipe); deep pink becoming brown and
then dark chocolate brown in maturity. Stipe:
2-6 x1-2.5 cm thick; more or less equal. Taste:
Pleasant. Spore: Dark chocolate brown.
Allium cepa L., Native country probably Commonly cultivated Summer months Bulbs clustered, cylindrical to ovoid or almost
Persia etc.; cultivated in Pakistan rounded; coats papery, white or brownish
everywhere in the world as or reddish. Scape up to 1 m tall, stout, fistular.
in Brazile, Chile, China, Leaves cylindrical, fistular. Umbels spherical,
Cuba, Egypt France, densely flowered. Flowers stellate. Pedicels
Germany Ghana; Guatemala; 3-4 times as long as the tepals. perianth
India; Iraq; Kurdistan; Malaya leaves (tepals) greenish-white 4-5 mm long.
Mexico Pakistan; Peru; Russia; Filaments exerted.
Salvador; Spain; Turkey; US;
Allium sativum L. At present garlic is grown Commonly cultivated Summer months Bulbs ovoid with 6-10 bulblets; scale white.
all over the world from the in Pakistan. Scapes up to 1 m tall; spathe long-beaked.
equator to latitudes of 50o Leaves linear, flattened. Umbels with bulbils
in both hemispheres. and flowers. Perianth leaves white, lanceolate,
acuminate. Filaments shorter than the perianth
leaves
Beta vulgaris L. Europe; N.Africa; Asia; Widely cultivated in March-May Annual or perennial, erect, branched and leafy,
widely cultivated (beet). vegetable gardens. green to purplish-violaceous; roots slender
to tuberous with sugar storage. Cauline leaves
rhombic-oblong to linear-lanceolate. Stem
glabrous, glaucous, reddish-green. Flowers
in dense, spicate clusters sessile. Perianth
segments ovate-oblong, green. Stigmas 2.
Citrullus Native of the Kalahari region, Attock district; Rawalpindi January-May Annual, trailer. Tendrils 2-3 fid. Leaves ovate,
lanatus L. cultivated throughout Tropics district; Laiha; Sibi district; deeply 3-5-lobed. Male flowers on c.20(-40)
Nawab Shah; Hyderabad; mm long pedicel. Female flowers on c. 6cm
Karachi district. long pedicel. Fruit large, subspherical, c. 30
cm or more in diameter, green mottled with
longitudinal stripes; mesocarp fleshy;
indehiscent. Seeds ovate in outline c. 10x5
mm, black or rarely red, smooth.
Cucumis Cultivated throughout the Cultivated throughout Almost through Annual, trailing or climbing herb. Stem angular
sativus L. tropical and subtropical Pakistan. out the year with hairs. Tendrils simple. Leaves 12-18
countries of the world. cm long, 3-8 lobed . Sepals spreading. Corolla
yellow. Anther 3-4 mm long. Fruit oblong and
obscurely trigonous or Cylindric; when young
sparsely tuberculated otherwise smooth and
glabrous.
Lagenaria A pantropical species of Cultivated throughout Almost through Annual climber or trailer. Tendril 2-fid. Stem
siceraria Asian and African origin. Pakistan and Kashmir. out the year densely hairy. Leaves broadly ovate or
(Molina) reniformor sub-orbicular, obscurely 3-5 lobed.
Standley Both male and female flowers solitary. Corolla
white. Anther oblong; thecae triplicate. Ovary
void, villous. Fruit of variable shapes: long,
round or bottle-shaped.
Trigonella Of doubtful origin, widely Cultivated in all provinces April Erect, annual, 10-50 cm tall herb. Leaf
foenum- cultivated. Southern Europe; of Pakistan and Kashmir pinnately trifoliate, leaflets obovate to
graecum L. Orient; Arabia; Ethiopia; oblanceolate, dentate or incised. Flowers
Pakistan; Kashmir ; India. 1-2 in leaf axils. Corolla yellowish white,
sometimes tinged with lilac. Fruit 5-11
mm long, 3-5 mm broad, 10-20 seeded.
Zingiber Widely cultivated in Widely cultivated in A biennial herb with root stock bearing many
officinale tropical Asia the plains of Pakistan sessile tubers; leafy stem 90 – 120 cm. high;
Roscoe leaves 15-32x1.5 cm.; Spike oblong cylindric;
bracts pointed; corolla segments greenish,
lip small purplish black, mid-lobe not notched;
stamens dark purple
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43. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009
minced garlic changes its aroma if not used Ummul Mu'minin (R.A.): My mother intended to make me
immediately. In the essential oil from steam distillation, fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah
diallyl disulphide (60%) is found besides diallyl (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). But nothing which she
trisulphide (20%), diallyl sulfide, ajoene and minor desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with
amounts of other di- and polysulphides. Sulfur fresh dates to eat. Then I became fat as she desired
compounds of this kind are typical for the onion family (Ghaznavi, 2000). The seed is cooling, diuretic, tonic and
(Katzer, 2008). Beta vulgaris (Beet Root) Beet root is a vermifuge. A 25-50 g of the thoroughly ground seeds
very useful vegetable. Beet juice is considered as one of (including the seed coat) is a standard dose as a
the best vegetable juice. It contains phosphorus, vermifuge and usually needs to be followed by a
calcium, iron, Vitamin B and C. Beet root possesses purgative to expel the worms from the body.
anti-cancer properties and is thus useful in the A decoction of the root is diuretic (Plants for a Future,
prevention of cancer (Chughtai, 2005). 2008). It is believed that cucumber helps in reducing
Roots contain leucine, tryptophane, valine, alanine, swelling around the eyes or the big dark circles under
phenylalanine, tyrosine, glutamine, glutamic acid, your eyes. This is world-wide treatment which is being
ornithine, 5 other amino acide, 0.01% essential oil with used to its maximum extent.
farnesol. Leaves contain quercitin glucoside, a vitexin A close look at checklist of medicinal flora tell us that
combination with glucose, xylose and 3-hydroxytyramine, these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy
$-sitosterol and a suite of organic acids, oxalic-, Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam), gave the
tricarballyl-, aconitic-, ferulic-. Roots, herbage and seeds references of such plants that are not only grown in Arab
contain raphanol and coniferin (C16H22O8), Vit. A, B and C countries but exist through out the world. This shows
and betaine. Roots contain a crude oil with palmitic, that the Holy Prophet was light for the entire world.
oleic, erucic and gamma-aminobutyric acids, free and Lagenaria siceraria (gourd) was liked very much by The
bound invertase and pectolytic enzymes (James, 1983). Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam).
Due to its high iron content it regenerates and Narrated Anas bin Malik (R.A.): a tailor invited the
reactivates Red Blood Cells (RBC) and supplies fresh Prophet to a meal which he had prepared and I went
oxygen to the body. Hence extremely useful in the along with the Prophet. The tailor presented barley bread
treatment of Anaemia Beet gets rid of dandruff. By boiling and soup containing gourd and cured meat. I saw the
the top and root of the beet in water and later the water Prophet picking the pieces of gourd from around the
used on your head. After half an hour the head is dish and since then I have kept on liking gourd (Saboor,
washed with simple water. This process is practiced 1999).
twice a week (Kevin, 2007). This is very useful Narrated Aisha (R.A.): rasullulah (Sallallaho Alayhi
phytotherapy for removal dandruff. Wassallam) said to me, “O Aishah when you are going
To fight appendicitis one should use the combination of to cooke (prepare) a meal from cure meat add to it
beet and cucumber juice 100 ml, mixed with 300 ml of gourd, because the gourd strengthens the sad hearts”
carrot juice. If this is consumed twice daily, it may just do (Chughtai, 2005).
the needful (Kevin, 2007). The gourd has special importance according to Ahadith.
Citrullus lanatus, the seed is demulcent, diuretic, It is eaten eagerly. The experienced hakims have been
pectoral and tonic. It is sometimes used in the treatment advising the use of gourd oil (Roghan-e-Kaddu) for the
of the urinary passages and has been used to treat bed treatment of diseases of brain and blood pressure for
wetting. It is a good vermifuge and has a hypotensive years.
action. A fatty oil in the seed, as well as aqueous or The pulp around the seed is purgative. A poultice of the
alcoholic extracts, paralyze tapeworms and crushed leaves has been applied to the head to treat
roundworms. The fruit, eaten when fully ripe or even headaches. The flowers are an antidote to poison. The
when almost putrid, is used as a febrifuge. It is diuretic, stem bark and the rind of the fruit are diuretic. The fruit is
being effective in the treatment of dropsy and renal antilithic, diuretic, emetic and refrigerant.
stones. It contains the substance lycopine (which is also The seed is vermifuge. A poultice of the boiled seeds
found in the skins of tomatoes). This substance has has been used in the treatment of boils. Taken with
been shown to protect the body from heart attacks and, Achyranthes spp the seed is used to treat aching teeth
in the case of the tomato at least, is more effective when and gums, boils etc. Extracts of the plant have shown
it is cooked. antibiotic activity. In many parts of China 3 grams per day
The rind of the fruit is prescribed in cases of alcoholic of this species (the report does not say what part of the
poisoning and diabetes. plant) has been used as a single treatment for diabetes
The root is purgative and in large dose is said to be a mellitus (Plants for a Future, 2008).
certain emetic (Plants for a Future, 2008). Cucumis Trigonella foenum-graecum has got great importance in
sativus (Cucumber) is another plant that has many Ahadith. Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman (R.A.) narrates that
references in Holy Quran and Ahadith. Narrated Aisha, Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, “Seek
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44. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009
cure by (using) fenugreek” (Ghaznavi, 1991). In another of plants for welfare of human beings. This study is the
hadith Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, “If logical and applicable step in directions towards the
my followers (Ummat) know the importance of the ultimate goal of development of natural plant based
fenugreek then they will buy it by gold of equal weight” industry in the light of Islamic history through out the
(Ghaznavi, 1991). world for prosperity and safety of the human beings.
Fenugreek is much used in herbal medicine. It has a
wide range of medicinal applications. It is a powerful REFERENCES
tonic. It is useful for Back pain (backache). Seeds in Abdullah, M.M., 2005. Urdu Translayion of Al-Sahih Al-
powder form are used for diabetes (Ahmad, 2004). Bukhari. Idara-e-Islamiyat, Lahore, 3: 119, 203, 205,
Use of one teaspoonful of the powder of its seeds daily 233, 236.
is recommended locally for the treatment of gout and Ahmad, M., M.A. Khan, M. Arshad and M. Zafar, 2004.
diabetes. A paste of seeds and leaves is applied to Ethnophytotherapical approaches for the treatment
reduce swellings and inflammation. Seeds are soaked of diabetes by the local inhabitants of District Attock
in water to get mucilage, which is locally used to keep Pakistan). Ethnobotanical Leaflets. http://www.siu.
the skin soft (Shah, 2007). The powder of seeds can be edu/~ebl/leaflets/phyto.htm.
used externally as a poultice for abscesses, boils, burns Ahmad, M.M., 1988. Urdu Translation of Sunan-e-Abu
etc. Daud. Almisbah, Lahore, 4: 904.
Compounds extracted from the plant have shown Al-Hilali, M.T. and M.M. Khan, 1985. The Noble Quran:
cardiotonic, hypoglycaemic, diuretic, antiphlogistic and English Translation of the meaning and
hypotensive activity. One of its constituent alkaloids, commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of
called 'trigonelline', has shown potential for use in
Holy Quran. Madinah, K.S.A., pp: 13.
cancer therapy. The seed contains the saponin
A’zami, H.A.R. and and M.A. Nadvi, 1985. Tib-i-Nabvi
diosgenin, an important substance in the synthesis of
urdu translation Dar-ul-Isha’t. Maulavi Musafir
oral contraceptives and sex hormones, whilst saponins
Khana, Urdu Bazar Karachi, 1: 426, 869.
in the plant have been extracted for use in various other
Arshad, M. and A. Rao, 2001. Medicinal Plants of
pharmaceutical products (Plants for a Future, 2008).
Cholistan Desert In: Medicinal Plants of Pakistan,
pp: 1.
Note: The seeds should not be prescribed medicinally
for pregnant women since they can induce uterine Chughtai, T.M., 2005. Shafi Dawa-een Shafi Ilaj. Azan-
contractions (Plants for a Future, 2008). Sahr Publications near Main Gate Mansoora. Multan
Zingiber officinale Rosc. It is another herbaceous plant Road Lahore, pp: 40, 83, 101.
which has a reference in Holy Qura’n. “And they will be Farooqi, I., 1998. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat, Adwiya
given to drink there of a cup mixed with Zanjabil”. Verse: Aur Ghizain. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers, 9-lower Mall,
17, Surah Ad-Dahr. According to Yousaf Ali the word Aqab Mian Market, Urdu Bazar Lahore, pp: 151-152,
Zanjabil literally means Ginger. In eastern medicine 168.
ginger is administered to give warmth to the body and Ghaznavi, K., 1991. Tibb-e-Nabvi and Modern science.
zest to the taste. Now a days there is much interest in Al-Faisal Nasheeran Wa Tajeeran-e-Kutab. Urdu
medicinal plants through out the world including Bazar Lahore, Pakistan, 1: 50, 334.
developed countries like China, Germany, France, Ghaznavi, K., 2000. Tib-i-Nabvi and Modern science. Al-
Japan, USA and UK. Similarly in developing countries Faisal Nashiran Wa Tajiran-i-Kutab. Urdu Bazar
like Pakistan and India, the benefits of modern Lahore, Pakistan, 2: 276, 321.
medicines and health care reach only to small Hassan, H.M., 2001. Use of Traditional Unani Medicine
percentage of population. These could hardly reach the for Primary Health Care. In: Medicinal Plants of
large mosses living in the rural areas. Moreover in Pakistan, pp: 17.
remote areas of the world where per capita income of Husain, M.S., 2002. Wonder Vegetables. Indiadiets.com.
people is very low, it becomes more difficult to buy James, A.D., 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops.
complicated and expensive prescriptions. Hence there unpublished. Center For New Crops and Plants
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primary health care level, since there long standing use West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA, pp: 494-4600.
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efficacy and safety (Ahmad et al., 2004). Beta_vulgaris.html.
The necessity for exploration for such useful data from Katzer, G., 2008. Gernot Katzer’s Spice Pages.
Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books has long been http://www.unigraz.at/~katzer/engl/Alli_sat.html.
felt with the increasing need of drugs, medicines and Khan, A.W.Z., 2001. Urdu Translation of Sunan-e-Ibn-e-
other useful products. In this way present approach of Maja. Mehtab Company. Tajaran e-Kutab, Lahore, 3:
this study can be adopted to record the medicinal uses 115.
537

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Kevin, P., 2007. Beet - A Great Fighter of Diseases. http:// Plants For a Future, 2008. Edible, medicinal and useful
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beets.shtml. database/plants.php?
Khan, A.S., M.A. Khan, H.A. Din, H.U. Khan and M. Rafai, J.U.N., 1990. The Quran Translation and Study
Tayyab, 1994. Some Scientific Facets of Quran and ‘Juz’ 1 (Part-1). Taha Publishers Ltd. 1, Wynne Road
Sunnah (of the Prophet Muhammad, Peace Be London SW9 OBB, pp: 54 .
Upon Him) in The Field of Medicine. Pak. J. Health, Saboor, A.H., 1999. Tibb-e-Nabvi aur Modern science wa
31: 7-10. Tajrabat-e-Attiba. Saboor Klinik Burji Wala, Jhang
Mensah, J.K., R.I. Okoli, Ohaju-Obodo and K. Eifediyi, Saddar, pp: 75.
2008. Phytochemical, nutritional and medical Shahidullah, 2000. Ethnobotanical Studies of District
properties of some leafy vegetables consumed by Bannu (M. Phil Thesis), N.W.F.P. Department of
Edo people of Nigeria. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 7: 2304- Biological Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University
2309. http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB. Islamabad, Pakistan, pp: 53.
Nasreen, U. and M.A. Khan, 2001. Some Problematical Shah, G.M., 2007. Plants and Plant Resources of Siran
Medicinal Plants of Pakistan, pp: 117. Valley, Mansehra, N.W.F.P., Pakistan. Ph.D. Thesis.
Nasr, S.H., 1976. Islamic Science-An illustrated study.
Department of olant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam
Westerham Press, Ltd., Westerham, Kent
University, Islamabad. P-206.
(England), pp: 15.
538

46. COMMUNICATIONS
HUMAN GENETICS IN THE HOLY QUR’AN AND SUNNA
A.M. Adam, Department of Medicine, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Islam is fundamentally rooted in the Holy Qur’an, which From [part of] a sperm drop He hath created him,
has been in existence for more than 14 centuries, and and then immediately programmed him [his future].8
the Sunna, a collection of sayings and practices of Prophet
Muhammad. In recent times, Islamic scientists have once And Allah did create you from dust; then from [part
more turned to these primary sources in a quest for an of] a sperm drop; then made you pairs [after the
alternative view of certain scientific principles and to stage of the sperm drop]. And no female conceives,
look for new ideas from this fountain of knowledge. This or lays down [her load] but with His knowledge.9
paper traces various fundamental principles of human
genetics within the Holy Qur’an and Sunna and compares These two verses refer indirectly to two very important
these with the source of the same knowledge in Western properties of nuclear chromosomes: the first refers to
science. semen carrying the characteristics of the individual and
the second suggests the pairing of genetic characteristics.
SEX DETERMINATION AT FERTILISATION
When Spallanzani discovered the process of fertilisation In a tradition related to the Prophet:
in 1775 by studying frogs, he did not know at what point
the sex in the frog embryo was determined in this Um Sulaim came to Allah’s messenger [peace be upon
process.1 X and Y chromosomes were discovered in the him] and said, ‘Is it necessary for a woman to take a
beetle by N.M. Stevens in 1905 but he doubted that bath after she has a wet dream [nocturnal discharge]?’
these chromosomes were sex determinants in the zygote, The Prophet replied, ‘Yes, if she notices a discharge’.
and thought that they were simply part of the genetic Um Salamah then covered her face [shyly] and asked,
make-up and were associated with secondary sexual ‘O Allah’s messenger! Does a woman get a discharge
characteristics.2 In 1919, Morgan and Bridges, while [fertile fluid]?’ He replied, ‘Yes and that is why the
studying the Drosophila fly, found that the X and Y child also resembles the mother’.10
chromosomes play an important role in sex
determination. 3 However, the knowledge of sex This passage shows that a woman participates equally in
determination in mammals had to wait until 1959 for the process of fertilisation and that her characteristics
Jacobs et al. studying humans, and for Welshons and and traits are also passed on to the child through
Russell in their study of the mouse in the same year, to ‘substances’ (which are now identified as chromosomes)
show that mammals resemble the plant Melandrium in that are contained in her ‘fertile fluid’, a fact that was not
that the Y chromosome is male-determining. This paved so obvious to Hamm and Leeuwenhoek who, after seeing
the way for the concept that spermatozoa determine the spermatozoa for the first time, misinterpreted their role
eventual sex of the baby by containing either the X or and thought that spermatozoa contained small fully formed
the Y chromosome.4 babies (see Figure 1).1
The Holy Qur’an describes fertilisation in some detail EXISTENCE OF RECESSIVE GENES
and has done this in nine stages;5 it has gone even further Abu-Huraira narrated:
to show at what point in human embryology sex is
determined. A man came to Prophet Muhammad [peace be upon
him], and said: ‘O Allah’s prophet, a black child has
Allah says that ‘He did create the pairs, male and female. been born for me!’ The Prophet asked him, ‘Do you
From a sperm drop when lodged’.6 This verse clearly have camels?’ The man replied, ‘Yes’. The prophet
states that the sex of the offspring is determined soon asked him, ‘What colour are they?’ The man replied,
after a sperm drop is lodged. This is repeated for emphasis ‘Red’. The Prophet said, ‘Is there a grey one among
in another verse, which states: ‘and He out of semen them?’ The man replied, ‘Yes’. The Prophet said,
made both sexes, male and female’.7 ‘Whence comes that?’ He said,‘maybe it [the colour]
was pulled out by a hidden trait’. The Prophet said,
PROPERTIES OF CHROMOSOMES ‘maybe your son’s [colour] was pulled out [by a
The carriage of characteristics from the parents to the trait]’.11
offspring is also described in several places in the Holy
Qur’an. Allah says: The Holy Qur’an exhibits here both wisdom and the
44 J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2003; 33:44–45

47. COMMUNICATIONS
penetrance) or have complex inheritance characteristics.
It may be of some importance to recall that when the
Holy Qur’an was written, women’s rights were non-
existent and many a female baby was buried alive to
avoid the shame of a family bearing a female child, her
mother ostracised for bringing shame to the family. The
above two verses state clearly that if there is anybody
responsible for the sex of the baby it is the father.
This statement also has an important bearing on the
dispensing of justice: a woman bearing a dark-
complexioned child when both she and her husband are
of a lighter complexion is certainly and naturally possible.
This applies to those communities in which individuals
vary in their skin colouring. This also prevents the use of
hearsay evidence to convict and condemn an innocent
woman for adultery on the basis that a child is not to the
satisfaction of the father.
One of the greatest trusts given to a man is when
FIGURE 1 somebody’s daughter or sister is given to him to hold
A line drawing depicting spermatozoa containing a small her as his lawfully wedded wife. Therefore, he should not
fully formed baby. burden his wife with false accusations and abuse.
REFERENCES
highest degree of justice. More than ten centuries before 1 Moore KL. The Developing Human: Clinically Orientated
Gregor Mendel was born, history took shape in a Embryology. Third Edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders;
monastery garden! No adverse judgement was passed 1982; 8–10.
and no sanction applied on this man’s wife, and the colour 2 Stevens NM. Studies in spermatogenesis with a special
of her offspring was explained as some concealed trait reference to the ‘accessory chromosome’. Carn Inst Wash
Publ 1905; 36:33.
from the family background. The existence of a dominance
3 Morgan TH, Bridges CB. The origin of gynandromorphs.
of certain hereditable traits needs no explanation, as it is Carn Inst Wash Publ 1919; 278:1–22.
obvious that a red camel would bear a red offspring. 4 Sturtevant AH. A History of Genetics. New York: Harper
and Row Publishers; 1965; 83.
GENE PENETRANCE 5 Adam AM. The many processes of fertility science in the
In a tradition narrated by Anas, Prophet Muhammad said, Holy Qur’an. JIMA 1998; 30:74–7.
‘And if a man’s discharge preceded that of the woman, 6 Glorious Qur’an. Chapter 53, Verse 45–6.
then the child resembles the father, and if the woman’s 7 Glorious Qur’an. Chapter 75, Verse 39.
discharge preceded that of the man, then the child 8 Moore, op. cit. ref. 1, 34a.
9 Glorious Qur’an. Chapter 35, Verse 11.
resembles the mother.’13
10 Khan MM. Sahih al-Bukhari. New Delhi: Nusrat Ali Nasri;
1984; 1–97.
The implication behind this is that if spermatozoa are 11 Moore KL. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented
lodged long before ovulation then the activation of the Embryology, with Islamic Additions. Philadelphia: WB
male genes will be at a more advanced stage than those Saunders; 1982; 140b.
in the ovum, and therefore they will play a greater role 12 Soper R Biological Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University
in showing the characteristics gained from the father – Press; 1990; 838.
especially if these genes follow codominance (with variable 13 Ibid., 6–8.
J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2003; 33:44–45 45

48. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Vol. 8(1), January 1995, p.51-62
STUDIES ON THE ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF HONEY
DILNAWAZ SHEIKH, SHAMS-UZ-ZAMAN, S. BAQIR NAQVI,
M. RAFI SHEIKH* AND GHULAM ALI**
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Microbiology
University of Karachi, Karachi-75270
**Department of F. Medicine, Sindh Medical College, Karachi
ABSTRACT
Ten samples of crude and processed honey were used to determine antimicrobial
activity against twenty five species of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria,
commonly encountered in human infections. The antifungal activity was
checked against ten parasitic and saprophytic fungi. Most of the samples of
honey used in the study showed broad spectrum antibacterial and promising
antifungal activity.
Introduction
The Holy Quran, the heritage of Islamic Sciences, has time and again emphasized
the medicinal virtue of honey. The last scripture enlists honey as a miraculous food in a
separate surah, "AI-Nahl (The Bee)".1l
And they Lord commands the bee, saying:
"Make thee houses in the mountains and in the trees and in what they (people)
build-up, then eat of all the fruits and walk thou the ways of thy Lord made easy.
He produces from her inside a drink of various hues, in which there is healing
for mankind. Most surely in this there is a sign for people who think".
Honey is the most primitive nourishing and healing agent. It is a thick, syrupy,
translucent, pale yellow or yellowish brown liquid deposited in the honey comb by the
bee, Apis mellifera Linn. (Family: Apidae). It has a characteristics odour and a sweet,
faintly acidic taste. It contains: invert sugar (62-83%), sucrose (0-8%), dextrin (0.26-7%)
together with water and traces of other nutrients.7 Honey is levorotatory and is acidic to
litmus paper.5 It is a unique mixture having fat soluble as well as water soluble vitamins.8

49. 52 Antimicrobial activity of honey
During the 16th and 17th centuries it was recommended as a cure for almost every
thing.2 It is a simple, effective and inexpensive healer of wounds. It has been used in the
treatment of infected wounds in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the
Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre with excellent results.1
Honey also serves as a substitute for glucose in oral rehydration solutions containing
electrolytes. The correct dilution of honey and the presence of electrolytes in the oral
solution must be maintained.9
In Soviet Union, honey is commonly used as a base for ointments and has very
successfully been applied in surgical dressings for open wounds and burns to avoid septic
infections. It is also used for many minor ailments of animals.10
In the pharmaceutical preparations it is used as a sweetening, flavouring and
demulcent agent. It is used as an excepient for preparing pills and masses and as a
flavouring agent in gargles, linctuses, and cough mixtures.18
Materials and Methods
10 samples of locally manufactured, imported and crude samples of honey were
procured from the market and from the hives (Table 1) in order to determine their an-
timicrobial activities.
In the present study 25 species of common pathogenic and non- pathogenic bacteria
and 10 species of fungi were used. Eleven bacteria were Gram positive and four-teen
were Gram negative (Tables 2, 3). Among the fungi, nine species were pathogenic and
only one specie was saprophytic and non-pathogenic (Table 6).
A comparative study of antimicrobial activity has been carried out by the procedure
described by Bhakuni et a1.3 and Baqir et al.2. The sample exhibiting maximum
antimicrobial activity was fractionated into partly purified alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal
portions, in order to find which portion contained antimicrobial constituents.
Preparation of Test Samples:
10 mg of honey samples were taken in 50 ml sterile volumetric flask. The volume
was made up with sterile distilled water for a dilution of 20% w/v.
Separation of Alkaloidal and Non-Alkaloidal Fractions of Honey:
Crude honey sample (F) which indicated promising antimicrobial activity, w
fractionated into alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions by chemical method so as to
determine which portion possessed maximum antimicrobial activity.

50. Sheikh et al. 53
20 mg of honey (sample F) was extracted with ethanol (EtOH) three times. The
EtOH extracts was acidified with 10% HCI and extracted with CHCI3 to remove the non-
alkaloidal portion. The acidic aqueous fraction was then basil-led with NH3 and extracted
thoroughly with CHCl3. The mass when examined on TLC plate showed several spots
indicating several constituents which gave coloured reactions with Dragendroff reagent.
Antimicrobial Assay:
The tests were run in triplicate. Petri plates were prepared with trypticase soy gar. 1
ml of the diluted culture was poured on each plate. Wells of 5 mm diameter (ap-
proximately) were cut with sterile cork borer in the inoculated agar. The wells were filled
with test samples with the help of sterile droppers. Similarly in control plates wells were
filled with sterile distilled water. The plates were incubated for 24 hours at 37°C. At the
end of incubation period the inhibition zones were measured. The results were tabulated
in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5.
Antifungal Assay:
The tests were run in triplicate. 2 gm of honey was mixed with 8 ml sterile molten
Sabouraud dextrose agar and was poured into sterile petri plates. 1 ml of 10-2 dilution in
strile 0.9% NaCl of the two-day fungal cultures were spotted on dried Sabouraud agar
plates. The plates were incubated at 25°C for 5 days. The results were noted as heavy
growth (H), scanty growth (S) and no growth (N). In ontrol plates no honey was
incorporated in Sabouraud dextrose agar. The results were tabulated in Tables 6, 7.
Results and Discussion
The Holy Quran intimates honey as the healing for all kinds of diseases. Honey is a
divine drug quoted in all the scriptures. The therapeutic value of honey was under-scored
in various literatures. It occupied a prominent place in traditional medicine. It is used in
all the systems of medicine for the treatment of a number of human ailments such as
wound infection, diarrhoea, dehydration, paralysis particularly facial paralysis,
amenorrhoea, dropsy, chest infection, jaudice, tuberculosis, urinary tract infections,
carcinoma of vulva, deafening ear, fever, tetanus, boils, skin strains and skin infections.
The antimicrobial effect of honey has been reported by a number of workers (1, 5, 9,
10, 18, 25) but most of these reports are conflicting and are not substantiated by enough
scientific proof. The present study was carried out so as to determine the antimicrobial
effects of honey using prescribed scientific procedures.

51. 54 Antimicrobial activity of honey
The important conclusions which can be drawn from the present study can be
summarized as such. Firstly, honey has broad spectrum antimicrobial and prominent
antifungal activity as indicated by Tables 2-7. In our study seven species of Gram posi-
tive cocci and four species of Gram positive bacilli were used. With the exception of
Streptococcus faecalis, all the Gram positive organisms were inhibited by samples A and
B (Langanese and crude honey). However this specie was inhibited by samples E, F, G,
H, I and J. Thus the present study is in confirmation with previous reports of Cavanaugh
et a1,5 Warnecke et al.24 and Obaseiki et al.13 The control plates did not show any
inhibition.
Secondly, studies on species of Corynebacterium (C. dipfheriae, C. hoffmani, C.
xerosis) have not previously been reported. The present study reveals that all the three
species were inhibited by honey samples A, B, F, H and J. Honey samples C and D
(Marhaba, Hamdard) showed no activity against these organisms. In fact these two
samples exhibited activity only against four Gram positive cocci i.e. M. lysodeikticus, S.
aureus, S. laths and S. pyogenes (Table 2).
Similar results are reported with Gram negative bacteria (Table 3). Samples A, B, E,
F, G and H very effectively inhibited the growth of nearly all Gram negative organisms
used in the study with the exception of E. coil 97 which was resistant to most of the
honey samples. As far as the Gram negative organisms are concerned the present reports
conforms the findings of Obaseiki et al.13 and Ibrahim.12
Thirdly, the present study seems to be fast report in literature with respect to Vibrio
cholerae. As indicated in Table 3, all the samples of honey produced large zones of
inhibition against this organism. This importance of this finding lies in the fact that honey
can be used in oral rehydration solution for treating cholera patients.
As far as fungi are concerned, only two reports could be traced (13, 14). These
reports indicated that honey had promising activity against Candida albicans and
Aspergillus niger. Present study seems to be the first report indicating activity against
dermatophytes (M. ferrogenium, T. longfeuseus, T. mentagrophyte, T. semmie, T. ton-
surance) and parasitic fungi (Allescheria boydii) and saprophytic (Mucor mucaralis).
Including two species of Aspergillus i.e. A. flavus, A. niger and C. albicans, ten species of
fungi were used. Honey seems to be much less effective on fungi than bacteria (table 6).
The finding which is most interesting is that as compared to other honeys, Capilano
honey (I) from Australia seems to be most effective against most of the species of fungi
used in the study. This sample did not show promising activity against bacteria.

52. Sheikh et al. 55
Among the different samples of honey used in the study sample F, the crude honey
procured from a bee-hive of Karachi University, showed maximum activity. An attempt
was made to fractionate this sample of honey into alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions
by chemical method. Both the alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions of honey exhibited
similar activity indicating the antimicrobial system was present in both the fractions of
honey (Tables 4, 5, 7).
It has been suggested that three major system are responsible for the antimicrobial
activity of honey i.e. inhibine, high osmotic pressure and acidity.10
Inhibine
The initial report on inhibine, an antibacterial substance in honey was presented by
Cavanagh et al.5 who stated that inhibine content of honey was reduced by sunlight.
Thereafter several workers reported various physical and chemical properties of the
substance, the exact constitution of which is still unknown.13,17,19
High osmotic pressure
Honey is basically a supersaturated solution of carbohydrates, the osmotic pressure of
honey creates a very effective antimicrobial system.4,5,6,10
Acidity
The general range of honey pH is 3.2-4.5. This high degree of acidity prevents the
growth of many bactrial forms.10,22,25
From the results of the present study the most important conclusion which can be
drawn is that the antimicrobial activity is maximum in the crude honey. The three
samples of fresh crude honey used in the study showed much better activity than the
processed honeys. It can be suggested that during the processing the active components
were partially inactivated.
And above all this humble study scientifically proves what ever is indicated in Surah
"AI-Nahl".
"He produces from her inside a drink of various hues, in which there is healing for
mankind. Most surely in this there is a sign for a people who think".11

53. 56 Antimicrobial activity of honey

54. Sheikh et al. 57

55. 58 Antimicrobial activity of honey

56. Sheikh et al. 59

57. 60 Antimicrobial activity of honey

58. Sheikh et al. 61
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IJCA-12055; No of Pages 5
International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Cardiology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i j c a r d
Review
The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth
Marios Loukas a,⁎, Yousuf Saad a, R. Shane Tubbs b, Mohamadali M. Shoja c
a
Department of Anatomical Sciences, St. George's University, School of Medicine, Grenada, West Indies
b
Pediatric Neurosurgery, Birmingham, AL, USA
c
Clarian Neuroscience Institute, Indianapolis Neurosurgical Group, Indiana University Department of Neurosurgery-Indianapolis, IN, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Descriptions of the human anatomy derived from religious texts are often omitted from the medical
Received 7 May 2009 literature. The present review aims to discuss the comments and commentaries made regarding the heart
Accepted 12 May 2009 and cardiovascular system as found in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. Based on this review, it is clear that these
Available online xxxx
early sources both had a good comprehension of these parts of the body.
© 2009 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
Keywords:
Cardiovascular system
History of cardiology
History of medicine
Cardiovascular system and religion
1. Introduction Although there is a considerable amount of information in the Qur'an
and Hadeeth about general medicine and anatomy, there is a lack of
Progress within the 20th century alone has produced an immense reliable and critical research. Hence, the purpose of this review is to
amount of literature and understanding in anatomy, medicinal health, accurately present the anatomical and medical contributions of the
and the correlation between the two. Our comprehension of the two, Qur'an and Hadeeth, with specific focus on the cardiovascular system.
however, would not be possible without the important discoveries
and critical observations of our predecessors such as the “Father of 2. History of the Qur'an and Hadeeth
Medicine” Hippocrates (463–370 BC), the “Father of Modern Anat-
omy” Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), and Abu Ali al-Husain ibn The entire Qur'an is believed to be the direct word of God
Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna) [1] and [2]. While the contributions of according to Muslims, revealed to the Prophet Mohammad through
Galen and Hippocrates are well known, contributions to medicine by the Angel Gabriel over a span of 23 years (610–632 AD). Though
numerous religious texts including the Hindu Vedas, Judeo–Christian revealed during these years, the transmission of the verses was
Bible and Talmud, and the Islamic Qur'an and Hadeeth (prophetic conducted orally until it was compiled and canonized the year after
sayings of Mohammad) are often omitted from the literature. Mohammad's death. The exegesis of the Qur'an was carried out by
Found within the Qur'an and Hadeeth are accurate descriptions of scholars in later centuries, the most popular being made by Ibn Kathir
anatomical structures, surgical procedures, physiological character- in the 14th century. The Hadeeth are the sayings, rulings, advices,
istics, and medical remedies. In particular, prophylaxis of general actions and habits of the Prophet Mohammed which are distinct from
diseases is emphasized by encouraging physical activity, herbal and the direct words of God and were also transmitted orally until they
organic remedies, and spiritual revitalization. Notably, within these were organized into a comprehensive permanent record in the 9th
two texts, is the emphasis on the heart and blood as both a vehicle for century. Scholars of the time were meticulous in their work and
life and as an organ central to affecting emotion and attitude. employed stringent rules as to which sayings of Mohammad would be
Furthermore, the lifestyle prescribed by these Islamic traditions included in the compilation to ensure accuracy and authenticity. Only
promotes longevity of life, prevention of cardiovascular diseases, the sayings that had a strong, credible line of transmission were
and discourages risk factors associated with such diseases. Therefore, collected and written. Both the Qur'an and the Hadeeth were used
it is evident that the authors of the texts had a good understanding of when creating the Islamic law Shariah, “Path.”
both the etiology and pathology of many diseases of the heart and
cardiovascular system. 3. General views about medicine in Qur'an and Hadeeth
History has shown an antagonistic relationship between religion
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1473 444 4175x2005; fax: +1473 444 2887. and science, as the authority and power exerted by the Christian
E-mail addresses: edsg2000@yahoo.com, mloukas@sgu.edu (M. Loukas). Church during the Middle Ages and Renaissance stifled open scientific
0167-5273/$ – see front matter © 2009 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.05.011
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inquiries into natural phenomena, even if such empirical observations cleanliness is the other half [14]. In another tradition, Mohammad is
were substantiated by rational thought and calculations. This reported to have said that surgical circumcision, clipping or shaving
inharmonious relationship significantly slowed the progress of the pubes, cutting the nails, plucking or shaving the hair under the
scientific discoveries and advancements, compelling scientists to armpits and clipping (or shaving) the moustache are all acts that
work in secret out of fear of the. During the same period, the vast benefit the body and thus bring one closer to God [15]. In addition, the
Islamic empire was the epicenter of all academia, as major cities transmission of certain diseases that were communicable by touch
consisted of large libraries containing the world's knowledge and air was known, which is why the idea of quarantining the sick was
translated from most languages into Arabic. Unlike the Christian encouraged and practiced. Narrations exist where Mohammad
Church, Islamic teachings strongly encouraged and supported scien- admonishes healthy individuals to “…flee from a lepers as you flee
tific research which led to many advancements and discoveries [3]. In from a lion” [16] and the narration also warns those who are healthy to
fact, the Qur'an and Hadeeth recognize the pursuit of knowledge as keep away from those who are sick.
being an act of worship to God. This supportive attitude towards Furthermore, the Qur'an forbids foods to be eaten that can easily
scientific observation and opinion has resulted in numerous scientific transmit food-borne diseases such as Trichinella, Taeniasis and
achievements and the adoption of a tolerant attitude toward the Neurocysticercosis, as can be seen in the following verse; “Forbidden
expression and discussion of scientific observation and opinion. to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on
The Qur'an and Hadeeth even include some of the discoveries which hath been invoked the name of other than God; that which hath
made during the time of its creation. According to the Qur'an and been killed by strangling, or by a violent blow, or by a headlong fall, or
Hadeeth, God created disease and God also created a treatment for by being gored to death; that which hath been (partly) eaten by a wild
every disease. There is a prophetic tradition where Mohammad has animal; unless ye are able to slaughter it (in due form); that which is
been reported to have said that for every disease there is a remedy, sacrificed on stone (altars); (forbidden) also is the division (of meat)
and when the remedy is made apparent, the disease is cured by the by raffling with arrows: that is impiety” [17]. Noise pollution is also
permission of God [4]. Therefore, people are encouraged to pray, but mentioned in the Hadeeth, where Mohammad encourages his
also seek out treatments. Anything that harms the body, mind and followers not to speak in a loud voice or to engage in any act that
soul must be treated. It is for this reason that physicians were highly consisted of loud sound, which is why drumming, blowing of a horn,
valued members of the community and Mohammad called upon them and ringing bells were all turned down by Mohammad when it came
to treat illnesses. This demonstrates that Islam was compatible with to deciding how to deliver the call for prayer. Alcohol is also forbidden
medicine; the need for medical treatment was accepted and required. in Islam, as is made clear by the Qur'anic injunction. Therefore, it is
In the Qur'an and Hadeeth, two different forms of treatment can be apparent that the Qur'an discouraged actions that might adversely
found—spiritual healing and physical healing. There are at least six affect the body such as extremely loud noise and unsanitary food.
verses which discuss divine healing. The medium through which this Indeed, these Qur'anic verses motivated health consciousness.
healing occurs is via the teachings and revelation of the Qur'an, a Verses from the Qur'an and many prophetic sayings deal with
scripture that has been revealed as a “mercy and healing to those who public and individual health, both resources heavily emphasizing the
think” [5]. This form of healing treats, specifically, the heart, as God cardiovascular system. The importance of the heart to the human
removes “rage form their hearts” [6]. The Qur'an mentions “hidden” being as an organ for survival in Islam, as well as the organ of the
ailments meaning doubt, impurity, hypocrisy, disbelief, and falsehood, human psyche is a critical to understanding Islamic teachings. Hence,
attributed as diseases of the heart. Proverbs and stories in the Qur'an this rest of this review will focus in on Qur'anic understanding of the
discuss faith and loyalty to the divine and state that they who cardiovascular system.
sincerely trust will “cure” then when they are ill [7]. Although spiritual
healing is most mentioned in the Qur'an, it would be erroneous to 4. The cardiovascular system
claim that the practice of medicine was meant only for the divine.
While the scripture and remembrance of God is supposed to heal Various aspects of the cardiovascular system are mentioned in
the hidden ailments of people, many Muslim physicians found both the Qur'an and the Hadeeth. The Qur'an and the Hadeeth discuss
treatment options in the Qur'an and the Hadeeth. Physical ailments the importance of the heart, blood and its circulation and how they are
and their treatments are discussed in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, such as vital to the maintenance of life.
abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, leprosy, and mental illness. Moham-
mad is reported to have said that healing is in three things: a gulp of 4.1. Blood and circulation
honey, cupping, and cauterizing, but that cauterization should be a last
resort [8]. Honey was offered as treatment for many illnesses, such as Blood is mentioned in several passages of the Qur'an and Hadeeth.
abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. Honey contains the therapeutic In general, blood is mentioned in relation to lineage and identity,
contents sugars, vitamins, anti-microbials, among other things. Black menstruation, slaughtering of animals for consumption, and
cumin was also a source of treatment [9], as was At-Talbina (a porridge embryology.
prepared from milk, honey, and white flour [10], Indian incense for The relationship between God and man is illustrated in the
throat trouble and pleurisy, eating dates protected against poison [11], following verse; “We created man—We know what his soul whispers
breastfeeding [12], ablution and forgiveness. Furthermore, the well of to him: We are closer to him than his jugular vein” [18]. The Qur'an
Zam Zam, a miraculously generated source of water in Mecca was establishes the intimate relationship with God and humans by
believed to be a treatment for fevers [13]. Thus, the Qur'an and Ha- asserting that God, in fact, is even more intimate with His creation
deeth offer treatments for numerous illnesses common in Arabia than this vital blood vessel. By noting the importance of the internal
during that time, establishing the important concept that Islamic jugular vein and its connection with the heart, the authors of the
tradition recognizes treatments for the illnesses and the treatments Qur'an were well aware of the vitality of blood and the heart to the
must be sought out and provided to patients. maintenance of life. It was also known that blood circulation reached
Both preventative and therapeutic medicines are discussed in the all parts of the body and is an important element to life [19].
Qur'an and Hadeeth; however, it is prevention of human sins, illnesses Another great vessel mentioned in the Qur'an is the Al-Aatín or
and diseases that is most emphasized. In the Islamic doctrine, human aorta “We would certainly have seized his right hand and cut off his
illness was prevented through compulsory hygienic practices. The Al-Watín,” [20]. Al-Watín has been translated into different, yet similar
importance of cleanliness was emphasized in prophetic traditions. For words, including “aorta” [21], “life-artery” [20] and [21], and simply
instance, Mohammad states that while praising God is half of faith, “artery” [21]. This verse is taken to mean that if the Prophet
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Mohammed was lying about the teachings of God, then God would whoever meets God with a sound heart” (emphasis added) [30]. It is
have grabbed the Prophet Mohammad's arm and cut a vital artery, important to note the link between knowledge and the heart; the
certainly killing Mohammad. This verse confirms that 1. Blood was “perverse” heart and the heart filled with knowledge, faith, belief and
indeed viewed as a vehicle for life and 2. The artery directly leading wisdom are antagonistic in nature, and it is the latter that is favored by
from the heart is vital to survival. By analyzing the different the author of the Qur'an [31].
translations and exegesis of Al-Watín, it can be safely assumed that Although there are multiple Qur'anic verses and prophetic
it is the aorta that the author of the Qur'an is referring to in this verse. traditions regarding the spiritual heart, a few but important references
Blood is also mentioned numerous times in verses discussing food. have certainly been made about the anatomy and physiology of the
For instance, the intake of blood is completely forbidden, and all of the physical heart as a vulnerable organ vital to the human being. We first
blood of a slaughtered animal must be drained at the time of the see the heart referred to as a muscle and not in a metaphorical sense in
slaughter as the carotid arteries and jugular veins are severed. There a prophetic tradition, where it is stated, “Beware! There is a piece of
seems to be an acknowledgement in the Qur'an that some blood is flesh in the body if it remains healthy the whole body becomes
impure and can contain and transmit pathogens leading to disease. In healthy, and if it is diseased, the whole body becomes diseased.
addition, during menstruation, women are to abstain from sexual Beware, it is the heart” [32]. This tradition holds true if taken either
intercourse and the ritual prayer because menstrual blood is literally or spiritually. Furthermore, there is a prophetic tradition that
considered impure. However, not all blood is impure, as Mohammad discusses heart surgery, extraction of a blood clot, and treatment of
distinguishes between menses and blood “…from a blood vessel;” if a the heart as follows: the Angel Gabriel came to Mohammad as a child
woman's uterine vessels are to rupture causing bleeding, the while he was playing with playmates, “…lay him prostrate on the
restrictions placed on a female during menstruation does not apply ground and tore open his breast and took out the heart from it and
[22]. Blood is also used when the Qur'an describes the early stages of then extracted a blood-clot out of it and said, ‘That was the part of
the embryo as “congealed blood” or “blood clot” (to be discussed later Satan in thee.’ And then he washed it with the water of Zam Zam in a
in the paper). Thus, we find several comments of blood in the Qur'an golden basin and then it was joined together and restored to its place”
as an impurity, as spreading disease, a sign of lineage, and in relation [33]. Thus, although rudimentary and perhaps even metaphorical, the
to women's health. surgery described required knowledge of the anatomical and
physiological importance of the heart to the healthy functioning of
4.2. Heart the body and the detrimental effects of a thrombus.
The heart is mentioned numerous times in both the Qur'an and 4.3. Cardiovascular disease
Hadeeth and is used in many different contexts, such as “in the
heart” or “from the heart.” The repetitive use of the concept of the Although not outwardly mentioned in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, the
heart illustrates its centrality to the core of every individual. Firstly, lifestyle that the authors of the Qur'an encourage drastically decreases
the importance of the heart is demonstrated in the fact that we find the chances of individuals developing such cardiovascular diseases
different states of the heart in the three groups of people that the such as heart diseases, blood clots, atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis
Qur'an describes; the mu'minun (Believers) have hearts that are via the following ways: engaging in spiritual activities, moderate
alive, the kafirun (the rejecters of faith) have hearts that are dead, and eating, physical labor, reducing anger and jealousy, eliminating
the munafiqun (the hypocrites) have hearts that are diseased. The two greediness, and abstention of forbidden foods and drinks.
general types of heart that are described are the extensively described The Islamic prayer is performed at least five times a day and
spiritual heart and the physical heart. consists of a series of movements entailing standing, prostrating, and
In general, religious scholars discuss two types of (spiritual) heart sitting. When performing prayer, the author of the Qur'an discourages
diseases: shubahat which relate to one's level of understanding and lazily performing prayer as performed by the Hypocrites [34]; thus, a
trust, and shahawat which are desires of the self and become diseases lethargic and carelessness approach to prayer neither obtains any
when they grow out of proportion. Emotions, attitudes, knowledge, spiritual nor physical benefit to the state of health. Also, the amount of
diseases, desires, truthfulness, actions and intentions are all rooted in prostrations, and thus physical movement, during a prayer varies from
the heart. As such, the heart is the core of every human being, as it is one prayer to the next. We find that increased number of prostrations
directly involved in the relationship between the individual and God, in a prayer (i.e. physical movement) correlates with the time of day
it governs all actions, and it is the possessor of all emotional faculties. when one usually eats, possibly to help digest food and, in the long run,
Thus, the role the heart plays in Islam is given much more importance reduce the chances of thrombus formation. In addition, the author of
and emphasis than the physiological function and purpose ascribed to the Qur'an states, “Truly it is in the remembrance of God that the hearts
the heart in traditional science. find peace” [35]. It is said that Mohammad advised people not to go to
The Qur'an shares with the Hadeeth a metaphorical description of the sleep immediately after meals, for that would lead to a hardening of the
heart as a possessor of emotional faculties, thus giving the heart many heart [36]. It was also advised not to engage in strenuous physical
characteristics that modern science attributes to the brain. As is popularly activity after eating.
stated in Islamic culture, every action is dependent upon intentions [23], The physical movements during prayer also help prevent deep vein
and “…what counts is [to God] the intention of your hearts…” [24]. These thrombi. Repetitive standing–sitting actions throughout the day
actions, whether “good” or “bad” determine the health of the heart, activate the muscle pump in leg muscles (such as the gastrocnemius
namely if it is a sound or diseased heart. A diseased heart is one filled with and soleus), which increase the venous return to the heart upon
qualities such as doubt [25], hypocrisy [26], and ignorance [27] among standing and displaces blood from peripheral to central veins, thus
many others. Possessors of such qualities have a “hardened,” diseased preventing edema and decreasing the probability of forming thrombi.
heart [28]. Other malaise qualities contributing to a diseased heart Furthermore, Mohammad encouraged the consumption of foods such
includes blasphemy, rejection of truth, deviation, sin, corruption, as white meat of fish that are low in fat and help decrease serum
aggressiveness, negligence, fear, anger, and jealousy, among others. cholesterol levels. He also encouraged the consumption of whole-grain
Considering the physical, social, and emotional impact these brain for higher fiber intake.
characteristics can have on a person, the author of the Qur'an asserts The author of the Qur'an and Mohammad have discouraged the
“…there hath come to you a direction from your Lord and a healing for consumption of pig meat, probably due to the diseases which they
(for the diseases) in your hearts” [29]. This is so because “…neither transmit (i.e. Trichinella, Teniasis, etc) and because of its high content
money nor children will benefit [on the Day of Resurrection] except in fat and calories. Finally, the consumption of alcohol is also forbidden
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[37]; although the author of the Qur'an acknowledges the benefits of education, hospitals, bacteriology (Al-Razi), anesthesia (first oral
alcohol, He also states that more harm than benefit exists in its anesthetics by Avicenna), psychotherapy (Najab ud din Mohammad),
consumption [38]. Alcoholism affects virtually all organs of the body surgery (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf Ibn Abbas Al-Zahrawi), ophthalmology
including the liver, stomach, intestines, pancreas, heart and brain and (Ibn al-Haytham), pharmacology (Masail Hunayn), cancer treatment
can cause numerous problems including liver cirrhosis, pancreatic (Avicenna), physiology (Al-Ash'ath) and anatomy (Ibn Nafis) [44].
insufficiency, cancer, hypertension and heart disease. Thus, the Most notable of these to cardiovascular anatomy was the findings of
likelihood of obtaining various cardiovascular diseases is significantly Ibn al-Nafis, a 13th century Syrian physician, who boldly rejected
decreased through the lifestyle encouraged by the Qur'an and Hadeeth. Galen's assertion that there was a direct (but invisible) passage
through the interventricular septum between the right and left
ventricles. Ibn al-Nafis, who wrote medical, theological and philoso-
5. Contributions to medicine
phical works, made his greatest contribution in Sharh tashrih ibn Sina
(“Explanation of the Dissection of Avicenna”), as he asserted that
Experimental embryology is a fairly recent discovery, its roots
there was no direct interventricular opening and outlined, for the first
beginning with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century.
time in history, the pulmonary circulation:
Even so, the idea that the human being developed in stages to form
the fetus rather than in a miniature human form present in a gamete
“The blood, after it has been refined in this cavity [i.e., the right
developed much later in history as more accurate stages in
ventricle], must be transmitted to the left cavity where the [vital]
embryological development were described with the introduction of
spirit is generated. But there is no passage between these two
technologically advanced equipment. The Qur'an and the Hadeeth
cavities; for the substance of the heart is solid in this region and
provide detailed, accurate descriptions of the major events that occur
has neither a visible passage, as was thought by some persons, nor
during embryological development. The terminology used by the
an invisible one which could have permitted the transmission of
author of the Qur'an is “…characterized by descriptiveness, accuracy,
blood, as was alleged by Galen. The pores of the heart there are
ease of comprehension, and integration between description of
closed and its substance is thick. Therefore, the blood after having
appearance and main internal processes” and the “timing of sexual
been refined, must rise in the arterious vein [i.e., pulmonary
development, fetal development and the acquisition of a human
artery] to the lung in order to expand in its volume and to be
appearance” are also discussed [39].
mixed with air so that its finest part may be clarified and may
Although many verses in the Qur'an and prophetic traditions
reach the venous artery [i.e., pulmonary vein] in which it is
discuss the development of the embryo, only two will be described
transmitted to the left cavity of the heart. This, after having been
below. It is remarkable to note that the descriptions presented in these
mixed with the air and having attained the aptitude to generate
7th century texts closely resemble the various stages of the embryo.
the [vital] spirit. That part of the blood which is less refined is used
by the lung for its nutrition” [45].
“We [God] created man from a quintessence of clay. We then placed
him as a nutfah (drop) in a place of settlement, firmly fixed, then We
Ibn al-Nafis is one of numerous examples of the modern contribution
made the drop into an ‘alaqah (leech-like structure), and then We
of the teachings of the Qur'an and Hadeeth to modern medicine. Much of
changed the ’alaqah into a mudhah (chewed-like substance, somite
the scientific discoveries and advancements during the Renaissance
stage), then We clothed the bones with lahm (muscles, flesh), then
were largely influenced by the works of various Islamic physicians and
We caused him to grow and come into being and attain the definitive
scientists.
(human) form. So, blessed be God, the best to create” [40].
6. Conclusions
“When forty-two nights have passed over the conceptus, God
sends an angel to it, who shapes it (into human form), makes its The Qur'an and prophetic traditions and sayings of Mohammad
hearing, sight, skin, muscles and bones…” [41]. were religious, spiritual, and scientific and influenced medical and
anatomical texts. In particular, specific emphasis is given to the
Shortly after the death of Mohammad, not only did his followers components of the cardiovascular system. The heart is extensively
vastly expand the Islamic empire, but they also became scientific and described as both an organ of psyche, intelligence, and emotion, as
medical innovators and educators. The Islamic empire, for more than well as an important body of the organ that can be harmed such as
1000 years, remained the most advanced and civilized empire in the exhibiting thrombi. An in-depth analysis of the contribution of Islamic
world, and the inspiration of all the scientific and medical discoveries medicine in anatomy, physiology, and health is severely lacking in the
and practices stemmed from the teachings of the Qur'an and the Ha- West and, if conducted, would uncover that discoveries made by
deeth, teachings that strongly encouraged and supported the drive to European scientists were actually made centuries prior, within the
seek knowledge and to make scientific achievements and discoveries. vast Islamic empire. Perhaps European scientists during the Middle
For instance, a few centuries after the death of Mohammad, the medical Ages and beyond failed to benefit from the discoveries of the
education that developed closely resembled what we have today. The neighboring Islamic empire for multiple reasons, including poor
curriculum consisted of training in the basic sciences, which included translations [46] and the unreadiness of the medical establishment to
anatomy being taught by dissecting apes, skeletal studies, and didactics, give prominence to observation and study over the word of ancient
and clinical training, where therapeutics, pathology, surgery, and authority [47]. As new advances in technology and medicine continue
orthopedics were taught [42]. Licensing examinations and boards to grow at an exponential rate today, there is time to reflect and
were first established and required within the Islamic empire beginning appreciate the Islamic contribution to medicine. It is for this reason
931 A.D. The transmission of various diseases was well known around that the discoveries and medical revelations in Qur'an should not be
this time, which led to the creation of different wards at hospitals which ignored or forgotten.
treated different illnesses. Also, this was the first time in history where
leprosy and mental illnesses were not viewed as demonological events Acknowledgement
but as treatable, physical diseases [43]. This era was also the first time
where patient records were written and stored. The authors of this manuscript have certified that they comply
There were numerous other contributions made by a number of with the Principles of Ethical Publishing in the International Journal of
Muslim physicians in various fields of medicine, including medical Cardiology [48].
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Press; 2005. p. 80. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications,
[8] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 1996, Book 2 hadeeth 49.
Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, [33] Muslim I. Sahih Muslim Volumes I–IV. Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al
1996, Book 71, hadeeth 584. Saadawi Publications, 1996, Book 1 hadeeth 311.
[9] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 [34] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 4. Oxford University
Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, Press; 2005. p. 142. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem.
1996, Book #71 hadeeth 592. [35] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 13. Oxford University
[10] Imam YO. Health Care Services in the Contemporary World. Islam Q 1995;39:234–55. Press; 2005. p. 28. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem.
[11] Muslim I. Sahih Muslim Volumes I–IV. Translated Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al [36] Al-Jauziyah IIQ. Healing with the Medicine of the Prophet (Peace be upon Him).
Saadawi Publications, 1996, Book 023, hadeeth 5080. Fordham University: Darussalam Publishers & Distributors; 1999. Translated by
[12] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 2. Oxford University Jalal Abual Rub.
Press; 2005. p. 233. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [37] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 5. Oxford University
[13] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 Press; 2005. p. 90. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem.
Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, [38] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 2. Oxford University
1996, Book 54 hadeeth 483. Press; 2005. p. 219. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem.
[14] Muslim, I. Sahih Muslim Volumes I–IV. Translated Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al [39] Zindani AA, Johnson EM, Goeringer GC, et al. Human Development As Described in
Saadawi Publications, 1996, Book 002 hadeeth 432. the Qur’an and Sunnah: Correlation with Modern Embryology, vol. 1. Bridgeview,
[15] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 Illinois: Islamic Academy for Scientific Research; 1994. p. 28.
Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, [40] Zindani AA, Johnson EM, Goeringer GC, et al. Human Development As Described in
1996, Book 72 hadeeth 777. the Qur’an and Sunnah: Correlation with Modern Embryology, vol. 31. Bridgeview,
[16] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 Illinois: Islamic Academy for Scientific Research; 1994. (translation of Qur’an
Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, 23:12–24).
1996, Book 71 hadeeth 608. [41] Zindani AA, Johnson EM, Goeringer GC, et al. Human Development As Described in
[17] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 5. Oxford University the Qur’an and Sunnah: Correlation with Modern Embryology, vol. 31. Bridgeview,
Press; 2005. p. 3. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. Illinois: Islamic Academy for Scientific Research; 1994. (from a hadeeth related by
[18] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 50. Oxford University Muslim, Abu Dawud, At-Tabarani, Ja'far Al-Faryabi and Ibn Hajar).
Press; 2005. p. 16. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [42] Syed IS. Islamic Medicine: “1000 years ahead of its times. J Int Soc History Islamic
[19] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 Med 2002;2:4.
Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, [43] Syed IS. Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times. J Int Soc History Islamic
1996, Book 3 hadeeth 251. Med 2002;2:8.
[20] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 69. Oxford University [44] Syed IS. Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times. J Int Soc History Islamic
Press; 2005. p. 45–6. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. Med 2002;2:4–8.
[21] Translations of the Qur’an. Translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Marmaduke Pickthall, [45] Quoted in Prioreschi P. Anatomy in Medieval Islam. J Int Soc History Islamic Med
and Mohammad Habib Shakir, University of Southern California: Center for 2006;3.
Muslim–Jewish Engagement, Webpage Accessed March 18, 2009, http://www. [46] Hehmeyer I, Khan A. Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science. Can Med
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Please cite this article as: Loukas M, et al, The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, Int J Cardiol (2009), doi:10.1016/j.
ijcard.2009.05.011

65. Health And Medicine In The Islamic Tradition Based
On The Book Of Medicine (Kitab Al-Tibb) Of
Sahih Al-Bukhari
Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH*
* Senior Lecturer Faculty of Human Ecology Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: inasanis@hotmail.com
Summary
This article attempts to study the book of medicine (kitab al-tibb) in Sahih al-Bukhari. The book of medicine appears in the bo-
ok 76 which consists of 58 chapters with 105 traditions (hadiths). The titles of each chapter in the book of medicine reflect the con-
tent of traditions regarding the medicine and what is related to it. The book of Medicine (kitab al-tibb) gives primarily idea on the
conditions of Muslims in the time of Prophet (s.a.w), how did they prevent and treat the disease. It is found that most of al-tibb al-
nabawi is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather than therapeutic medicine (al-tibb al-`ilaji), and has been practiced in the ti-
me of the Prophet (s.a.w) and even after.
Key words: Islamic Medicine; Medicine of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-Nabawi); Kitab al-Tibb of Sahih al-Bukahri; Imam Bukhari (194-
256/ 810-870).
I. Al-Jami` al-Sahih (Sahih al-Bukhari) 2,602 hadiths (9,082 with repetition). Sahih al-Bu-
of Imam Bukhari kahri has been commented by many scholars. Among
them are al-`Alam al-Sunan fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari
Al-Jami` al-Sahih, known as Sahih al-Bukhari, is
a recognized collection of hadiths of the Prophet by al-Kirmani (717-786/1318-1385); `Umdah al-Qa-
(s.a.w) (1). It was compiled by Muhammad b. Isma`il ri by Badr al-Din `Ayni (762-855/1361-1452); Fath
al-Bukhari (194-256/ 810-870). The hadiths were ar- al-Bari by Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani (773 – 852/1372-
ranged in 97 books (kutub, the plural of kitab) with 1449); and Irshad al-Sari li Sharh Sahih Bukhari by
3,450 chapters (abwab, its singular is bab). They we- al-Qastalani (851- 923/1148-1518).
re classified according to subject matters on Fiqh. In Al-Bukhari’s criteria for acceptance of hadiths in-
addition, the other subjects such as theology, ethics to his collection were amongst the accepted criteria
and medicine are found as a separated kitab in Sahih of Muslim scholars of hadith. Each report in his col-
al-Bukhari. The Sahih al-Bukhari is recognized by lection was checked for compatibility with the
the overwhelming majority of the Muslim scholars to Qur’an, and the veracity of the chain of reporters had
be one of the most authentic collections of the hadith to be painstakingly established. It is not merely its
or Sunnah of the Prophet (s.a.w) (2). authenticity that makes this particular collection ari-
Imam Bukhari spent sixteen years compiling the sing interested by Muslim scholars, but also the vital
hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w), and ended up with role it played in developing the concept of health,
* This article is part of my “Health and Medicine in the Light of the Book of Medicine (Kitab al-Tibb) in Sahih Bukhari”. It was pre-
pared while I was a Visiting Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies (OCIS). I would like to express my deepest thank to
the Director of OCIS, Dr. F.A Nizami for giving me the golden opportunity to conduct my research at the Centre as well as for the
funding that I received from the Centre. Currently, the author is a Senior lecturer at the Department of Government and Civilizati-
on Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail: nurdeng@putra.upm.edu.my
2 JISHIM 2006, 5

66. HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
medicine, prevention and treatment of disease rele- cacity, intelligence, sophistication, cleverness, effici-
vance to this age (3). ency, ability to negotiate, mastering with consumma-
te skills, finesses, along with aspiration and glad ti-
II. Views on al-Tibb al-Nabawi dings. After understanding this, Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni
(Medicine of the Prophet) underlined that medicine is the knowledge of the sta-
tes of human body (Ahwal Badn al-Insan) in health
The book of Medicine (kitab al-tibb) of Sahih al-
and decline in health (disease); its purpose is preser-
Bukhari reflects Imam Bukhari’s view on the scope
ving health and adopting suitable measures for resto-
of medicine in Islam. The scope of medicine has be-
ring health whenever lost (al-tibb huwa `ilm yu`raf
en explained in the very well known commentaries of
bihi ahwal al-badn al-insan min jihhat ma yasihhu
Sahih al-Bukhari namely Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih
wa yazul `anhu al-sihhat li tahfizu al-sihhah hasiluhu
al-Bukhari of Ahmad b. Ali Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d.
wa tastariddu raza`iluhu) (6).
852/1449) and Umdat al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukha-
ri of Abu Muhammad Mahmud Ahmad al-`Ayni (d. According to the above, the restoration of lost he-
855/1452), both were living in the era when medical alth is the second aim of Islamic medicine. Basically,
literature over flows with all sorts of medical discip- the restoration of health in Islamic traditional system
lines, on the meaning of medicine. It was probably in consists of a number of different therapies or treat-
consequence of reading those literatures that they we- ments, notably using a gulp of honey, cupping and
re in preference to hold that medicine of the Prophet cauterization. Later on, medicaments, psycho-spiritu-
as other medical sciences is so broad, meaning that, it al healing, and surgical intervention were introduced
does not only refer to what had been said and practi- when many Muslims had learnt from other civilizati-
ced in the time of Prophet but it reaches and includes on. As in Greek medicine, Islamic medicine gives
as it does into every field of human medical research, very clear distinction between mufradah (simple) and
activity and thought at all time. To do so, one should murakkabah (compound) drugs. In this regard, physi-
know the problem and cause of certain cases, then, he cians are advised, if possible, to avoid treating dise-
should try to solve it by consulting hadiths of the ases with compound drugs if it effects the weakening
Prophet (s.a.w) relating to medicine as well as anci- of the body. This was an extremely attractive theory
ent and contemporary medical books (4). which actually provided valuable prevention of dise-
ases because the compound medicines are likely to
So, it was at the time when medical systems were
have more side effects. Those people whose foods
introduced and practiced widely by Muslims, Ibn Ha-
are, for the most part, simple have very few ailments,
jar and Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni were very concerned in
and their treatment also consists of simple medicines.
giving the scope of medicine of the Prophet in broad
But for city dwellers that are used to compound foods
sense especially when they found that Imam Bukhari
need compound medicine as well (7).
was in favor to name one of his chapters (kutub, its
singular is kitab) as kitab al-tibb (the book of medi- However, there are people who define medicine of
cine) rather than kitab al-tibb al-nabawi (the book of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-Nabawi) as medical treat-
the medicine of the Prophet). Having this in mind, ments, prescriptions of diseases, prevention, health
they clarified the word al-tibb in the linguistic and promotion and spiritual aspects that were recommen-
medical perspectives. Ibn Hajar, for example, held ded by Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) to his compani-
that the word “tibb” in Arabic language was used to ons, and what does not come from the Prophet (s.a.w)
denote al-hadhaq bi al-shai` (perfect knowledge of is, therefore, not considered as medicine of the Prop-
thing and skill in doing it). Those who possess the het. It is because of this understanding and attitude
skill of treatment and healing are called Tabib (5). It that practicing al-Tibb al-Nabawi, according to this
also carries other meanings such as to amend, resto- school of thought, is part of following the sunnah of
re, adjust, improve, correct, as well as kindness, ex- Prophet (s.a.w) and those who follow other methods
pertise, judiciousness, skillfulness, resourcefulness, of healing are, therefore, not truly following the sun-
competence, maturity, habit, regular practice, perspi- nah of Prophet and probably Islamic teaching too. It
JISHIM 2006, 5 3

67. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
seems that this narrow interpretation of the scope of jor branches. First, al-`ilm bi al-umur al-tabiah (the
medicine of the Prophet seemingly does not hold true science of natural affairs), that concerned with the
meaning of the concept of health and medicine in Is- functioning of structures, organs, and parts of the hu-
lamic tradition. man body viewed as a living organism. It also inclu-
ded the science of anatomy. Second is al-ilm bi al-
III. Division of Medicine umur al-lati laysat bi tabiah (the science of non natu-
In the introduction of his commentary of Sahih ral affairs) (11). This idea, which was originally in-
Bukhari of Kitab al-Tibb, Ibn Hajar divides the scien- troduced by Greek medical doctors, most notably Hi-
ce of medicine into two types namely Tibb Jasad pocrates and Galen, was known in Greaco Islamic
(physical medicine) and Tibb Qalb (spiritual medici- system as al-darurah al-sitta and later known as sex
ne). Ibn Hajar praises the value and usefulness of me- res non naturals in Latin. Non-natural affairs referred
dicine, and stresses the primary importance of Tibb to the necessary elements for survival and yet they
al-Jasad and Tibb al-Qalb because they are associ- were not natural or to the extent that they can be in
ated (8). There is a symbiotic relationship between some sense manipulated by humans in order to pre-
the two kinds of medical knowledge, as one would vent and treat diseases. These six necessary factors
find it impossible to achieve one form of medical sci- for the preservation of health were air, movement and
ence without the other. This implies that Muslims rest, food and drink, sleeping and waking, retention
should be fully aware of spiritual and physical medi- and excretion, which include bathing, defecation, uri-
cine because, in Islam, the breath and the body, the nation and coitus.
soul and matter, the faith and the world have been ac- The third type of theoretical medicine is known as
corded equal importance. If this is so, the, Ibn Hajar’s al-ilm bi al-umur al-kharijah an al-amr al-tabiah
division of medicine, implies that one is able to obta- (things outside nature) (12). It is rather unfortunate
in the happiness in this world and in the hereafter as that we know so little about this because Ibn al-Ayni
long as he is physically and spiritually healthy, and it did not explain what he means by al-ilmu bi al-umur
can be achieved by the art of medicine, which preser- al-karijah an al-amr al-tabi`ah. However, it would
ves and restores the health (9). be easy to interprete it correctly, if we refer to the ha-
In trying to reconstruct an aspect of the Greek me- dith of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) who said: “Truly,
dicine, we found another division of medicine given in the body there is a morsel of flesh, and when it is
by Ibn Ahmad al-`Ayni, in his introduction to `Um- corrupt the body is corrupt, and when it is sound the
dah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari. It is interesting body is sound. Truly, it is the qalb (heart) (13). The
that after giving a clear definition of the science of hadith implies that when there is equilibrium in the
medicine, as mentioned before, he divided the scien- nature of the body with the nature of heart, the body
ce of medicine into two main parts namely the the- stays healthy. When equilibrium is lost, things beco-
oretical (al-`ilm) and the practical science (al-`amal). me contra-natural and disease is produced.
The former, according to him, is the true knowledge The above as has been mentioned is theoretical as-
of the intended subject in the mind of mankind by pect of medicine. Having known theory alone would
which it can administer and put into practice (ma`ri- not permit physician to interpret medical science cor-
fah haqiqah al-maqsud wahuwa maudu` fi al-fikr al- rectly. Thus, we see that Ibn al-`Ayni emphasized that
ladhi yakunu bihi al-tadbir) and the latter is the ex- a physician should master the second kind of medici-
ternal part of the subject in human’s mind by which ne that is known as al-`amal (practical science). This
man is able to put into practice directly either through is related to practical medicine that comprised of two
the sense or hand (surgery) (khuruj dhalik al-maudu braches namely preventive medicine (hifz al-Sihhah)
fi al-fikr ila al-mubashirah bi al-hiss wa al-amal bi and therapeutic (ilm al-ilaj) medicine. The former,
al-yadd) (10). hifz al-sihhah), is preventing and preserving the state
To give further explanation, Ibn al-`Ayni asserted of the body in its nature, the state in which human be-
that the theoretical medicine comprised of three ma- ings function normally and in sound and perfect con-
4 JISHIM 2006, 5

68. HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
dition: in healthy body, mind and spirit. It is generally three major fields namely: promotion of health, pre-
acknowledged that hifz al-sihhah is the most impor- vention of illness and restoration of health. In regard
tant branch of Islamic medicine since it is primarily to the former, Imam Bukhari deals with the promoti-
concerned with the prevention and preservation of on of health and preventive measures against disease.
health rather than with cure. In truth, perfect health is As we know, most of early Islamic medical tradition
a wish that humans crave for because it is one of the is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather than
Creator’s greatest blessings after faith. In order to therapeutic medicine (tibb al-`ilaji), which is no do-
show the importance of prevention and preservation ubt considered as an advanced concept given the le-
of health amongst his followers, the Prophet (s.a.w) vel of scientific knowledge at that time. Even Imam
said: “There are two gifts of which many men are Bukhari does not provide specific chapter on preven-
cheated: health (al-sihhah) and leisure (al-faragh)” tion of disease, however, he mentions numerous pre-
(14). By linking al-sihhah (health) and al-faragh (le- ventive measures against disease scattered in several
isure) together has its significant. It stresses the fact books of his Sahih Bukhari such as cleanliness, use
that Muslims should take good care of their health of tooth stick (siwak), food, bath and exercise. Other
and always strive to remain in a healthy state because preventive measures in Sahih Bukhari include: qua-
if he is in a healthy state, he would be able to fulfill rantine for epidemics, precaution against al-judham
his duty towards God during leisure (al-faragh) by (leprosy); precaution against disease that may occur
acquiring both spiritual and physical knowledge, so as a result of falling a fly in the liquid; forbidding
that his soul will reach the ultimate goal namely the drinking al-khamr, forbidding suicide, precautions of
appreciation of God. fire in the house, etc.
While he was discussing practical medicine, Ibn Preservation of health should be the primary ob-
Ahmad al-Ayni asserted that the purpose of ilm al-ilaj ject of medicine in which a physician has to give, and
(therapeutic medicine) is above all to support the na- not the ‘disease’. Throughout Islamic civilization, the
tural striving of the body to return to its natural, he- primary goal of the medical system is to maintain he-
althy state. Looking to the nature of the practical me- alth rather than to cure the disease or restore it whe-
dicine, many Muslim scholars both religious and me- never lost. This is in harmony with the objective of
dical authorities, considered practical medicine both Islamic law that keeping health is better than the tre-
hifz al-sihhah (preventive medicine) and therapeutics atment of disease. In other words, the real purpose of
(ilm al-ilaj), as the noblest science in Islam because its medical is to save human life and to improve the suf-
subject matter is human body who is the noblest being ferings of living beings (17). Precaution against lep-
of God (15). In line with this, Abu Bakr Rabi’ b. Ah- rosy was commonly known in the time of the Prophet
mad al-Akhwini al-Bukhari, who lived in the tenth (s.a.w). The Prophet (s.a.w) advised people to run
century, in his Hidayat al-Muta‘allim (Guide for Stu- away from the leper as one would run away from a li-
on (farra min al-judham kama tafarra min al-asad)
dent) articulated that wise men have once said that it
(18). This strong command is an effective method of
is incumbent upon every person to learn the basic of
preventing the spreading of leprosy from one to anot-
Islamic law, because when a person knows its Law, he
her. It was believed that leprous’s breath intensifies
is immune from going astray. Next, a Muslim must
until he gave the disease to another person who came
study some basic medicine in order to preserve health,
into contact with him. Similarly, if a woman sleeps
so that quack doctors will not be able to dispense the-
with a leper, he transmits the disease to her. She may
ir mistreatments. In addition, he must learn some skill
become leprous. In Arabic medical literature, leprosy
to earn his livelihood by lawful means (16).
(al-Judham) is known as “the lion’s disease.” This
clearly reveals that the disease makes the sufferer’s
IV. Hadiths on Prevention of Illness and skin and face very harsh and gives the appearance of
Preservation of Health a lion. In the early development of Islam, peoples be-
Imam Bukhari is well aware that the task of medi- lieved that leprosy caused the patient to carry out des-
cine, which is unanimously agreed, is concerned truction on whoever approaches or comes near him,
JISHIM 2006, 5 5

69. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
as a lion would. As we know, leprosy, mainly affects ants to identify the wing that carries the antidote but
the skin, the peripheral nerves and also the eyes, apart one of the Ulama` said he observed that the fly pro-
from some other structures. Leprosy has plagued tects itself instinctively. Naturally, the left wing has
mankind since the very beginning of recorded his- been protected by the right one. In other words, one
tory. Many civilizations were affected such as China, side is poison and the other the antidote (24). Ibn Ha-
Egypt, India and Islam. Yet, there was not much sci- jar (773–852/1372-1449) also discusses another in-
entific treatment of leprosy during that time (19). terpretation of the statement “fa inna fi ihda janahay-
Imam Bukhari mentioned interesting examples of hi (for on one of its wings).” It carries an abstract
preventive measures taken by the Prophet (s.a.w) meaning as the words of God “wakhfid lahuma janah
when a fly falls into the liquid. According to the al-dhull (and out of kindness, lower to them the wing
Prophet (s.a.w.), a fly carries poison and antidote. In of humanity) (surah al-Isra (17): 24).” This implies
the last chapter of kitab al-tibb of Sahih Bukhari, Bab that the poison may be understood the pride (takab-
’idha waqa‘ al-dhubab fi al-’ina’, which contains bur) occurring in one’s soul causing him to disdain
only one tradition of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), eating that food or avoid and discard it altogether,
Imam Bukhari reported that the Propeht (s.a.w) said: while the antidote takes places by suppressing the so-
“If a fly falls in the vessel of any one of you, let him ul and forcing it to be humble (25).
dip the whole of it (into the vessel) and then throw it It is no wondered that al-Khatabi, although chal-
away, for on one of its wings there is a disease and on lenged by the people in his time, was asserting in an
the other is healing” (20). According to Abu Tayyib affirmative way that, the poison of a fly is in the front
al-Tabari as quoted by Ibn Hajar (773–852/1372- wings while the remedy is in the back wings. Ibn Ha-
1449), the hadith does not stress on cleanliness (al- jar (773–852/1372-1449) related the story by al-Kha-
taharah) and impurity (al-najasah) matter. Rather, it tabi that some people commented the hadith and siad:
stresses on how to prevent the disease as a result of a How can it be possible that both illness and healing
fly falling into the vessel of liquid (bayan al-tadawi are present in the front wings and the cure in the back
min darar al-dhubab) (21). In other words, the hadith wings? He replied: this was questioned that a fool
inspire us about the medical aspect of fly, which pro- would ask. This is because many of God’s creations
vide the necessary means and religious justification possess opposite characteristics i.e., hot and cold, and
for the preservation of health. The Prophet (s.a.w) en- wet and dry. These temperaments are opposites of
couraged the ummah to preserve her health by asking each others. If Allah (s.w.t) has been able to create
her to dip the fly into the vessel completely, if, unfor- thousands of combinations of them, then surely it
tunately, it falls into the vessel of food or drink. This cannot be denied that He can also placed both poison
is because, when a fly touches a liquid food, it infects and its cure in some creatures such as a fly. Al-Kha-
the liquid with its pathogens, therefore the fly must tabi added that it is a great wisdom to create a fly with
be dipped in order to release the antidote counter ba- poison and antidote. This is because the fly would al-
lancing the pathogens (22). ways keep its “antidote wing” so that it may be able
to fly away. This behavior is divinely-inspired ins-
In his Fath al-Bari, Ibn Hajar (773–852/1372-
tinct similar to that of the bees and the ants (26).
1449) supports the stand that a fly carries some pat-
hogens on parts of its body, including the antidote for We may safely assume that the diseases caused by
those pathogenic organisms. He further asserts that flies i.e., malaria, typhoid, cholera, eye disease and
Thumama (r.a) and other companions were with Anas others, occurred in Prophet’s time because flies infec-
when a fly fell into a vessel. Anas motioned with his ted the food, sat on the eyelids of sleeping children
hand and immersed it (faghamasahu) three times, and spread diseases of eye. We have no evidence that
then recited: “Bismillah” and he said that truly, this there was a particular disease that was caused by fly
was what had been done by the Messenger of Allah” and the specific drug for that disease during the time
(23). Immediately after mentioning the event, Ibn of Prophet (s.a.w). Nevertheless, one fact is clear was
Hajar comments: “I found nothing among the vari- that the Prophet (s.a.w) reminded his Ummah that if
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70. HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
a fly falls into the vessel of any one of them, they we- three things). Two of them were narrated by Ibn `Ab-
re to dip the whole of fly into the vessel and then bas and another was by Jabir b. Abd Allah. First:
throw. This was to prevent them from the disease that “Healing is in three things: a gulp of honey, cupping,
may occur because of fly. Furthermore, we also learn and branding with fire (cauterizing), however, I for-
from the hadith about the purity of fly and on the wa- bid my followers to use branding with fire (cauteriza-
ter and liquid where fly may also be found dead. The tion) (al-Shifa’ fi thalatha: sharbat `asal, wa shartah
consensus among Muslim Jurists is that the fly is pu- mihjam, wa kayyah nar, wa anha ummati `an al-
re (al-dhubab tahir) and does not spoil a liquid even kayy).” Second: “Healing is in three things: cupping,
if its quantity is small and even if fly dies in it except a drink of honey and cauterization (branding with fi-
according Imam al-Shafi`i, if one of the aspects of the re) but I forbid my followers to use cauterization (al-
liquid is affected i.e., changing smell, color, taste) Shifa’ fi Thalatha: fi Shartati Mihjam, aw Sharbat
(27). On the other hand, based on Prophet’s com- Asal, aw Kayy bi Nar, wa Anha Ummati an al-
mand “liyanzi`uhu’ (throw it way), some Shafi’s ju- Kayy).” In another version, it was narrated by Jabir
rist concluded that a liquid becomes impure while bin Abdullah that he heard the Prophet said: “If there
Abu Hanifah said it is not impure (annaha la tanjis) is any healing in your medicines, then it is in cup-
(28). ping, a drink of honey or branding with fire (cauteri-
zation) that suits the ailment, but I don’t like to be
V. Hadiths on Healing of Diseases (cauterized) branded with fire” (29).
Imam Bukhari also mentioned hadiths relating to In his interpretation of the above hadiths, Ibn Ha-
the methods of treatment of disease which was prac- jar (773–852/1372-1449) reminded us that the treat-
ticed in the time of Prophet (s.a.w). It is found that ment of disease does not predestine only three met-
the method of treatment of disease in the time of the hods of healing namely a gulp of honey, cupping, and
Prophet (s.a.w) was considered advance method gi- branding with fire (cauterizing). In trying to answer
ven the level of scientific knowledge at the time. In the question, why did the Prophet (s.a.w) mention
this regard, medicine of Prophet is not only history only three methods of healing?, Ibn Hajar clarified
but it is history as well as medicine. So, if general that the Prophet (s.a.w) mentioned only three met-
history is an instrument of life, the medical history is hods of healing mainly because they were usul al-
an instrument of medical life. Though it seems that `ilaj, the principle of treatment of disease. In additi-
the modern way of treatment of disease is better than on, it was widely known among the Arab in that time.
in Prophetic method of treatment of disease partly be- It is possible that this belief was the result of Mus-
cause the Prophetic medicine is not based on medical lim’s discoveries during that time that the cause of di-
experiments but rather on inspiration, experience sease was mainly blood (damawi) or yellow bile (saf-
from the previous culture and tradition. In many ob- rawi) or black bile (sawdawi) or phlegm (balghi)
vious cases, many companions of Prophet (s.a.w) co- (30). This implies that the Arab in that time viewed
uld treat a patient suffering from certain diseases du- the nature of disease in terms of philosophy and loo-
ring that time successfully without any knowledge of ked upon it as a disturbance in the equilibrium of the
medicine as practiced today but they merely followed body’s blood, yellow bile (safrawi), black bile (saw-
the instruction of the Prophet (s.a.w) relating to the dawi) and phlegm (balghi) (30). Thus, the disease,
treatment of disease i.e., a gulp of honey, cupping (hi- which is caused by one of them should be treated eit-
jamah), and cauterization (kayy: to burn a wound her by hijamah (taking the impure blood from the
with hot metal or a chemical to stop the blood or stop body) or honey. If we failed to treat a disease by the
it becoming infected). mentioned method, then, it must be treated by caute-
Hadiths on healing in three things (al-Shifa’ fi rization or surgery as in our time. The latter could not
Thalatha) were reported by Imam Bukhari (194-256/ be more than a last option to which physicians had to
810-870), in his Kitab al-Tibb (book of medicine), consider when a gulp of honey, cupping and pharma-
Bab al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha (chapter on healing is in ceutical treatments failed.
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71. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
When we pondering this method of treatment of A. Honey: Healing for Men
disease, one finds that the treatment of disease, in the (Shifa’ li al-Nas)
time of Prophet (s.a.w), was basically according to
In Islamic medical system, as in most other medi-
the nature of disease and to know its treatment, they
cal systems, honey is considered as healthy drink. We
were advised to know its cause and symptom (ma`ri-
are not surprising Imam Bukhari entitled chapter fo-
fatuhu bitahqiq al-sabab wa al-alamah). That is why
ur of his Kitab al-Tibb (book of medicine) as “al-Da-
before commenting the method of healing as high-
wa’ bi al-Asal wa Qawlihi Ta`ala ‘Fihi Shifa li al-Nas
lighted in the hadith, Ibn Hajar had to clarify two
(treatment with honey and the statement of Allah:
types of diseases namely material disease (mard ma-
where is healing for men).” At this place, Imam al-
diyyah) and non material disease (mard ghayra ma-
Bukhari mentioned three ahadith on honey together
diyyah). The former is referred to the disease caused
with its value which is emphasized in many verses of
by hotness (al-hararah), coldness (al-baridah). The
the Quran. In Surah al-Nahl verses: 68-69, Allah
latter is divided into wet (rutbah), dry (yabisah) and
(s.w.t) describes honey as Shifa’ li al-Nas: “And thy
compound (murakkabah). The non material disease,
Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills, on tre-
according to Ibn Hajar, is treated by what has been
es, and in (men’s) habitations; Then to eat of all the
said in the hadith ‘fever is from the heat of Hell, so
produce (of the earth), and find with skill the spaci-
abate fever with water’ (31).
ous paths of its Lord: there issues from within their
In the light of this evidence, we feel much more bodies a drink of varying colors, wherein is healing
confidence to say that the body and the soul of man- for men: verily in this is a sign for those who give
kind have the possibility to be healthy or sick, balan- thought.” In view of this benefit, it is worth to menti-
ced or imbalanced. Imbalance of the body is like fe- on one of the most well known hadith, in regard to
ver, headache and other physical illness, while that of the medical benefits of honey, that has been menti-
the soul is like anger, anxiety, sadness and similar oned by Imam Bukhari in his Sahih Bukhari in Kitab
symptoms. The former diseases should be treated al-Tibb (book of medicine), Bab al-Dawa bi al-`Asal
through the medical methods involving the use of ho- waqawl Allah Ta`ala fihi Shifa li al-Nas (chapter on
ney, cupping and cauterization, while the latter sho- treatment with honey and the statement of Allah:
uld be treated by spiritual method of treatments. In where is healing for men). Accordingly, the Prophet
certain cases, one was encouraged to use the spiritu- (s.a.w) said: “A man came to the Prophet and said:
al treatment rather than physical treatment for many “My brother has some abdominal trouble.” The Prop-
reasons. First, in seeking to be healed from the dise- het (s.a.w) replied to him “let him drink honey.” The
ase of the body, the patients bear the bitterness of me- man came for the second time and the Prophet repli-
dications, the suffering of cauterization as well as ed to him, ‘let him drink honey.” He came for the
spending large sums of money for medical treatment third time and the Prophet replied, “let him drink ho-
and care. On the other hand, the care and refinement ney.” He returned again and said, “I have done that”.
of the soul which is far more important, is more plea-
The Prophet (s.a.w) then said, “Allah has said the
sant and rewarding and less costly to treat and resto-
truth, but your brother’s abdomen has told a lie (sa-
re (32). Secondly, if the disease was caused by the
daqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhika). Let him drink
Jinn and evils, therefore, the ordinary medical thera-
honey. So he made him drink honey and he was cu-
pies were insufficient. Instead, it has to be cured by
red” (33).
giving the effort that may help to end the evil spirit’s
influence i.e., by strengthening faith in God. This is From the above hadith, the treatment of disease
because, if a persons’ soul was fortified with strong was very simple. May be because the Prophet (s.a.w)
faith, the evil spirits could not easily influence a knew what made the patient sick because he was
Muslim. In other words, the spiritual disease is appe- aware of the well-known method of treatment of di-
ared as a result of the lack of faith and misery of the arrhea (34). In that time, diarrhea was treated by ma-
soul. In this case, the spiritual disease has to be cured king the patient vomit or by giving him laxative me-
by spiritual treatment. dicine to increase the flow by taking honey. In relati-
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72. HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
on to this, the hadith is concerned about a man who This interpretation is a reminder that men should not
came to the Prophet (s.a.w) and said that his brother be arrogant by attributing cure to themselves and not
was suffering from dysentery (istatlaqa batn) (35). Allah (s.w.t). Thus, if we relate this idea with the sta-
To cure this disease, the Prophet (s.a.w) recommen- tement,” the statement of God is true and the stomach
ded honey. He came back and reported honey had do- of your brother lies,” we may conclude that someti-
ne no good to his brother. The Prophet (s.a.w) was mes the measures that humans take to cure a disease
again advised to take honey. He came back the third may not be sufficient on their own to alleviate and ea-
and also the fourth time and said he had seen no im- se the condition; it is Allah’s divine intervention and
provement. The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “The statement mercy that brings about the complete cure (39).
of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies
Of course, there is no sharp different between the
(sadaqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhika)” (36).
above view with the following. It is equally obvious
Apparently, the brother’s patient claimed that he that the commentators of hadith seem to agree that
had followed the instruction of Prophet (s.a.w), but it the hadith referred to a particular kinds of stomach
was no consequences. Thus, we cannot conclude the disease namely diarrhea. It is mostly occurred when
discussion on this hadith without giving a few words mucus (a liquid produced in parts of body such as in
about the meaning of the saying of Prophet (s.a.w): nose) clings to the bowels and interferes with the pro-
“The statement of God is true and the stomach of yo- cess of absorption. With this illness, it is honey that
ur brother lies (sadaqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhi- expels the excess moisture. Because, the moisture is
ka)” (37). driven out and expelled downwards when honey is
eaten. In Umdah al-Qari, Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni expres-
It is important to understand the hadith especially
sed and recognized that drinking honey may open up
the Prophet’s statement, “The statement of God is
the obstructions of the blood vessels, dissolve the ex-
true and the stomach of your brother lies.” Before we
cessive food by evacuating the stomach and intesti-
give the correct interpretation of this statement, there
nes and clear the chest and liver (40). Furthermore,
are two major remarks, which derive from the hadith,
al-Baghdadi was of the opinion that honey, which
that we have to put into consideration. First, the Prop-
contains a variety of sugar and mineral, is good to pu-
het (s.a.w) was aware of the disease and the cure that
rify what in the veins and stomach. Consequently, it
was suitable for the patient since he was surely beli-
is a potential to make the blood to circulate better and
ef of the benefit of honey for patient. It is the nature
provide more air to areas of the body such as the bra-
of honey to expel whatever is left of whatever has
in (41).
collected in the stomach and the intestines. Secondly,
the Prophet (s.a.w) instructed the patient to take ho- It is clear from the above discussion that we can-
ney for many times to make sure it may cure positi- not understand the Prophet’s prescription of honey as
vely the disease. The patient should not lose patience the way for treatment of disease unless we know
for his suffering of illness because, sometime, certa- what disease he was fighting. The Prophet (s.a.w)
in diseases take many years to cure and in natural was well aware that diarrhea was caused by indiges-
way can take at least months (38). tion (tukhma) resulting from overeating. Thus, he ga-
ve the correct treatment by asking the patient to drink
Now, after giving remarks on the above hadith, it
honey. The reason why the Prophet (s.a.w) had said
is worth to give the view of commentators in regard
the patient’s stomach lied was that he knew that the
to the saying of Prophet: “The statement of God is
dosage had not been sufficient, because it had not sta-
true and the stomach of your brother lies.” Some of
unched the diarrhea and the Prophet (s.a.w) wanted to
them, i.e., Ibn Mas`ud, Ibn Abbas, al-Hasan and al-
stress that honey was the correct cure but in this case
Qadi `Ayyad, viewed that honey is not only the fac-
it had to administer several times.
tor of healing because all are connected with God
who is a Healer (huwa al-shafi). This mean that, in While it seems quite certain that honey is the most
any medical treatments, doctors are only attempting suitable prescription for the patient, as mentioned in
to cure, it is Allah who cures, Allah huwa al shafi. the hadith, now, if someone are facing similar prob-
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73. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
lem, can honey be used effectively? This needs the from chapter eleven to chapter fifteen of kitab al-tibb.
clarification and understanding the other part of ha- One of these five chapters is Bab al-Hijamah min al-
dith, “fihi shifa li al-Nas (in it (honey) is healing for Da’ (cupping as a treatment for disease). In this chap-
men).” This is because some people believe that ho- ter, Imam Bukhari mentioned that Jabir bin ‘Abdullah
ney is beneficial for all kinds of diseases and for all narrated that he visited al-Muqanna while he was ill-
people. To answer this claim, Ibn Hajar clarified that ness. Jabir said, “I will not leave till he gets cupped, for
the statement, “fihi shifa li al-Nas”, did not means I heard Allah’s Apostle saying, “There is healing in
that honey is suitable to use for all people because the cupping.” Secondlt, Imam Bukhari reported that Al-
words “li al-Nas” designated that honey was only sui- lah’s Apostle was cupped on the middle of his head at
table for “some people” and not for “all people”. This Lahy Jamal on his way to Mecca while he was in a sta-
means that honey is possibly harmful for some peop- te of Ihram. Thirdly, Imam Bukhari reported that: “Al-
le who live in hot region (42). In other words, honey lah’s Apostle was cupped on his head. Lastly, al-Buk-
cannot be cured for all kinds of disease. hari reported that the Prophet commanded the cupping
to be used and said: “There are no remedies comparab-
B. Cupping (al-Hijamah) le to cupping and blood letting” (44).
In a number of medical systems, from Greek to While interpreting the above ahadith, there are
Malay traditional medicine, illness believed to be two general remarks that we may draw. First, there is
caused by harmful and dirty blood must be treated by no specific time to practice cupping because the
taken out the dirty blood. Under this influence, peop- Prophet (s.a.w) was cupped at day and night and so-
le believed that wherever part of the body, from head metime during Ihram. However, we have to keep in
to toe, become ill, hijamah can be used as the right mind that if blood cupping is done in the wrong pla-
measure for treatment. Therefore, if we wish to know ce and times or when it is not needed, then it weakens
the history of treatment of disease in the light of al- the faculties and it remove both healthy humors as
Tibb al-Nabawi, we must study hijamah because it well as harmful ones. That is why medical doctors
was widely practiced by the Prophet (s.a.w) and his advise, for safety purpose, that cupping should be
companions and this method of healing is still alive avoided by those who is suffering from enteritis, by
in many Muslim countries. whoever is on the road to recovery, by whoever is
We were told that the Prophet (s.a.w) and his com- very old, weak liver or stomach, who suffers from
panions always had practiced al-hijamah in several palsy of the face or feet and by women who are preg-
occasions from the time he was at home to the time nant or who have just given birth or who are menstru-
that he was in the state of Ihram. It is very regrettab- ating.
le that we do not have very clear rational explanation Secondly, it seems quite certain that the Prophet
why cupping was so popular in the time of Prophet, (s.a.w) was cupped on his head. That is why Imam
but one fact is nevertheless clear that hijamah is very Bukhari entitled one of the chapters of his kitab al-
easy to practice, just using a jar or a similar material. tibb as al-hijamah ala al-ra`s (cupping on the head).
A jar is attached to the skin surface, so that the dirty In truth, the view that headache was caused by dirty
blood, air, toxic and other harmful substance flow to blood in the head was widely spread among the anci-
the surface of the skin. Then, harmful substance may ent people, and sucking of harmful blood was there-
remove from the body. Secondly, it is because the fore a chief method of treatment. We are not surpri-
dwellers of the Arabian peninsular and countries of sing to hear that the Prophet (s.a.w) was cupped on
hot climate are the most suitable people to be cupped. his head to treat headache and similarly when a man
This is because the blood of people who dwell in that who complained to the Prophet (s.a.w) about a pain
region is thinner (raqiq) and is drawn closer to the in the head, the Prophet (s.a.w) recommended him to
surface of the skin (tamil ila zahir al-abdan) (43). get cupped (45).
As we expected, many ahadith would be recorded With advance of method of treatment, people ha-
in Kitab al-Tibb of Sahih Bukhari. They were recorded ve observed that the use of leech, as a means of suc-
10 JISHIM 2006, 5

74. HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
king blood from the affected parts of human body, ting the ahadith on al-kayy, some commentators of
was similar to cupping (hijamah). In other words, the Sahih Bukhari like Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Ibn Ahmad
use of leech and other modern methods of healing al-Ayni and al-Qastalani had attempted to give the
can be regarded as a substitute for cupping. In Gra- reasons behind the wisdom of the Prophet (s.a.w)’s
eco-Arab medicine, leech-therapy occupied an im- words “I forbid my followers to use (cauterization)
portant place. Ibn Sina and al-Baghdadi, for examp- branding with fire (‘wa `anha `an ummati an al-
le, wrote specific section to leech in their al-Qanun fi kayy’)” as recorded in the following ahadith: The
al-Tibb and al-Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb respectively. Ac- Prophet (s.a.w) said, “If there is any healing in your
cording to Ibn Sina, the application of leech is more medicines then it is a cupping operation, or branding
useful than cupping in letting off the blood from dee- (cauterization), but I do not like to be (cauterized)
per parts of the body. Treatment by the use of leech is branded” (49). In another version, Imam Bukhari re-
desirable in skin disease. For al-Baghdadi, the use of ported that the Prophet (s.a.w) said, “Healing is in
leech was the best way for skin disease, wet and chro- three things: cupping, a gulp of honey or cauterizati-
nic ulcers. Leech is also used for reducing the weight on, (branding with fire) but I forbid my followers to
of fatty and fleshy people. They can be used repea- use cauterization (branding with fire)” (50).
tedly, but one should be aware of the risk of cross-in-
Though some commentators of hadith understood
fections. Leech may also be used as a means of clea-
that the Prophet (s.a.w) prohibited his followers to
ning the tissues especially after micro-surgical opera-
use cauterization, however, Ibn Hajar did not inter-
tions. Since there is possibly risk over using leech, al-
pret the words “wa anha an ummati an kayy (I forbid
Baghdadi and other Muslim physicians suggested
my followers to use cauterization)” as prohibition
that the leech was needed to be cleansed. The dirt or
(al-nahy) but abhorrent or undesirable (makruh). He
dust clinging to a leech should be wiped off before
argued that it is undesirable to use cauterization if it
application. When leech has sucked out the blood and
may cause the pain and menace to a patient (51). It is
tend to drop down, salt should be sprinkled on the af-
quite reasonable to accept this reason because by na-
fected part of the human body. The following is al-
ture cauterization (al-kayy) may cause the patient in
Baghdadi’s words:
pain, menace and produce the side effect. This is the
When they are to be used, they should reason why the Prophet (s.a.w) did not like al-kayy
be kept away for a day and then applied. (cauterization) as the right method of healing.
If a leech does not stick, fresh blood
In order to give further evidence that cauterization
should be poured or thoroughly smas-
is not prohibited in Islam, Ibn Hajar quoted the hadith
hed and pounded clay sprinkled over the
which was reported that the Prophet (s.a.w) had him-
affected part and if the affected part is
self cauterized the wound of Sa`d b. Mu`ad (52) and
free of any wound, the part should be
also the wound of As`ad b. Zararh in order to stop the
rubbed till it becomes red (46).
bleeding (anna al-nabiy (s.a.w) kawa As`ad b. Za-
rarh min syawkihi) (53). Also, Ibn Hajar mentioned
C. al-Kayy: Branding with Fire that Ibn Umar (r.a) used to use cautery for treating fa-
(Cauterization) cial palsy. This is according to the report of Abu Zu-
Al-Kayy is another method of treatment of disease bayr who said: “I saw Ibn Umar one day, and he was
in the time of Prophet (s.a.w) and even after (47). In branding the forehead of a man who had a slight fa-
the time of Prophet, al-kayy or hot metal was used as cial palsy.” From all these evidences, Ibn Hajar conc-
a way to burn a wound to stop the blood or stop it be- luded that the prohibition against utilizing cautery
coming infected (48). The question now arises, is for- applies for as long as completed trust in Allah (s.w.t)
bidden (haram) to use al-kayy for medical purpose? is lacking. During Prophet’s time, there were people
If not, why did the Prophet discourage his Ummah to who they think that it is the cauterization itself which
use cauterization even though he had known that it cures the affliction. In other words, they believed that
might give many medical benefits. While commen- if cautery had not been used, then the patient would
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75. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
have perished. This kind of cauterization practiced, possible cure for a particular illness but it was forbid-
according to Ibn Hajar, is prohibited. On the other den as a preventive measure.
hand, cautery is permitted when it is perceived as be-
For those who said that cauterization is forbidden
ing the appropriate means to affect a cure, but not the in medical purpose are mainly based on the hadith re-
essential cause of the cure because Allah (s.w.t) alo- lated by Ibn Abbas that the Prophet (s.a.w) said: “If
ne cures and grants good health and not cauterization. the cure ultimately depends on either scarification, or
This means that humans try, but it is Allah who cures, drinking honey or cauterization with fire, then I abso-
Allah huwa al Shafi. Humans should not be arrogant lutely forbid cauterization.” It is regrettable that this
by attributing cure to themselves and not Allah school of thought does not give further explanation
(s.w.t). Of course, human cannot refuse to take me- and justification of the hadith.
asure to cure disease claiming that Allah (s.w.t) will
take care of it. This is because, it is true that Allah cu- From the above analysis, it would be a great mis-
res but in some cases that cure operates through the take to prohibit the cauterization today. If it is forbid-
agency of humans. Sometimes the measures that hu- den in Islam, the surgery should be also forbidden.
mans take to cure a disease may not be sufficient on Therefore, it is right to conclude that it is perfectly
their own to alleviate the condition. It is Allah’s divi- correct to recommend al-kayy (cauterization) as the
ne intervention and mercy that brings about the method of treatment of disease when all other reme-
complete cure (54). dies i.e., a gulp of honey and cupping have failed. In
other words, it is fully permitted when there is no ot-
Ibn Ahmad al-`Ayni viewed the hadith, i.e., hea- her alternative or no other remedy has proved suc-
ling is in three things: cupping, a gulp of honey or ca- cessfully. In this case, there can be no objection to
uterization, (branding with fire) but I forbid my fol- use cauterization so long as it is done cautiously and
lowers to use cauterization (branding with fire), as we remain aware of its negative effects.
preference from one thing over another. This means
that as long as medicine conceived disease in terms Conclusion
of philosophy and looked upon it as a disturbance in
The previous studies have revealed to us of the
the equilibrium of body’s humors, cauterization co-
importance of Kitab al-Tibb in Sahih Bukahri. It gi-
uld not be more than a last resort to which physicians
ves primarily idea on the conditions of Muslims in
had to recourse when the treatment by honey and
the time of Prophet (s.a.w), how did they prevent and
cupping failed. In this case, the Prophet (s.a.w) pre-
treat the disease. It is found that most of al-tibb al-na-
ferred honey, blood letting over cauterization and it
bawi is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather
does not means that cauterization is prohibited (ha-
than therapeutic medicine (al-tibb al-`ilaji). Its met-
ram) in medical treatment (55).
hod of prevention was considered advance, given the
Although al-Qastalani was aware that Ibn Hajar level of scientific knowledge that existed at the time.
and al-Ayni’s interpretation of the hadith are har- As far as the treatment of disease is concerned, the
mony with the Islamic law, he, in his Irshad al-Sari li hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w) in Kitab al-Tibb of Sa-
Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, did not hesitate to add that hih Bukahri gives us the idea throws on how did the
al-kayy was not as other ways of treatment as far as Muslim had been treated, if he was sick. It is found
side effect is concerned. In case of cauterization (al- that the treatment of disease was mainly based on the
kayy), it might give medical benefits and harmful as cause of disease. These remarks lead to the conclusi-
in the case of al-khamr (intoxicating drink) which ac- on that we should not use al-tibb al-nabawi (medici-
cording to the Qur’an, it might give both beneficial ne of the Prophet) without empirical research because
and harmful for mankind, but harmful is more (56). of changes in medicinal plants and environment as
Al-Dhahabi took a similar attitude to the tradition well as the meaning of linguistic terms. Thus the con-
concerning the prohibition of cauterization. He cla- ditions for which these remedies were prescribed in
imed that the cautery of bleeding wounds was per- the first century of hijrah may not be exactly the sa-
missible especially when it was knows to be the best me as the conditions we are dealing with today. The-
12 JISHIM 2006, 5

76. HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
refore, if we wish to have a complete account of 5. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sahrh Sahih al-Bukhari, 13 vols.
Prophetic medicine, we shall not be satisfied by re- (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`ilmiyyah, 1989), 10: 165; Al-Ayni,
Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 25 vols. (Beirut:
ferring to the writing of traditionalist scholars in the Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-`Arabi, n.d), 21: 229.
past without referring to new discoveries made by the 6. Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 25 vols.
researchers after the demise of Prophet (s.a.w). (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-turath al-`Arabi, n.d); 21: 229.
7. Ibn al-Qayyim, al-Tibb al-Nabawi (Beirut: Mu’assasah al-
Risalah, 1985), 146.
8. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari, 10: 165.
REFERENCES 9. It is extremely important to mention here that Abu Zayd al-
1. Hadith (its plural is ahadith) is the sayings (aqwal), the ac- Balkhi (d. 322/934), in his Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus
tions (af`al) and the tacit approval (taqrir) of the Prophet (Sustenance for Body and Soul) and al-Kindi’s Risalah fI
Muhammad (s.a.w). In other words, the ahadith of the Prop- al-HIlah li Daf` al-Ahzan (Epistle on Expedients to Relief
het are divided into three parts: al-qawliyah, the traditions Sufferings and Sorrows), reminded us that since man’s
which are statements and sayings of the prophet; the second construction is from both his soul and his body, therefore,
is al-fi‘liyah that is the traditions that is derived from the de- human existence cannot be healthy without this ishtibak.
eds of the holy prophet, and third, al-taqririyah (the traditi- For this reason, al-Balkhi criticizes medical doctors who
ons of the tacit approval), is taken from the Prophet’s silen- only concentrate on physical illness but neglect psychologi-
ce or tacit approval regarding deeds which had occurred cal aspects or mental illness of the patients. This is because,
with his knowledge. The collections of ahadith were offici- according to al-Balkhi, if the body gets sick the nafs loses
ally began with Umayyad Caliph ‘Umar Ibn Abdul ‘Aziz much of its cognitive and comprehensive ability and fails to
(d. 101/720)’s instruction, for the first time to Abu Bakr b. enjoy the desirous aspects of the life. If nafs gets sick, the
Muhammad b. Amr b. Hazm, al-Zuhri and others to collect body may also find no joy in life and may eventually deve-
ahadith of Prophet (s.a.w). al-Zuhri was the first who recor- lop a physical illness. Hence, the psychological condition is
ded them. Later, in the third century of Hijrah, scholars of considered as one of the main factors for physical health.
^adIth devoted their life and energy in shifting the hadith Subsequently, when a man’s psyche becomes strong, the
examining the narrators and ensuring their authenticity for bodily nature is also strengthened, because the two coope-
preserving the ahadith of Prophet (s.a.w). From the middle rate in repelling and overcoming diseases. (See, Al-Balkhi,
until the end of third century, there was a serious collection Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and
of ahadith. These collections were well-known with the Soul), 270-3.
successful compiled six textual collections of the ahadith 10. Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 21: 229.
namely of Imam Bukhari (d. 256/ 870), Imam Muslim (d. 11. Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 21: 229.
261/875), Abu Dawud (d. 275/888), al-Tarmidhi (d.
279/892), al-Nasa’i (d. 303/915), Ibn Majah (d. 273/886) 12. Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 21: 229.
etc. (For details, see M.M. Azami, Studies in Early Hadith 13. Sahih al-Bukari, Kitab al-Iman, Bab Fadl man Istabra’ li di-
Literature (Indiana: American Trust Publications, 1978); M. nihi.
Hamidullah, Early Compilation of Hadith, Islamic Review, 14. Sahih al-Bukari, Kitab al-Riqaq, Bab al-Sihhah wa al-Fa-
May, 1949). ragh wala `aysh illa `aysh al-Akhirah.
2. To give an accurate explanation and interpretation of aha- 15. Ibn Hindu, Miftah al-Tibb wa Minhaj al-Tullab, ed. Mahdi
dith in Sahih Bukhari, the author will consult many impor- Mohaghegh and M.T. Daneshpajuh (Tehran: Tehran Uni-
tant commentaries of Sahih Bukhari most notably Umdah versity, 1989), 25-29.
al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari by Badr al-Din `Ayni (762- 16. Abu Bakr Rabi’ b. Ahmad al-Akhwini al-Bukhari, Hidayat
855/1361-1452), 25 vols. (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-turath al- al-Muta‘allim (Meshed: Meshed University Press, 1965),
`Arabi, n.d); Fath al-Bari fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari by Ibn 14. Cf. al-Ruhawi, Adab al-Tabib, ed. Marizan `Asiri (Ri-
Hajar al-`Asqalani (773–852/1372-1449), 13 vols. (Beirut: yadh: Markaz al-Malik Faysal li al-Buhuth wa al-Dirasat al-
Dar al-kutub al-`ilmiyyah, 1989). Islamiyyah, 1992), 208; Fazlur Rahman, Health and Medi-
3. Unfortunately, there has been a lack of effort to study the cine in the Islamic Tradition (New York: Rossroad Publis-
medical aspect of Sahih Bukhari. Because, most of Muslim hing Company, 1989; repr. Kuala Lumpur: S. Abdul Maje-
scholars have been repeated attempts at writing common ed & Co, 1993), 39 (page reference is to the reprint edition).
aspects of Sahih Bukhari such as the study of fiqh (Islamic 17. It would be interesting to mention in relation to this discus-
jurisprudence), tafsir al-quran (exegesis), ilm al-kalam sion that Ibn Jazlah (d. 493/1100) drew a parallel between
(theology), ethics or manner (akhlaq), sirah al-nabawiyyah the strength or health of the body and the supplies of the tra-
(history of Prophet), and al-Isnad wa al-Matan (narration veler. The wise person must prepare his supplies for trave-
and text of hadith). ling according to the distance intended, for if the supplies
4. Huasin F. Nagamia, “Islamic Medicine History and Current end before the destination is reached, the traveler perishes.
Practice”, in Journal of the International Society for the However, if the supplies are sufficient for the entire journey,
History of Islamic Medicine, Vol. 2, No. 4 October 2003, he is safe. This is parallel to the health of human being. If
19-30. the body has sufficient strength, it will be able to overcome
JISHIM 2006, 5 13

77. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON
THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI
an illness, however, if strength is not sufficient and the body 35. The disease of the lower intestine caused by infection with
weakens before the end of the illness, the person is in dan- bacteria, protozoa or parasites and marked by severe diarr-
ger and requires treatment together with the care of a physi- hea, inflammation and passage of blood and mucus.
cian. See, Joseph Salvatore, Tabulated Compendium in the 36. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa’ bi al-‘asal.
Eleventh Century as Represented in the Works of Ibn Jaz-
37. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa’ bi al-‘asal.
lah, 55.
38. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari,
18. Imam Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, kitab al-tibb, Bab al-Jud-
21; 232.
ham.
39. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari,
19. For details on infectious disease such as leprosy, cholera,
21; 233.
thyphus in the Muslim world, see Aysegul Demirhan Erde-
mir and Oztan Oncel, “Development of the Foundations of 40. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari,
Quarantine in Turkey in the Nineteenth Century and its Pla- 21; 232.
ce in the Public Health”, in Journal of the International So- 41. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 172.
ciety for the History of Islamic Medicine, Vol. 2, No. 4 Oc- 42. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 172.
tober 2003, 42-44.
43. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 186.
20. Other version of hadiths was mentioned by Ahmad b. Han-
bal in his al-Musnad, al-Nasa’i in his Sunan and Ibn Majah. 44. Sahih Bukhari, kitab al-tibb, Bab al-Hijamah min al-Da’.
It was reported that: “Sa`id b. Khalid said: I went in to see 45. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 187-8.
Abu Salama. He brought us some butter and date pastry. A 46. Al-Baghdadi, Kitab al-Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb, 1: 299.
fly fell into the dish. Abu Salama began to submerge it
47. In relation to this, it is worth to mention that the process of
(yamquluhu) with his finger. I said: “Uncle! what are you
destroying tissue by heating or freezing it is known at the
doing?” He said: “Truly, Abu Said al-Khudri (r.a) told me
present as electrocautery. It is done by using a small tool
that the Messenger of Allah said: “In one of the fly’s tow
which has an electric current running through it. So that it
wings there is poison and in another, its antidote. If it falls
is able to cauterize or burn the tissue. Normally, this method
into food, submerge it in it; for it sends the poison first and
of treatment, electrocautery, is a safe procedure and is routi-
keeps the cure last.”
nely used in surgery to burn unwanted or harmful tissue.
21. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 308. Sometime, a small electrode is applied to the skin near the
22. Possibilities for use of bacteriophages in disease control are surgery site. This is used to collect the electricity from the
discussed in the article “Smaller Fleas... Ad infinitum: The- body and safely discharge it back to the machine. A groun-
rapeutic Bacteriophage Redux” in Proceedings of the Nati- ding pad is placed on the person’s body (usually the thigh)
onal Academy of Sciences of the United States of America before the surgery starts to protect the patient. Of course, it
[PNAS] Vol. 93 No. 8 (April 16, 1996), 3167-8. causes a patient in painful and menace compared to a gulp
23. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 307. of honey and cupping.
24. Malik Badri, The Aids Crisis: an Islamic Socio-Cultural 48. In relation to this, al-Suyuti was of the opinion that the verb
Perspective (KL: ISTAC, 1998), 224. hasama (cut off, terminate) is the synonym of kawa (caute-
rize). From this point of view, he explained that hasama al-
25. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 308. damm anhu bi al-kayy means qata`a al-damm anhu bi al-
26. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 309. kayy that is to stop blood from bleeding by cautery. (Ibn Ha-
27. Al-Qastalani, Irshad al-Sari, 5: 304-5. jar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 170-1).
28. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 309. 49. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab man iktawa aw kawa
ghyrihi wa fadl man lam yaktawi.
29. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab Shifa’ fi thalatha.
50. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, bab al-shifa fi thalatha.
30. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani (773–852/1372-1449), Fath al-Bari
fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari,13 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`il- 51. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 170.
miyyah, 1989), 10: 170. 52. Ibid, 10: 170.
31. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171. 53. Ibid, 10: 170, Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sa-
32. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, hih Bukhari, 21: 231.
21: 231. 54. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171; .
33. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa bi al-Asal wa- 55. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari,
qawl Allah Ta`ala fihi Shifa li al-Nas. 21: 233.
34. It is described as frequent and excessive discharging of the 56. Al-Qastalain, Irshad al-Sari, 12: 413, Ibn Hajar al-`Asqala-
bowels producing abnormally thin watery stools, usually as ni, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171.
a symptom of gastro-intestinal upset or infection.
14 JISHIM 2006, 5

78. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
Statistical Profile of Holy Quran and Symmetry of Makki and
Madni Surras
Muhammad Khyzer Bin Dost (Corresponding author)
Hailey College of Commerce, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
E-mail: khyzer_bin_dost@hotmail.com
Dr. Munir Ahmad
Rector, National College of Business Administration & Economics, Lahore, Pakistan.
E-mail: drmunir@brain.net.pk
Abstract
In this paper, probabilistic approach has been made in the study of Makki, Madani and Mixed Suras of the Holy
Quran. Using the word-size and word-length of Ayats, these Suras are categorized by word-length and a frequency
distribution is obtained. The paper highlights the constructional characteristics of the two types of Suras in the Holy
Quran. We have also discussed the dispersion and shapes of word-size and word-length of Makki and Madni Surras
at other compositions of Surras as introduced by Quran Mufassirs and scientists.
Keywords: Quran, Statistical profile, Frequency distribution of Ayats.
1. Introduction
Muslims and non-Muslims have done tremendous work on various aspects of the Holy Quran in respect of its
detailed Tafseers, its indexing counting of words, letters vowels number of occurrences of certain words, numerical
wonders of Quranic texts including miracles. The Quran provides laws and regulations of living in a society,
educating Muslims on relations with relatives, neighbors, friends and foes, working relations with others,
management of jobs etc. It guides people on almost every human activity. It is full of knowledge.
Quran is such a Holy book which has numerous purposes and objectives for different people. One may study the
Holy book with specific questions in mind and will find answers during its reading. It has been noted by many
Mufassirs that the Ayats and Suras are not arranged in chronological order but are placed at appropriate locations by
the will of God and as such the chronological order is not important for the present study as compared to the
placement of Ayats and Sura in the Quran.
Al-Dargazelli (2004) had identified numerical pattern of the Holy Quran based on verses, he has only used basic
descriptive statistics and computed frequency tables of verses. He has given number of verses for each Sura and
identified the Suras by Makki and Madani. Al-Dargazelli. (2004) has also worked on Muntasir Mir groupings. In
this paper, we have made an attempt to study various Suras, Manzils and Groups of Holy Quran statistically on the
basis of lengths of words. The purpose is to find underlying statistical structures of Suras. The similarities and
differences among Makki, Madani and other groupings of Suras in Quran are highlighted.
It needs to point out that numerical study of Quran does not display the beauty of Quran. The beauty of Quran lies in
the Ayat structure and their meanings. The beauty of Quran given in the Quran lies in the construction of Ayats and
Surras. No earthly human being can produce a single Ayat or Surra even with the help of Jins. However it is possible
for any one to induct any number of word(s) in to any document in any language of same size. For example letter
“is” can be written in a couple of hundred times that are divisible by any other number say 7 or 9. One may count all
“is” and if it is not divisible by 7 then some sentences can be added with letter “is” so it is divisible by 7. As such
beauty of Surras does not lie in numbers but its beauty is in the Ayat and Surras meanings. We have also attempted
to look at the symmetry of Makki and Madni surras by studying the Skewness and Kurtosis.
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79. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
Authors numerical miracle pointed out are given bellow.
Table 1: Pair of Words in Quran
Sr. # Pair of Words with Frequency
1. Muhammad (saw) 4 Sharee’ah
2. Eblees 11 Seek refuge from Eblees
3. Miss lead people 17 Dead people
4. Speaking publicly 18 Publicizing
5. Men 24 Women
6. Tongue 25 Sermon
7. Zakat 32 Barakah
8. Muslimeen 41 Jihad
9. Mind 49 Noor
10. Benefit 50 Corrupt
11. People 50 Messenger
12. Magic 60 Fitnah
13. Spending 73 Satisfaction
14. Museebah 75 Thanks
15. Al-Mala’ikah 88 Al-Shayateen
16. Hardship 114 Patience
17. Al-Dunya 115 Al-Akhira
18. Al-Hayat 145 Al-Mout
(See Al-Suwaidan 2006).
2. Some Basic Statistics of Suras and Verses
The Holy Quran is divided in to 30 Chapters (Paras) and each chapter is subdivided in to sections (Rukus) and each
section is further divided into Ayats (Verses). There are a total of 114 Suras in Holy Quran. The Sura is identified as
Makki and Madani Sura. The Suras, chapters and sections are sometimes overlapped. Sura and sections can be
continued (run) over chapters, but Suras are complete units. Suras are subdivided into Ayats. The Suras and Ayats
and their placements in the Quran are ordained by God.
From these 114 Suras of Quran, 89 are Makki Suras and 25 are Madani Suras. Similarly there are 6236 Ayats of
which 4725 Ayats are Makki and 1511 are Madani Ayats. The mean number of Ayats per Sura is calculated to be
51.72, whereas Makki Suras have a calculated mean of 41.87 and Madani Suras have the mean 82.56 showing that
Madani Suras are larger than Makki Suras with respect to lengths of Ayats. The range of Madani Sura, Ayats size is
also larger than Makki Suras which mean that the variation in Madani Suras are more than the Makki Suras (See Al-
Dargazelli 2004). This fact has also been noted by many Mufassirs.
The total number of letters in Holy Quran is 322,564 and total words are 86,872 showing the mean number of letters
per word is 3.71. In Madani Suras the total number of letters is 124755 and the total number of words is 33,247
showing the mean number of letters per word is 3.75. In Makki Suras, the total number of letters is 197,809 and the
number of words is 53,625 showing the mean is 3.69. Details are given in the Tables at Appendix A
2.1 Analysis of Verses
Al-Dargezelli (2004) has discussed the basic statistics of verses, but he has made some unintentional mistakes in
applications of the methods. In this section, various aspects of the verses are presented. This study shall hereafter
refer verses as Ayats. The Ayat-size by words and Ayat-size by letters is calculated. This gives a comprehensive
insight into the structure of Ayats. The Table 1 below exhibits the number of Ayats, words, letters and words per
Ayat, letters per Ayat and letter per word.
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80. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
Table 2: Numbers of Ayats, words , letters and Ayat-size by word, Ayat-size by letters and word-size by
letters of Makki and Madani Sura
Suras No Ayats No. letters No words Ayat-size Ayat-size Word-size
by letters by words words
Makki 4725 197,809 53,625 41.87 11.34 3.69
Madani 1511 124,755 33,247 82.57 22.00 3.75
Total 6236 322,564 86,872 51.73 13.93 3.71
It is noted by all early authors that Madani Ayats are longer than the Makki Ayats. It is evident this characteristic by
Ayat-sizes by letters and by words from the Table 1. Madani Ayats are almost twice as much as Makki Ayats both
by letters and by the words. Similarly the Madani word size is also larger than Makki word. In fact the Madani Ayat
size is larger than all Ayats in the Holy book.
If we further examine the distribution of Suras over Ayat sizes by words, we find some interesting aspect of the
Suras as shown in Table 2 below. We note that 58 of 89 Makki Suras have smaller Ayats of size 1 to 10 Ayats per
Sura whereas 23 of 25 Madani Suras have larger Ayats of size 15 and above. This confirms early authors work that
Madani Suras have longer Ayats than Makki Suras. One thing is different that the word sizes by letters are almost
similar. Further, we may note that of 32 Suras of Ayat size 1to 5. Thirty one (31) Suras are Makki and only one Sura
is Madani. On the other side of the Ayat size of 20 and above, of 17 Suras, 15 Suras are Madani and only 2 are
Makki Suras.
Table 3: Distribution of Suras by Ayat-size by words
Ayat Size Makki Madani Total
1-5 31 1 32
5-10 27 27
10-15 11 1 12
15-20 18 8 26
20-25 2 12 14
25-30 - 3 3
31 and above
Total 89 25 114
4. One-letter and Two-letter Words
In this section a study of the words with one letters and two letters per word is conducted. In the Holy Quran, there
are 9,398 words with one letter per word and 14,646 words with two letters per word. It shows that there are 10.82%
of words with one letter and 16.96% words with two letters per word, showing that there are 27.78% words with
two- and one - letters word. It may be noted that there are more than one fourth of words that have 1 and 2 letter-
words in the Holy Quran. The distribution of 1and 2 letter -words of Makki and Madani Suras may be seen in the
Table 3 below:
Table 4: Word size by type of Suras
Word size All Suras Makki Suras Madani Suras
One 9,398 (10.82%) 5,558 (6.40%) 3840 (4.42%)
Two 14,646 (16.96%) 9,286 (10.69%) 5,360 (6.27%)
One & Two 24,044 (27.78%) 14,844 (17.09%) 9,200 (10.69%)
Similarly, we may study the largest word sizes. Words containing 9 or 10 letters are the largest words. There are 23
words in all Suras that have 10 letters each, whereas there are 129 words with 9 letters each in the Holy Quran. Of
all Suras, 46 Suras have 9 letter -words and 14 Suras have 10 letter -words. Of Makki Suras, 31 Suras have 9 letter-
words and similarly of Madani Suras, only 15 Suras have 9 letter words and of Makki Suras, only 8 Suras have 10
letter-words and of Madani Suras only 6 Suras have 10 letter -words. The following Table 4 summarizes the
information:
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81. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
Table 5: Word sizes by Makki and Madani Suras
Word Size Makki Madani Total
Nine 31 15 46
Ten 8 6 14
Nine & Ten 39 21 60
It is important to see that Makki Suras have more number of 9 and 10 letter-words in the Holy Quran. If we look at
the number of words with 9 or 10 letters, we note that there are 152 such words of which 129 words have 9 letters
and 23 words have 10 letters. Of 9 letter-words, there are 76 words in Makki Suras and 53 in Madani Suras. Makki
Suras have more number of 9 letter-words as compared to Madani Suras. Similarly, of 23 words of 10 letters, there
are 13 in Makki Suras and 10 words are Madani. In 10 letters -words, Makki Suras have more 10 letter-words than
Madani Suras. This may be seen from the Table 6:
Table 6: Letter sizes by Makki and Madani Suras
Letter Size Makki Madani Total
Nine 76 53 129
Ten 13 10 23
Nine & Ten 89 63 152
Statistical tools can be used to understand the numerical beauty of the Holy Quran. This study has provided a basis
for conducting further analysis of the Holy book on similar lines. The present study is still under progress and it is
anticipated that further relationships will be identified from the data collected for the research.
5. Symmetry of Makki and Madni Surras.
In order to study the Skewness and kurtosis of Makki and Madni Surras, we have constructed bivariate table of  1
and  2 -3 in tables 1 and 2 below. It is seen that Makki Surras are closer to symmetrical functional from than
Madni Surras. There are 41/89 Makki Surras whose  1 and  2 lie between (-1 to +10 and (+2 to +4) respectively
whereas 7/25 Madni Surras  1 and  2 lie in (-1 to +1) and (+2 to +4) respectively. Almost half of Makkii Surras
have  1 (-1 to +1) and a little more than 50% Surras have  2 -3 in (-1 to +1) interval. For Madni Surras, only 8
Surras out of 25 have  1 in the interval (-1 to +1) and 10 out of 25 have  2 -3 in the interval (-1 to +10.
Graphical representation of (  1 ,  2 -3) are given in Fig (1) and (2).
4

82. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
Table 7: Bivariate Table of Makki Surras
B2 -2 , - -1 , - 0,1 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Total
1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
B1
(-4 to -3) 1 1
(-3 to -2) 1 1
(-2 to -1) 2 2
(-1 to -0) 3 19 22
(0 to 1) 2 1 17 3 23
(1 to 2) 1 2 8 11
(2 to 3) 6 6
(3 to 4) 1 6 7
(4 to 5) 2 2
(5 to 6) 2 1 3
(6 to 7) 1 2 3
(7 to 8) 1 1
(8 to 9) 1 1
(9 to 10) 1 1
(10 to 11) 2 2
(19 to 20) 1 1
(24 to 25) 1 1
(50 to 51) 1 1
Total 2 9 39 29 7 1 1 - 1 89
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83. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
Table 8: Bivatiate Table of Madni Surras
B2 (-1 to -0) (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (2 to 3) Total
B1
(-4 to -3)
(-3 to -2)
(-2 to -1) 1 1 2
(-1 to -0) 1 3 4
(0 to 1) 1 2 1 4
(1 to 2) 1 4 5
(2 to 3) 1 1
(3 to 4) 3 3
(4 to 5) 2 1 3
(5 to 6) 1 1
(6 to 7)
(10 to 11) 1 2
(11 to 12) 1 1
Total 3 7 11 3 25
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84. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
Fig (1)
Graphical representation of (  1 ,  2 -3) of Makki Surras
Fig (2)
Graphical representation of (  1 ,  2 -3) of Madni Surras
7

85. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
References
1. Al-Dargazelli,S. (2004). A Statistical Studies of Holy Quran. [Online] Available:
http//www.quranicstudies.com/printout104.html
2. Al-Shalabi,R.G.,Kanaan,J.M., Jaam, A. H. and Hilat, E. ( 2004).Stop-word removal algorithm for Arabic
language. Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies
from theory to applications.( Damascus, Syria April, 2004) IEEE, France, 545-550 .
3. Al-Suwaindan, T. (2006). The numerical miracles in the Holy Quran. [Online] Available:
http//islamicweb.com/beliefs/science/numbers.html.
4. Mir, M. (1999). Is the Quran a shapeless book. Renaissance, August, 1999.
Naik A. Z. (2004). The Quran and the modern science: compatible or incompatible. Islamic Research
Foundation. [Online] Available: www.Alya.org
5. Naji, A., Kanaan, M., Ghassan , N, K. Bani, M. and Basal, I. M. Statistical Classifier of the Holy
QuranVerses ( Fateha and Yaseen chapters) Journal of Applied Science,15(3),580-583.
6. Rosty, Stefan (2007). A statistical analysis of the Holy Quran. [Online] Available:
.http//pressthat.wordpress.com/2007/05/06/62truthbook.
7. Dost and Ahmed, (2007). A short note on the statistical analysis of Surra Baqra and Surra proceedings of
3rd National conference on statistical sciences, Lahore, Pakistan.
8. Dost, Ahmed and Ahmed (2007). A Short note on the frequency distribution of Quran word length,
proceedings of 9th Islamic Countries Conference on Statistical Sciences, Kula Lumpur Malaysia.
Appendix A1
Table A1: Some Basic Statistics on Holy Quran
No of No of No of No of Mean letter per Mean word
Sura Ayat Words Letters Word per Ayat S.D C.V
1 7 27 117 4.33 3.86 1.73 39.97
2 286 6860 25637 3.74 23.99 1.70 45.39
3 200 3934 14642 3.72 19.67 1.73 46.59
4 176 4228 15971 3.78 24.02 1.75 46.32
5 120 3163 11894 3.76 26.36 1.70 45.29
6 165 3440 12458 3.62 20.85 1.71 47.08
7 206 3694 14071 3.81 17.93 1.74 45.64
8 75 1436 5337 3.72 19.15 1.79 48.05
9 129 2846 10865 3.82 22.06 1.84 48.19
10 109 2018 7406 3.67 18.51 1.67 45.60
11 123 2127 7615 3.58 17.29 1.59 44.38
12 111 1956 7140 3.65 17.62 1.60 43.79
13 43 974 3461 3.55 22.65 1.63 45.87
14 52 929 3446 3.71 17.87 1.70 45.88
15 99 727 2809 3.86 7.34 1.85 47.87
16 128 2079 7655 3.68 16.24 1.74 47.20
17 111 1747 6491 3.72 15.74 1.70 45.73
18 110 1735 6407 3.69 15.77 1.60 43.39
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86. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
19 98 1081 3828 3.54 11.03 1.58 44.55
20 135 1481 5292 3.57 10.97 1.56 43.67
21 112 1310 4904 3.74 11.70 1.76 47.02
22 78 1434 5161 3.60 18.38 1.64 45.64
23 118 1166 4372 3.75 9.88 1.74 46.44
24 64 1478 5596 3.79 23.09 1.76 46.46
25 77 1016 3721 3.66 13.19 1.66 45.41
26 227 1457 5498 3.77 6.42 1.82 48.16
27 93 1282 4683 3.65 13.78 1.68 45.89
28 88 1582 5802 3.67 17.98 1.66 45.21
29 69 1118 4188 3.75 16.20 1.78 47.52
30 60 918 3377 3.68 15.30 1.71 46.49
31 34 616 2118 3.44 18.12 1.55 45.02
32 30 409 1522 3.72 13.63 1.64 44.17
33 73 1501 5619 3.74 20.56 1.83 48.99
34 54 995 3512 3.53 18.43 1.65 46.87
35 45 872 3159 3.62 19.38 1.61 44.43
36 83 805 3002 3.73 9.70 1.72 46.01
37 182 954 3780 3.96 5.24 1.90 47.98
38 88 818 2993 3.65 9.30 1.69 46.36
39 75 1269 4731 3.73 16.92 1.64 43.94
40 85 1342 4986 3.72 15.79 1.64 44.05
41 54 896 3288 3.67 16.59 1.71 46.61
42 53 980 3422 3.40 18.49 1.44 42.22
43 89 941 3518 3.74 10.57 1.74 46.49
44 59 380 1437 3.78 6.44 1.70 44.86
45 37 552 1998 3.62 14.92 1.67 46.19
46 35 717 2610 3.64 20.49 1.66 45.74
47 38 615 2376 3.86 16.18 1.78 46.11
48 29 638 2463 3.86 22.00 1.81 46.93
49 18 386 1492 3.87 21.44 1.80 46.49
50 45 423 1475 3.49 9.40 1.56 44.84
51 60 395 1500 3.80 6.58 1.73 45.65
52 49 341 1290 3.78 6.96 1.74 45.96
53 62 407 1402 3.44 6.56 1.66 48.27
54 55 383 1442 3.77 6.96 1.62 43.08
55 78 383 1569 4.10 4.91 1.63 39.84
56 96 430 1696 3.94 4.48 1.90 48.23
57 29 670 2472 3.69 23.10 1.73 46.97
58 22 526 1993 3.79 23.91 1.69 44.55
59 24 499 1921 3.85 20.79 1.82 47.22
60 13 393 1531 3.90 30.23 1.86 47.86
61 14 244 942 3.86 17.43 1.74 45.00
62 11 194 743 3.83 17.64 1.66 43.24
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63 11 201 782 3.89 18.27 1.85 47.52
64 18 287 1067 3.72 15.94 1.76 47.29
65 12 316 1173 3.71 26.33 1.58 42.52
66 12 283 1068 3.77 23.58 1.64 43.43
67 30 364 1315 3.61 12.13 1.52 42.17
68 52 327 1262 3.86 6.29 1.80 46.62
69 52 285 1114 3.91 5.48 1.73 44.20
70 44 240 943 3.93 5.45 1.74 44.29
71 28 264 950 3.60 9.43 1.73 48.02
72 28 320 1091 3.41 11.43 1.49 43.74
73 20 227 841 3.70 11.35 1.65 44.53
74 56 290 1012 3.49 5.18 1.62 46.55
75 40 180 665 3.69 4.50 1.58 42.64
76 31 278 1069 3.85 8.97 1.70 44.09
77 50 198 818 4.13 3.96 1.89 45.78
78 40 201 771 3.84 5.03 1.75 45.59
79 46 197 749 3.80 4.38 1.62 42.73
80 42 151 551 3.65 3.60 1.60 43.87
81 29 122 424 3.48 4.21 1.61 46.38
82 19 89 323 3.63 4.68 1.70 46.88
83 36 179 737 4.12 4.97 1.85 44.80
84 25 123 436 3.54 4.92 1.51 42.62
85 22 124 455 3.67 5.64 1.78 48.49
86 17 70 240 3.43 4.12 1.59 46.47
87 19 82 291 3.55 4.32 1.54 43.42
88 26 102 386 3.78 3.92 1.52 40.16
89 30 154 569 3.69 5.13 1.68 45.41
90 20 92 334 3.63 4.60 1.71 47.22
91 15 69 234 3.39 4.60 1.71 50.37
92 21 89 310 3.48 4.24 1.84 52.85
93 11 50 167 3.34 4.55 1.48 44.29
94 8 29 101 3.48 3.63 1.21 34.85
95 8 37 151 4.08 4.63 1.52 37.15
96 19 76 284 3.74 4.00 1.53 40.85
97 5 32 110 3.44 6.40 1.39 40.43
98 8 103 392 3.81 12.88 1.65 43.23
99 8 38 157 4.13 4.75 1.70 41.03
100 11 44 164 3.73 4.00 1.74 46.78
101 11 38 156 4.11 3.45 1.97 47.98
102 8 28 92 4.29 3.50 1.72 40.09
103 3 18 59 3.83 6.00 1.98 51.60
104 9 35 134 3.83 3.89 1.52 39.81
105 5 24 96 4.00 4.80 1.44 36.12
106 4 18 71 4.00 4.50 1.71 42.87
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107 7 27 112 4.15 3.86 1.79 43.18
108 3 11 42 3.82 3.67 1.78 46.58
109 6 30 96 3.20 5.00 1.61 50.19
110 3 22 79 3.59 7.33 1.59 44.37
111 5 27 81 3.00 5.40 1.21 40.30
112 4 17 48 2.82 4.25 1.13 40.06
113 5 26 70 2.69 5.20 1.19 44.28
114 6 21 76 3.62 3.50 1.47 40.49
6236 86872 322564 3.71 13.94
Appendix A2
Table A2: Number of Ayats, Words, Letters Means and Standard deviations of Makki Surras
No of No of No of No of words No of Mean S.D C.V
Sura Ayat Words Letters Letter per
per Ayat (mean) word
1 7 27 3.857 117 4.33 1.7321 39.97040325
6 165 3440 20.848 12458 3.62 1.7052 47.08437743
7 206 3694 17.932 14071 3.81 1.7386 45.64172519
10 109 2018 18.514 7406 3.67 1.6734 45.59734397
11 123 2127 17.293 7615 3.58 1.5890 44.38390941
12 111 1956 17.622 7140 3.65 1.5984 43.78816401
14 52 929 17.865 3446 3.71 1.7018 45.87784334
15 99 727 7.343 2809 3.86 1.8495 47.86830694
16 128 2079 16.242 7655 3.68 1.7380 47.20163901
17 111 1747 15.739 6491 3.72 1.6989 45.72541167
18 110 1735 15.773 6407 3.69 1.6022 43.38720631
19 98 1081 11.031 3828 3.54 1.5777 44.55436875
20 135 1481 10.970 5292 3.57 1.5606 43.67318853
21 112 1310 11.696 4904 3.74 1.7586 47.02479789
23 118 1166 9.881 4372 3.75 1.7414 46.44292425
25 77 1016 13.195 3721 3.66 1.6625 45.40723076
26 227 1457 6.419 5498 3.77 1.8174 48.16295654
27 93 1282 13.785 4683 3.65 1.6761 45.89477858
28 88 1582 17.977 5802 3.67 1.6582 45.21298016
29 69 1118 16.203 4188 3.75 1.7802 47.52273163
30 60 918 15.300 3377 3.68 1.7103 46.49140331
31 34 616 18.118 2118 3.44 1.5480 45.02101002
32 30 409 13.633 1522 3.72 1.6436 44.16860578
34 54 995 18.426 3512 3.53 1.6542 46.86513625
35 45 872 19.378 3159 3.62 1.6097 44.43355825
36 83 805 9.699 3002 3.73 1.7158 46.0100804
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37 182 954 5.242 3780 3.96 1.9012 47.98241912
38 88 818 9.295 2993 3.65 1.6918 46.3605376
39 75 1269 16.920 4731 3.73 1.6383 43.94334833
40 85 1342 15.788 4986 3.72 1.6365 44.04630744
41 54 896 16.593 3288 3.67 1.7104 46.60873084
42 53 980 18.491 3422 3.40 1.4355 42.22003309
43 89 941 10.573 3518 3.74 1.7381 46.49061636
44 59 380 6.441 1437 3.78 1.6966 44.86358062
45 37 552 14.919 1998 3.62 1.6719 46.18952338
46 35 717 20.486 2610 3.64 1.6629 45.73548519
50 45 423 9.400 1475 3.49 1.5636 44.83986629
51 60 395 6.583 1500 3.80 1.7334 45.64533818
52 49 341 6.959 1290 3.78 1.7388 45.96310698
53 62 407 6.565 1402 3.44 1.6628 48.27004925
54 55 383 6.964 1442 3.77 1.6219 43.07771954
55 78 383 4.910 1569 4.10 1.6320 39.8378119
56 96 430 4.479 1696 3.94 1.9024 48.23388116
67 30 364 12.133 1315 3.61 1.5234 42.16739998
68 52 327 6.288 1262 3.86 1.7994 46.6245543
69 52 285 5.481 1114 3.91 1.7276 44.19805565
70 44 240 5.455 943 3.93 1.7402 44.29030162
71 28 264 9.429 950 3.60 1.7281 48.02405051
72 28 320 11.429 1091 3.41 1.4912 43.73880053
73 20 227 11.350 841 3.70 1.6499 44.53408284
74 56 290 5.179 1012 3.49 1.6243 46.54570897
75 40 180 4.500 665 3.69 1.5753 42.63938239
76 31 278 8.968 1069 3.85 1.6956 44.09393973
77 50 198 3.960 818 4.13 1.8912 45.77683209
78 40 201 5.025 771 3.84 1.7487 45.58836962
79 46 197 4.378 749 3.80 1.6246 42.72862086
80 42 151 3.595 551 3.65 1.6008 43.87023007
81 29 122 4.207 424 3.48 1.6120 46.38319629
82 19 89 4.684 323 3.63 1.7015 46.88298079
83 36 179 4.972 737 4.12 1.8471 44.80091771
84 25 123 4.920 436 3.54 1.5109 42.62402679
85 22 124 5.636 455 3.67 1.7794 48.49310465
86 17 70 4.118 240 3.43 1.5932 46.46848013
87 19 82 4.316 291 3.55 1.5408 43.41836891
88 26 102 3.923 386 3.78 1.5197 40.15758339
89 30 154 5.133 569 3.69 1.6777 45.40753346
90 20 92 4.600 334 3.63 1.7143 47.22039437
91 15 69 4.600 234 3.39 1.7083 50.37182395
92 21 89 4.238 310 3.48 1.8409 52.85167988
93 11 50 4.545 167 3.34 1.4792 44.28874711
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94 8 29 3.625 101 3.48 1.2136 34.84690403
95 8 37 4.625 151 4.08 1.5162 37.15140627
96 19 76 4.000 284 3.74 1.5264 40.8466893
97 5 32 6.400 110 3.44 1.3898 40.42957811
100 11 44 4.000 164 3.73 1.7436 46.77972895
101 11 38 3.455 156 4.11 1.9699 47.98478119
102 8 28 3.500 92 4.29 1.7182 40.09248567
103 3 18 6.000 59 3.83 1.9778 51.59525656
104 9 35 3.889 134 3.83 1.5240 39.80693912
105 5 24 4.800 96 4.00 1.4446 36.11575593
106 4 18 4.500 71 4.00 1.7150 42.87464629
107 7 27 3.857 112 4.15 1.7911 43.17788631
108 3 11 3.667 42 3.82 1.7787 46.58398896
109 6 30 5.000 96 3.20 1.6060 50.18822331
110 3 22 7.333 79 3.59 1.5934 44.37349207
111 5 27 5.400 81 3.00 1.2089 40.29803499
112 4 17 4.250 48 2.82 1.1311 40.06017609
113 5 26 5.200 70 2.69 1.1923 44.28479262
114 6 21 3.500 76 3.62 1.4655 40.49340769
Total 4725 53625 11.34 197809 3.69
Appendix A3
Table A3: Numbers of Ayats, word, letters and Means and Standard deviations of Madani Suras
No of No of Ayat Average No of No of No of Mean S.D C.V
Sura words Words Letters Letter
per word
2 286 23.99 6860 25637 3.74 1.6984 45.388402
3 200 19.67 3934 14642 3.72 1.7342 46.593296
4 176 24.02 4228 15971 3.78 1.7498 46.321240
5 120 26.36 3163 11894 3.76 1.7030 45.288010
8 75 19.15 1436 5337 3.72 1.7857 48.046026
9 129 22.06 2846 10865 3.82 1.8396 48.188129
13 43 22.65 974 3461 3.55 1.6299 45.867810
22 78 18.38 1434 5161 3.60 1.6426 45.640223
24 64 23.09 1478 5596 3.79 1.7591 46.460663
33 73 20.56 1501 5619 3.74 1.8338 48.986261
47 38 16.18 615 2376 3.86 1.7814 46.110272
48 29 22.00 638 2463 3.86 1.8116 46.926744
49 18 21.44 386 1492 3.87 1.7968 46.486064
57 29 23.10 670 2472 3.69 1.7331 46.973116
58 22 23.91 526 1993 3.79 1.6878 44.545418
59 24 20.79 499 1921 3.85 1.8179 47.221248
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60 13 30.23 393 1531 3.90 1.8645 47.860591
61 14 17.43 244 942 3.86 1.7371 44.995125
62 11 17.64 194 743 3.83 1.6562 43.243489
63 11 18.27 201 782 3.89 1.8488 47.519603
64 18 15.94 287 1067 3.72 1.7582 47.292778
65 12 26.33 316 1173 3.71 1.5784 42.521807
66 12 23.58 283 1068 3.77 1.6390 43.429971
98 8 12.88 103 392 3.81 1.6453 43.231196
99 8 4.75 38 157 4.13 1.6953 41.033230
Total 1511 22.00 33247 124755 3.75
Appendix A4
Table A4: Words per Ayat, Standard deviations, coefficient of variation,  1 and  2 of Makki Suras
Surra Mean S.D C.V 1 2
1
Nu 3.8571 1.3452 34.8752 0.3521 -0.3025
6 20.8485 10.0745 48.3224 1.1287 0.9412
7 17.9320 10.2088 56.9305 1.1022 0.8326
10 18.5138 8.7174 47.0860 1.1311 1.6758
11 17.2927 7.2697 42.0390 0.8681 0.9757
12 17.6216 8.5089 48.2866 1.1200 1.6606
14 17.8654 9.0338 50.5658 1.2986 1.9168
15 7.3434 2.9903 40.7211 1.2047 2.0264
16 16.2422 6.6649 41.0346 0.6599 0.0853
17 15.7387 5.4784 34.8084 0.7691 0.2582
18 15.7727 8.2946 52.5885 1.1344 1.0126
19 11.0306 4.8065 43.5739 1.6976 6.3581
20 10.9704 6.4112 58.4411 1.1033 1.6856
21 11.6964 4.2614 36.4331 0.8014 0.1119
23 9.8814 5.3576 54.2192 2.0102 5.4461
25 13.1948 4.8802 36.9861 0.8215 0.7136
26 6.4185 2.8959 45.1174 2.0730 8.2165
27 13.7957 5.9720 43.2886 1.5954 4.3431
28 17.9773 7.0335 39.1246 0.4098 0.4132
29 16.2029 6.9379 42.8190 0.5075 0.1911
30 15.3000 7.0140 45.8433 0.5617 0.4573
31 18.1176 9.0110 49.7360 0.1307 -0.6546
32 13.6333 5.5490 40.7021 0.0624 0.2823
34 18.4259 8.0578 43.7309 0.9510 0.2347
35 19.3778 9.3597 48.3012 0.3109 -0.5623
36 9.6988 3.9346 40.5683 0.6578 1.7916
37 5.2418 2.4420 46.5873 3.7596 24.3203
38 9.2955 5.4734 58.8821 2.7161 10.5436
39 16.9200 8.5531 50.5503 0.9494 0.2602
40 15.7882 7.6222 48.2775 1.1191 1.5642
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41 16.5926 7.7155 46.4997 0.5530 0.3464
42 18.4906 8.7346 47.2381 0.6613 1.0348
43 10.5730 4.5524 43.0571 1.0765 1.6419
44 6.4407 2.5139 39.0316 0.3284 -0.0663
45 14.9189 5.9971 40.1981 0.0392 -0.0108
46 20.4857 9.7268 47.4808 1.1082 3.1948
50 9.4000 3.3056 35.1664 0.5940 -0.0068
51 6.5833 2.5465 38.6804 0.1992 -0.3076
52 6.9592 3.2975 47.3830 1.9857 7.9494
53 6.5645 5.8467 89.0657 2.9370 9.0645
54 6.9636 1.9623 28.1788 0.2357 -0.6898
55 4.9103 2.4345 49.5804 2.4349 10.2465
56 4.4792 1.9028 42.4809 1.4652 3.5912
67 12.1333 3.3086 27.2690 0.1682 -0.3965
68 6.2885 3.1644 50.3202 0.8752 -0.0781
69 5.4808 2.7260 49.7373 1.7100 5.2672
70 5.4545 2.3373 42.8506 0.8387 0.1044
71 9.4286 5.0216 53.2599 0.8140 -0.5563
72 11.4286 2.8078 24.5680 0.5084 0.7915
73 11.3500 18.8882 166.4163 4.3614 19.3145
74 5.1786 8.7430 168.8306 6.9975 50.8998
75 4.5000 1.0622 23.6038 0.4730 -0.0615
76 8.9677 2.3019 25.6691 0.4977 1.9482
77 3.9600 1.5513 39.1742 1.2309 1.1386
78 5.0250 3.1743 63.1705 2.4366 6.2089
79 4.2826 1.7469 40.7908 1.4012 3.6262
80 3.5952 0.9642 26.8195 0.2306 -0.2447
81 4.2069 1.3464 32.0047 1.5754 4.9456
82 4.6842 1.7655 37.6903 1.4189 3.5451
83 4.9722 1.8281 36.7669 -0.1349 -0.8902
84 4.9200 1.7059 34.6722 1.2844 2.0737
85 5.6364 3.9345 69.8062 1.8212 2.2384
86 4.1176 1.2690 30.8179 0.7931 0.5957
87 4.3158 1.7014 39.4225 2.3959 6.7502
88 3.9231 1.2304 31.3627 0.7153 0.2905
89 5.1333 2.4738 48.1903 1.4910 2.2507
90 4.6000 1.9574 42.5531 1.8919 5.3072
91 4.6000 1.3522 29.3967 1.4559 2.1770
92 4.2381 1.8413 43.4470 0.8346 -0.1709
93 4.5455 1.1282 24.8193 -0.9033 1.6575
94 3.6250 0.5175 14.2772 -0.6441 -2.2400
95 4.6250 2.4458 52.8831 1.7514 3.6586
96 4.0000 1.3333 33.3333 0.4715 -0.1355
97 6.4000 2.0736 32.4007 1.9178 3.8778
100 4.0000 1.5492 38.7298 0.3945 -0.3472
101 3.4545 1.4397 41.6754 -0.5037 -1.2992
102 3.5000 1.1952 34.1494 0.0000 -1.4560
103 6.0000 5.2915 88.1917 1.4579 0.0000
104 3.8889 0.7817 20.1018 0.2160 -1.0413
105 4.8000 1.4832 30.9008 0.5516 0.8678
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93. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008
106 4.5000 2.5166 55.9247 1.1293 2.2271
107 3.8571 1.3452 34.8752 0.3521 -0.3025
108 3.6667 0.5774 15.7459 -1.7321 0.0000
109 5.0000 1.2649 25.2982 -0.8894 -0.7813
110 7.3333 1.1547 15.7459 -1.7321 0.0000
111 5.4000 1.5166 28.0847 1.7488 3.7240
112 4.2500 1.7078 40.1841 -0.7528 0.3429
113 5.2000 1.0954 21.0663 -0.6086 -3.3333
114 3.5000 1.2247 34.9927 -0.4899 -1.4667
Appendix A5
Table A5: Words per Ayat, Standard deviations, coefficient of variation,  1 and  2 of Madni Suras
Surra Mean S.D C.V 1 2
Nu
2 23.9860 15.8920 66.2551 2.5585 11.6524
3 19.6700 10.4252 53.0004 1.5947 4.9094
4 24.0227 13.9644 58.1301 1.8183 4.4431
5 26.3583 14.4768 54.9229 1.5203 2.1470
8 19.1467 8.9980 46.9953 1.5551 3.8307
9 22.0620 8.6112 39.0317 1.3919 3.0790
13 22.6512 11.0602 48.8284 0.9821 0.8574
22 18.3846 11.0445 60.0744 2.6115 10.2816
24 23.0938 15.2114 65.8682 2.1938 5.6098
33 20.5616 13.1667 64.0350 2.2272 6.2748
47 16.1842 9.9807 61.6692 1.7010 3.3044
48 22.0000 12.2066 55.4843 1.0646 1.7415
49 21.4444 9.7873 45.6402 0.6688 -0.3351
57 23.1034 10.7349 46.4647 0.9906 0.0858
58 23.9091 12.8356 53.6851 1.2881 1.3909
59 20.7917 9.9301 47.7600 1.3347 1.0169
60 30.2308 18.0100 59.5750 0.9731 -0.8729
61 17.4286 8.6799 49.8027 1.1684 0.4961
62 17.6364 5.8185 32.9913 0.0074 -1.6668
63 18.2727 4.6710 25.5627 -0.3331 -1.1517
64 15.9444 5.5357 34.7186 0.6584 1.2152
65 26.3333 10.7478 40.8144 0.1544 -0.5745
66 23.5833 10.3261 43.7857 1.0770 1.6588
98 12.8750 6.5995 51.2584 -0.0800 -0.9937
99 4.7500 1.1650 24.5256 -0.0904 -1.6133
16

94. Teachings and Reflections of Qur'an and Sunnah About Science,
Engineering, Technology and Management
ABDUL RASHID SHAIKH *
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses some of the teachings and reflections from Qur'an and Sunnah
about science, engineering, technology, and management. Qur'an and Sunnah
provide complete guidance about every thing, and invite mankind for observation,
thinking, understanding the creation, and acquiring the knowledge. Some Ayat
and Ahadith which mention some basic tools and techniques and some related to
modern theories and trends are also quoted. As a result of new spirit of inquiry
and struggle, the Muslim scientists developed the method of controlled experiment
and other techniques which form the basis of modern science, engineering and
technology. They also wrote a good number of highly valuable books. That
knowledge was transferred to Europe, where it was advanced further, but without
guidance of Qur'an and Sunnah. This resulted in certain material benefits but
gave rise to adverse effects related to belief and moral aspects. In order to safeguard
these aspects, an important aspect of Tawheed is presented which explains the
reality of cause and effect phenomena.
1. INTRODUCTION
All science rests on the idea that similar events occur in by Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallam. Qur'an
similar circumstances. The scientific facts are verifiable, emphasizes to follow sunnah by saying "And whatsoever
reproducible and communicable. A scientist is basically the Prophet gives you, take it; And whatsoever he forbids,
interested to study the natural systems and phenomena in abstain (from it)" [Surah 59:7].
order to know certain aspects about the Will of Allah
subhanahu wa ta 'aia about His creation. The engineering 2. IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING
and technology mainly deal with designing, manufacturing/ & TECHNOLOGY IN THE LIGHT OF
constructing, using/operating and maintaining machines, QUR'AN AND SUNNAH
systems, structures, processes etc. for the benefit of
mankind. This is accomplished by applying scientific and Qur'an has mentioned various aspects of natural systems
empirical knowledge and techniques to the materials and and phenomena. They include animals, birds, plants, crops,
forces created by Allah subhanahu wa [a 'a/a. Management Earth, Sun, Moon, stars, minerals, day & night, raining etc.
deals with planning, execution and control in order to The Qur'an has also given indications about many
achieve desired objectives.
technologies directly. These include, iron, armour,
Qur 'an is a Book for the guidance of all mankind in every metallurgy, mining, woodworking, ship building,
walk of life, including as to how the man should seek transportation, communication, wind power, glass,
empirical knowledge, what method must he use and what agriculture, grain storage, textile, lighting system, aerial
procedure he should follow. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala and space travel, etc. In one Hadith it is said "Try to get
says "For you we have revealed the Book which manifests
the facts about all things, a guide, a blessing and a good your earnings from the hidden treasures of the Earth ", an
news to those who submit to Allah" [Surah 16:89]. The indication to advance and develop agriculture, mineralogy,
Sunnah is the explanation and implementation of Qur'an mining and other related fields.
*Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro.
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95. Teachings and Reflections of Qur 'an and Sunnah About Science, Engineering, Technology and Management
It is evident from the history that the progressive attitude cattle; and in the change of the winds and in the clouds
was adopted and encouraged by the Prophet sallaltaho that are made to do service between the heavens and the
alaihe wasallum [1,2,3]. For the first time the Arabs saw a Earth, are signs for those who understand" [Surah2:164].
deep trench in Ghazwah Ah 'zab. Hazrat Salman Farsee gave
the suggestion and the trench was demarcated, designed At other places Qur'an says:
and dug under the direct guidance of the Prophet sallallaho
alaihe wasallum. For learning and importing the technology of "Do you not see, that Allah has subjugated everything in the
armoured cars and mobile weapons called Manjnek, Heaven and in the Earth to you " [Surah 31:20]; "// is He,
Dababa and Zaboor, the Prophet sallallaho allaihe Who has created for you all things that are in the Earth " [Surah
wasallum sent Sahabah to Syria. That technology, perhaps 2:29]; "Travel on Earth and see how He originated creation"
the latest at that time, was used in Ghazwah Ta'if'[1,2,3]. It [Surah 29:20].
may be noted that Syria was not Muslim state at that time.
Therefore technology could be transferred from any suitable The very first Qur'anic verses revealed to the Prophet
country. sallallaho alaihe wasallam contained the information about
"reading and writing" [Surah 96:1,4]. Qur'an andSunnah
Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala orders the Muslims in Qur'an emphasize on acquiring knowledge and teach us the prayer
"Against them make your strength ready to the utmost of "My lord! Grant me increase in knowledge" [Surah
your power, including steeds of war, to strike tenor into 20:114], In Hadith it is said "The word of wisdom is the lost
(the hearts of) the enemies of Allah, your own enemies and property of the believer;
others whom ye may not know, but whom Allah doth know"
[Surah 8:60]. In one Hadith, it is said "And equip your so wherever he finds it, he has a better claim on it"
selves against them (the enemies) with as much force as you [Tirmidhi ]. In one Hadith it is said that query is the solution to
can. Behold! power lies in hitting the target, Behold! power lies ignorance [Sunan Abu Dawud ].
in hitting the target, Behold! power lies in hitting the target".
[Al-Hadith: Muslim]. In the above verse and the Hadith we 4. GUIDANCE ABOUT BASIC CONSIDERATIONS,
are strictly ordered to develop a well defined level of military TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
power, specially the systems capable to destroy the enemy
Qur'an says that weights and meaures be kept in perfect
targets. Such development surely needs appropriate
condition (well calibrated)[Surah 17:35] and measurements be
advancement in many fields including science, engineering,
made correctly [Surah 55:9]. Emphasis on considerations for
technology and management. It means Qur'an and Sunnah
timings is also laid. At one place Qur'an says " They are
teach us to make advancement in these fields.
but signs to mark fixed periods of time or mankind" [Surah
3, DEVLOPMENTOFSPmrrABOUTOBSERVAnON, 2:89]. At another place Qur'an says "Prayers are enjoined
THINKING, UNDERSTANDING CREATION, on believers at stated timings 1L [Surah 4:103]. Qur'an also
AND ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE gives importance and orders for documentation by saying " O
ye who believe ! when ye deal with each other, in
There are over 500 references in the Holy Qur'an that transanction involvingfuture obligations in a fixed period of
invite man to Tanadhur (observation), Tadahbur lime, reduce them to writing " [Surah 2:282]. Overall
(deliberation), Tazakkur (recollection), Tafakkur importance of written and physical standards is also
(consideration, thinking), Tabassur (understanding, indicated [Surah 57:25].
reflection) and Ta'aqqul (rationalization) on the natural
phenomena and creation [4]. One of the constant prayers of Qur'an stresses on careful observation and research by
the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum was "My Lord, show saying "Then turn your eyes again and again" [Surah
me the nature of things as they are". The observable aspect of 67:4]. Qur'an also exhorts to verify the news (information)
reality is emphasized by Qur'an in several verses throughout when reported by dissolute person [Surah 49:6]. At one
the book [5 - 8], One of the verses is as follows: " Assuredly in place Qur'an suggests to use "Analogy" and study the
the creation of Heavens and the Earth; and in the alteration related situation by saying "So learn a lesson (through
of night and day; and in the ships which pass through the Analogy), O ye with eyes (to s e e ) " [Surah 59:2],
sea for the profit of mankind; and in the rain which Allah Determination for direction of Ka'ba and calculations of
sends down from the skies, giving life to the Earth after its Inheritance and of Zakat require certain depth of
death, and scattering over it all kinds of mathematics. At another place Qur'an says "Man should
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96. Abdul Rashid Shaikh
not follow that whereof he has no knowledge" [Surah 5. TEACHINGS ABOUT HEALTH CARE AND
17:36]. In one Hadith, it is said "Jffe seek refuge from that ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
knowledge which carries no utility " [Sunnan Ibne Ma/ah].
Islam has laid great stress on personal hygiene, frequent
Economy is very much stressed and unnecessary bathing, brushing the teeth, ablution before the prayers five
expenditure and wastage is prohibited. Qur'an says " Eat times a day, also clean clothes an* hair and even use of
and drink, but waste not by excess " [Surah 7:31].Taking perfumes. Circumcision as part of personal hygiene is
care of safety and security measures, doing jobs in a nice compulsory for the Muslims [9]. Considering the
and preferred way, and giving importance to aesthetic precautionary measures regarding health, Qur'an allows the
aspects are also included in the teachings of Qur'an and postponement of compulsory fasting of Ramadhan for those
Sunnah. Allah ^ubhanahu wa ta 'ala says "On no soul does who are ill or on journey [Surah 2:185]. A physician after
Allah place a burden greater than it can hear [Surah staying for six months in Madina reported to the Prophet
sallallaho alaihe wasallam that during the period of his
2:286].This Ayah guides us for, assigning the jobs
stay, no patient visited him. The Prophet sallallaho alaihe
appropriately(both in quantity and quality) to employees
wasallam told him, "We are the people who eat when we are
according to their capabilities(physical,mental etc. ), and
hungry and we withdraw when we still have some appetite
also loading other things (animals, machines, structures etc.)
".
as per their specifications/capabilities.These are
important considerations for modern engineering design The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam said "For every
and manufacturing. ailment, there is a treatment" [Bukhari and Muslim], Once
the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam instructed the
The long travel and performance of Haj, need sufficient
Sahabah to consult two physicians for a patient, thus
planning, discipline, team-work spirit. The Holy Prophet
recommended a medical board [2]. In Madina, some lady
Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallum said "Any one who
physicians also treated the lady patients [9]. The Prophet
treats a patient without being in possession of the
sallallaho alaihe wasallum advised the Muslims not to visit a
experience would be responsible for the loss suffered by
the patients" [Abudaud and Nasai]. Qur'an says: O you country where a pestilence is raging, but also, not to flee from
who believe! Fulfil your undertakings ( and promises) it if they find themselves there [Bukhari and Muslim]. In Islam,
[Surah 5:1]. To conduct affairs by mutual consultations; to be pork, intoxicants, adultery are strictly prohibited and
on safe side and be away from doubtful acts; are taught in smoking is also disliked. This is all in agreement with
Qur'an and Sunnah. Qur'an also indicates two main modem medical theories also.
aspects to be assessed in the candidate for staffing/
In one Hadith, it is said that "By Allah, in whose Hand is my
recruitment: "-Potential for the related job" and
life, the bondman (of Allah) does not become a believer unless
"Trustworthiness" [Surah 28:26]. Much emphasis is laid on
he likes far his brother what he likes for himself [Bukhari
taking proper care of subordinates; making payments to
and Muslim]. In another Hadith, it is said that removing a
labour in time; and also for contributing to human welfare in
hurdle from the path, is one of the branches of faith. In one
general and taking care of subordinates and labour in
Hadith, a place with smoke has been given analogy with
particular. Also a believer is supposed neither to deceive
others nor get deceived from others. These considerations bad society. Tree plantation, pollution free water,
along with few more quoted above are very much needed for cleanliness of public places etc. have also been stressed
the purpose of management. In a Hadith it said that upon in Sunnah. Such teachings educate for setting up an ideal
p l an n i n g and management is the highest level of society including solutions to environmental issues.
intelligence.
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97. Teachings and Reflections of Qur 'an and Sunnah About Science, Engineering, Technology and Management
6. SOME EXAMPLES OF CORRELATION Some Ayat of Qur'an do mention IF THEN statements,
BETWEEN AYATAND AHADITH RELATED similar to those of modern expert systems. For example,
TO MODERN THEORIES, FINDINGS AND Qur'an says: IF his shirt is torn from the back, THEN she is
TRENDS the liar [Surah 12:47]. The Qur'an says "And (He has
created) horses, mules and donkeys, for you to ride and
Qur' an says " Soon we will show them signs in the (furthest) use for show, and has created other things of which ye
regions (of the Earth), and in their own souls, until it have no knowledge" [Surah 16:8]. In this sentence Qur'an
becomes manifested to them that this is the fact." [Surah has foretold all types of transportation-means upto last day
41:53]. In this verse it is told that from time to time, right up [3].
to the last day, novel signs and blessings of Allah
subhanahu wata'ala, will continue to appear [3]. Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallam also taught
complicated phenomena with the help of graphical models
In one paper, references are given to 1274 Ayat (verses) drawn by him.
concerning various branches of science, engineering and
technology [10]. Dr. Haluk Nurbaki in his book, Verses
from the Holy Qur'an and the Facts of Science, has 7. CONTRIBUTION OF MUSLIM SCHOLARS
discussed 50 major topics mainly related to contemporary TO SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND
sciences [11]. Under one of the topics he has quoted the TECHNOLOGY
verse "O Believers, guard yourselves and your families
from afire whose fuel is men and stones" [Surah 66:6]. It has been found that the followers of Islam devoted
Then he has pointed out that in modern coal fired power themselves whole-heartedly to the acquisition of
stations the stone is generally burnt along with fuel. knowledge. Soon after the advent of Islam, the Muslims
Qur'an says "You should not commit adultery, for it is achieved leadership of the civilized world as much in
shameful (deed) and an evil, opening the way (to other learning and scholarship as in the political and military
evils)" [Surah 17:32].The physician will interpret this Ayah powers. On the basis of internal and direct evidence, Dr.
from the point of prvention of many sexual diseases such as Muhammad Raziuddin Siddiqui, has established the fact
AIDS. But from socialogy point of view, it will be looked as a that the Method of Controlled Experiment was evolved by
form of low morality leadindtothe collapse of society. Qur'an some Muslim scientists [5]. This method is the essence of
says "He maketh their breast close and constricted as if they
rad to climb up to skies "[Surah 6:125J. In this Ayah there modern scientific investigation and discovery. In support of
is indirect mentioning that low oxygen and decrease of his claim he has mentioned the scientific works of many
atmospheric pressure in high altitudes causes breath Mu sli m scholars related In the fields of Mathematics,
problem [ 10 ]. At another place Qur'an says "Those who Astronomy. Chemistry. Riolotiy and Medicine. The
reject our signs, we shall soon cast into the fire: As often as intellectual world can not forget the unique contribution to
their skins are roasted through, we shall change them for scientific creativity of s u c h lowering personalities like
fresh skins, that they may taste the penalty [Surah 4:56]. It
may be noted that if skin is roasted, it becomes insensitive Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Zakariya Al-Razi, Ibn Al-Haitham,
to temperature. Al-Bairuni, IbnSina, Al-Kindi, Al-Khawarzmi, Al-Jazari,
Al-Farabi and many others.
On the basis of a research work done at an observatory in
USA, one author [ 12] has written about a recent discovery of Western historians also recognize now the Islamic origin of
comets of ice descending to Earth from the Heavens, scientific methods. Robert Briffault in his book, Making of
which is in accordance with the Quranic Verses [Surah 2:22, Humanity, Sir Oliver Lodge in his book, Pioneers of
24:43], The truthfulness of Quranic Verses [Surah 76:2; Science, and George Sarton in his encyclopedic work,
22:5; 23:13,14] which mention the various human embryo Introduction to the History of Science, give ample testimony to
development stages have been observed by various eminent this fact [5]. Donald R. Hill in his recent book, Islamic
embryologists of the present age [13]. Qur'an says "Then Science and Engineering, has written a complete chapter
Allah sent a raven (crow), who scratched the ground to
titled as, Transmission of Islamic Knowledge to Europe
show him how to hide the dead body of his brother " [Surah
5:31], This shows that one can learn something useful from [15]. An English Professorof History of Technology writes:
the study of birds and animals (Zoology). In Surah Yusuf, a
method is mentioned for preservation of grain [Surah "Europe began to import inventions, directly from Arab
12:47]. This method was tested in an Agriculture University nations at those points in Spain and Italy where Europe
and has been reported to be quite successful even today and the Islamic world met. Many familiar mathematical
[14]. and geometrical terms algebra, algorithm, zero, nadir, etc.
are Arabic in origin" [16]. .*
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98. Abdul Rashid Shaikh
Two American authors of a book, write: "New Universities 14:32]. Islamic way to teach science calls for an important
arose in Basra, Kufa, Cairo, Toledo and Cordoba. The modification in the present trend. As an example we may
Library of Cordoba ( Kurtaba of Muslim Spain ) in 900 say "Look at the wonderful Wisdom of Allah (Sunnatullah}
(A.D) contained no less than 600,000 books, its catalog discovered by Archimedes" instead of simply saying
was published in 44 volumes. This is astonishing in view of "•Archimedes' Principle". In this regard, some scholars have
the fact that the library of French king in 1300 (A.D) given quite suitable suggestions [4,18,19],
consisted of slightly more than 400 titles. Really there is
nothing astonishing about it at all. Western Europe was 9. SCOPE OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING
barbarous. Islam and the Eastern Roman empire constituted AND TECHNOLOGY IN SHARI'AH
all that was civilized'1 [17].
The actions which have been prescribed by the Shari'ah as
8. IMPORTANT POINT OF TAWHEED TO Farz,Vajib, Mustahib, Haram and Makrooh, can not be
EXPLAIN CAUSE AND EFFECT altered, whereas those actions which are declared as Mu 'bah by
PHENOMENA the Shari 'ah, are left optional [3]. Practically the former
actions are relatively small in number as compared to the
Quran says ""Listen carefully, for Him in to create and to latter which are Mu 'bah. In Islam, the novelty has not been
command" [Surah 7:54]. At anotherplace Quran says "And if the basis for rejection of progressive actions. On the
Allah willed, He could take away, their faculty of hearing and contrary the progressive attitude has been encouraged,
provided the objectives and the related working procedure
seeing" [Surah 2:20]. Here the actual desired effects are are not against Islamic shari'ah [3].
being related directly to the Will of Allah subhanahu wa
ta'ala. Although apparent causes mentioned for these effects Allama Justice Muhammad Taqee Usmani has mentioned
are also the thunder and the lightning but the real cause is three points which a Muslim has to bear in mind while
the Will of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala. Qur'an also indicates carrying out SE&T work [3]. These points may be
that Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala has created each and every summarized as follows:
thing in a particular form and has also provided guidance to
it [Surah 20:50]. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala says "Hast thou (i) Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala is the Absolute and
not turned thy vision to thy Lord? How He dofh prolong Sole Creator of every effect at every instant and
shadow!" Surah 25:45]. Here variation in the length of every thing is under His commandment. So a
shadow is being related directly to Allah subhanahu wa Muslim believes "Glory to Him, who has
ta'ala, although apperant cause of this phenomenon is the subjugated these to us (for our use), and we were
Sun and the rotation of Earth. This is because Allah not capable (of subjugating them by ourselves) "
subhanahu wa ta'ala has created the form and guidance of
[Surah 43:13].
everything including Sun and Earth.
Once Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallum told a (ii) Subjugation of the creation or the controlling of
physician "You are simply a friend and Allah is the the natural forces is not the ultimate goal and basic
physician (in fact) ", In one Hadith it is said that one person purpose of creation of mankind. Allah subhanahu
inquired from Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum if he wa (a 'ala says "/ created the Jinn and Mankind,
should tie his camel with rope or rely on Allah. The Prophet only to worship Me" [Surah 51:56];
sallallaho alaihe wasallam replied that he should tie his (iii) The various inventions and control over natural
camel and also rely on Allah. In this case, Allah subhanahu forces are to be utilized as per teachings of Qur'an
wa ta'ala is the Absolute and Sole provider of security
and Sunnah
which is the ultimate needed effect. Although the capability
for security has been empirically correlated with the strength of Islam has potential and steering power to provide both spirit as
rope. In fact it is the will of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala well as guidance for the advancement of science,
which acts as the real cause of all apparent causes, which are engineering and technology in such a way that its adverse
otherwise supposed to be effective in themselves.
impacts on belief and moral aspects, as experienced by the
At another place Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala gives an West, could be safely avoided. This is because the Creator
example "It is He, who has made the ships subject to you, says "The religion before Allah is Islam" [Surah 3:19].
that they may sail through the sea by His command" [Surah
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99. Teachings and Reflections ofQur 'an and Sunnah About Science, Engineering, Technology and Management
10. CONCLUSIONS [5] Siddiqui, M. R., "Islamic Scientific Thought and
Contributions of Muslims", ibid, Vol.2, No.4, pp. 27-44,1991.
(1) This is a preliminary study and needs more
[6] Qureshi, M.M., "A Basis For the Integration of Modern
collective effort, appropriate arrangement and Scientific Studies With Islamic Thought", ibid, Vol.1, pp.
additions. 19-36, January-March, 1990.
(2) Qur'an and Sunnah basically guide us for |7J Kazi, M.A., "The Pursuit of Scientific Knowledge in Islam",
achieving real success in both worlds. They ibid, Vol.1, No.l, pp. 5-18, January-March, 1990.
provide guidance or every thing, including science, [8] Nadvi, Allama M. S., "Qur'an, Science Aur Musal'maan",
engineering, technology and management. (Urdu), Majlis Nashriyate Islam, Karachi, 1989.
(3) Qur'an and Sunnah provide spirit and teach us to [9] Rauf, A., "State of the Art in the Field of Science During the
make advancement in the fields of modern science, Days of the ProphefMohammed (SAW)", S&T in the Islamic
World, Vol.8, No.l, pp,41- 58, January-March, 1990.
engineering, technology and management.
[10] Jamil, M,, et. al., "Scientific Themes in the Holy Qur'an",
(4) It is the miracle of Qur'an that its teachings are COMSTECH Conference, Islamabad, pp. 135-150, March
applicable for all times up to the last day. Majority 1995.
of verses quoted here, could also be applied to
other fields and aspects. [11 Nurbaki, H., "Verses From the Holy Kuran and the Facts of
Science", (English Translation), Indus Pub. Corp., Karachi,
(5) Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala has created each and 1992.
every thing in a particular form and has also
provided guidance to it. In fact it is the will of [12] Syed, I. B., "Comets of Ice Descending to Earth From the
Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala which is the real cause of Heavens, As Confirmed by Science", S & T in Islamic World,
all apparent causes. These points need to be Vol.8, No.2, pp. 115-119 Islamabad, April-June, 1990.
taught to the students and general public in a well
planned manner. [13] Siddiqui, H.R., "The Development of Human Embryo
Scientific Findings and Quranic Revelations", ibid, 6(3), pp.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 139-150, July-September, 1988.
The author is grateful to the authorities of Mehran [14] Shah, F.II., et. al., "Quranic Method of Storage of Wheat",
University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, for Islamic Thought and Scientific Creativity, Vol. 2 No,2, pp,23-
providing facilities. . 28, June, 1991.
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QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY-JUNE, 2000

100. ayats
Surahs of which the number of ayats are greater
than sequence number
If there appears a positive value other than zero when we
subtract the sequence number from the number of ayats of a
surah, then it means the number of ayats is greater than the
sequence number in such surah.
Example:
The name of The number
The sequence the surah of ayats
number
Al-
1 7
Fāti a
Difference = number of ayats – sequence number
Difference = 7 ─ 1 = 6
If the difference is a negative figure, then this means the
number of the ayats is smaller than the sequence number.
The surahs of which their number of ayats is greater than
the sequence number and the differences are shown in the list
below:
No. Surah Ayat Difference
1 Al-Fāti a 7 6
2 Al-Baqarah 286 284
3 Āl ‘Imrān 200 197
4 Al-Nisā 176 172
5 Al-Māidah 120 115
6 Al-En‘ām 165 159

101. Surahs of which the number of ayats are greater than sequence number
7 Al-A‘rāf 206 199
8 Al-Anfāl 75 67
9 Al-Tawbah 129 120
10 Yūnus 109 99
11 Hūd 123 112
12 Yūsuf 111 99
13 Al-Ra‘d 43 30
14 Ibrāhīm 52 38
15 Al- ijr 99 84
16 Al-Na l 128 112
17 Al-’Isrā 111 94
18 Al-Kahf 110 92
19 Maryam 98 79
20 āhā 135 115
21 Al-Anbiyā 112 91
22 Al- ajj 78 56
23 Al-Mu’minūn 118 95
24 Al-Nūr 64 40
25 Al-Furqān 77 52
26 Al-Shu‘arā 227 201
27 Al-Naml 93 66
28 Al-Qa a 88 60
29 Al-‘Ankabūt 69 40
30 Al-Rūm 60 30
31 Luqmān 34 3
33 Al-A zāb 73 40
34 Saba 54 20
35 Fā ir 45 10
36 Yāsīn 83 47
37 Al- affāt 182 145
38 ād 88 50
39 Al-Zumar 75 36
40 Al-Mu’min 85 45
41 Fu ilat 54 13
42 Al-Shūrā 53 11
43 Al-Zukhruf 89 46
44 Al-Dukhān 59 15
51 Al-Dhāriyāt 60 9
61

102. Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir
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53 Al-Najm 62 9
54 Al-Qamar 55 1
55 Al-Ra mān 78 23
56 Al-Wāqi‘ah 96 40
List-16
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 48.
Now let’s look at surahs which have odd and even number
of differences (number of ayats - sequence number), out of such
48 surahs.
which
The surahs of which their number of the ayats is greater
than the sequence numbers and has an odd number
difference
No. Surah Ayat Difference
3 Āl ‘Imrān 200 197
5 Al-Māidah 120 115
6 Al-En‘ām 165 159
7 Al-A‘rāf 206 199
8 Al-Anfāl 75 67
10 Yūnus 109 99
12 Yūsuf 111 99
19 Maryam 98 79
20 āhā 135 115
21 Al-Anbiyā 112 91
23 Al-Mu’minūn 118 95
26 Al-Shu‘arā 227 201
31 Luqmān 34 3
36 Yāsīn 83 47
37 Al- affāt 182 145
40 Al-Mu’min 85 45
41 Fu ilat 54 13
42 Al-Shūrā 53 11
44 Al-Dukhān 59 15
62

103. Surahs of which the number of ayats are greater than sequence number
51 Al-Dhāriyāt 60 9
53 Al-Najm 62 9
54 Al-Qamar 55 1
55 Al-Ra mān 78 23
List-17
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 23
23.
The surahs of which their number of the ayats is greater
number
than the sequence numbers and has an even number
difference
No. Surah Ayat Difference
1 Al-Fāti a 7 6
2 Al-Baqarah 286 284
4 Al-Nisā 176 172
9 Al-Tawbah 129 120
11 Hūd 123 112
13 Al-Ra‘d 43 30
14 Ibrāhīm 52 38
15 Al- ijr 99 84
16 Al-Na l 128 112
17 Al-’Isrā 111 94
18 Al-Kahf 110 92
22 Al- ajj 78 56
24 Al-Nūr 64 40
25 Al-Furqān 77 52
27 Al-Naml 93 66
28 Al-Qa a 88 60
29 Al-‘Ankabūt 69 40
30 Al-Rūm 60 30
33 Al-A zāb 73 40
34 Saba 54 20
35 Fā ir 45 10
38 ād 88 50
39 Al-Zumar 75 36
63

104. Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir
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43 Al-Zukhruf 89 46
56 Al-Wāqi‘ah 96 40
List-18
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 25
25.
Now let’s look at the sequence numbers of the surahs of
which their number of ayats is greater than the sequence numbers:
is
The surahs of which their number of ayats is greater
than the sequence number and which have odd
sequence numbers
XX
No. Surah Ayat No. Surah Ayat
1 Al-Fāti a 7 27 Al-Naml 93
3 Āl ‘Imrān 200 29 Al-‘Ankabūt 69
5 Al-Māidah 120 31 Luqmān 34
7 Al-A‘rāf 206 33 Al-A zāb 73
9 Al-Tawbah 129 35 Fā ir 45
11 Hūd 123 37 Al- affāt 182
13 Al-Ra‘d 43 39 Al-Zumar 75
15 Al- ijr 99 41 Fu ilat 54
17 Al-’Isrā 111 43 Al-Zukhruf 89
19 Maryam 98 51 Al-Dhāriyāt 60
21 Al-Anbiyā 112 53 Al-Najm 62
23 Al-Mu’minūn 118 55 Al-Ra mān 78
25 Al-Furqān 77
List-19
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 25
25.
64

105. Surahs of which the number of ayats are greater than sequence number
The surahs of which their number of ayats is greater
than the sequence number and which have even
sequence numbers
XX
No. Surah Ayat No. Surah Ayat
2 Al-Baqarah 286 26 Al-Shu‘arā 227
4 Al-Nisā 176 28 Al-Qa a 88
6 Al-En‘ām 165 30 Al-Rūm 60
8 Al-Anfāl 75 34 Saba 54
10 Yūnus 109 36 Yāsīn 83
12 Yūsuf 111 38 ād 88
14 Ibrāhīm 52 40 Al-Mu’min 85
16 Al-Na l 128 42 Al-Shūrā 53
18 Al-Kahf 110 44 Al-Dukhān 59
20 āhā 135 54 Al-Qamar 55
22 Al- ajj 78 56 Al-Wāqi‘ah 96
24 Al-Nūr 64
List-20
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 23
23.
Evaluation
The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is larger than the
sequence number and which have odd sequence number is 25 On the other hand, the
25.
number of those which have even number difference of (number of ayats- sequence
number) is also 25
25.
The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is larger than the
sequence number and which have even sequence number is 23 On the other hand,
23.
the number of those which have odd number difference of (number of ayats- sequence
number) is also 23
23.
Let’s see the results which outcome collectively:
65

106. Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir
www.symmetricbook.com
number of ayats > sequence number number of ayats > sequence number
(number of ayats sequence number) (number of ayats sequence number)
NO. SURAH AYAT ODD NUMBER DIFFERENCE EVEN NUMBER DIFFERENCE
ODD sequence number EVEN sequence number
1 Al-Fāti a 7 X X
2 Al-Baqarah 286 X X
3 Āl ‘Imrān 200 X X
4 Al-Nisā 176 X X
5 Al-Māidah 120 X X
6 Al-En‘ām 165 X X
7 Al-A‘rāf 206 X X
8 Al-Anfāl 75 X X
9 Al-Tawbah 129 X X
10 Yūnus 109 X X
11 Hūd 123 X X
12 Yūsuf 111 X X
13 Al-Ra‘d 43 X X
14 Ibrāhīm 52 X X
15 Al- ijr 99 X X
16 Al-Na l 128 X X
17 Al-’Isrā 111 X X
18 Al-Kahf 110 X X
19 Maryam 98 X X
20 āhā 135 X X
21 A l- Anb iyā 112 X X
22 Al- ajj 78 X X
23 Al-Mu’minūn 118 X X
In the figure, symmetric distribution for the surahs of which their number of the ayats is greater than the sequence numbers is shown.
24 Al-Nūr 64 X X
25 Al-Furqān 77 X X
26 Al-Shu‘arā 227 X X
27 Al-Naml 93 X X
28 Al-Qa a 88 X X
29 Al-‘Ankabūt 69 X X
30 Al-Rūm 60 X X
31 Luqmān 34 X X
32 Al-Sajdah 30
33 Al-A zāb 73 X X
34 Saba 54 X X
35 Fā ir 45 X X
36 Yāsīn 83 X X
37 Al- affāt 182 X X
38 ād 88 X X
39 Al-Zumar 75 X X
40 Al-Mu’min 85 X X
41 Fu ilat 54 X X
42 Al-Shūrā 53 X X
43 Al-Zukhruf 89 X X
44 Al-Dukhān 59 X X
45 Al-Jāthiyah 37
46 Al-A qāf 35
47 Mu ammad 38
48 Al-Fat 29
49 Al- ujurāt 18
50 Qāf 45
51 Al-Dhāriyāt 60 X X
s y m m e t r y
52 Al- ūr 49
53 Al-Najm 62 X X
23 25 25 23
54 Al-Qamar 55 X X
55 Al-Ra mān 78 X X
56 Al-Wāqi‘ah 96 X X
57 Al- adīd 29
58 Al-Mujādalah 22
o f
59 Al- ashr 24
60 Al-Mumta inah 13
61 Al- aff 14
a x i s
62 Al-Jumu‘ah 11
63 Al-Munāfiqūn 11
64 Al-Taghābun 18
65 Al- alāq 12
66 Al-Ta rīm 12
67 Al-Mulk 30
68 Al-Qalam 52
69 Al- āqqah 52
70 Al-Ma‘ārij 44
71 Nū 28
72 Al-Jinn 28
73 Al-Muzzammil 20
74 Al-Muddaththir 56
75 Al-Qiyāmah 40
76 Al-Insān 31
77 Al-Mursalāt 50
78 A l - N a b a’ 40
79 Al-Nāzi‘āt 46
80 ‘A b a s a 42
81 Al-Takwīr 29
82 Al-Infi ār 19
83 Al-Mu affifīn 36
84 Al-Inshiqāq 25
85 Al-Burūj 22
86 Al- āriq 17
87 Al-A‘lā 19
88 Al-Ghāshiyah 26
89 Al-Fajr 30
90 Al-Balad 20
91 Al-Shams 15
92 Al-Layl 21
93 Al- u a 11
94 Al-Inshirā 8
95 Al-Tīn 8
96 Al-‘Alaq 19
97 Al-Qadr 5
98 Al-Bayyinah 8
99 Al-Zilzāl 8
100 Al-‘Ādiyāt 11
101 A l - Q ā r i ‘a h 11
102 Al-Takāthur 8
103 A l - ‘A s r 3
104 Al-Humaza 9
105 Al-Fīl 5
106 Quraysh 4
107 Al-Mā‘ūn 7
108 Al-Kawthar 3
109 Al-Kāfirūn 6
110 Al-Na r 3
111 Tabbat 5
112 Al-Ik hlā 4
113 Al-Falaq 5
114 A l - N ā s 6
66

107. Surahs of which the number of ayats are smaller
than sequence number
Now let’s perform the same analysis which we have made
for the surahs that have the number of their ayats greater than
their sequence number for the surahs of which has the number of
surahs smaller than the sequence number.
The surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than
the sequence number and the differences are shown in the list
below:
No. Surah Ayat Difference
32 Al-Sajdah 30 -2
45 Al-Jāthiyah 37 -8
46 Al-A qāf 35 -11
47 Mu ammad 38 -9
48 Al-Fat 29 -19
49 Al- ujurāt 18 -31
50 Qāf 45 -5
52 Al- ūr 49 -3
57 Al- adīd 29 -28
58 Al-Mujādalah 22 -36
59 Al- ashr 24 -35
60 Al-Mumta inah 13 -47
61 Al- aff 14 -47
62 Al-Jumu‘ah 11 -51
63 Al-Munāfiqūn 11 -52
64 Al-Taghābun 18 -46
65 Al- alāq 12 -53
66 Al-Ta rīm 12 -54
67 Al-Mulk 30 -37
68 Al-Qalam 52 -16
69 Al- āqqah 52 -17
70 Al-Ma‘ārij 44 -26

108. Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir
www.symmetricbook.com
71 Nū 28 -43
72 Al-Jinn 28 -44
73 Al-Muzzammil 20 -53
74 Al-Muddaththir 56 -18
75 Al-Qiyāmah 40 -35
76 Al-Insān 31 -45
77 Al-Mursalāt 50 -27
78 Al-Naba’ 40 -38
79 Al-Nāzi‘āt 46 -33
80 ‘Abasa 42 -38
81 Al-Takwīr 29 -52
82 Al-Infi ār 19 -63
83 Al-Mu affifīn 36 -47
84 Al-Inshiqāq 25 -59
85 Al-Burūj 22 -63
86 Al- āriq 17 -69
87 Al-A‘lā 19 -68
88 Al-Ghāshiyah 26 -62
89 Al-Fajr 30 -59
90 Al-Balad 20 -70
91 Al-Shams 15 -76
92 Al-Layl 21 -71
93 Al- u a 11 -82
94 Al-Inshirā 8 -86
95 Al-Tīn 8 -87
96 Al-‘Alaq 19 -77
97 Al-Qadr 5 -92
98 Al-Bayyinah 8 -90
99 Al-Zilzāl 8 -91
100 Al-‘Ādiyāt 11 -89
101 Al-Qāri‘ah 11 -90
102 Al-Takāthur 8 -94
103 Al-‘Asr 3 -100
104 Al-Humaza 9 -95
105 Al-Fīl 5 -100
106 Quraysh 4 -102
107 Al-Mā‘ūn 7 -100
108 Al-Kawthar 3 -105
68

109. Surahs of which the number of ayats are smaller than sequence number
109 Al-Kāfirūn 6 -103
110 Al-Na r 3 -107
111 Tabbat 5 -106
112 Al-Ikhlā 4 -108
113 Al-Falaq 5 -108
114 Al-Nās 6 -108
List-21
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 66
66.
Now let’s look at surahs which have odd and even number
of differences (number of ayats - sequence number), out of such
66 surahs.
The surahs of which their number of the ayats is smaller
than the sequence numbers and has an odd number
difference
difference
No. Surah Ayat Difference
46 Al-A qāf 35 -11
47 Mu ammad 38 -9
48 Al-Fat 29 -19
49 Al- ujurāt 18 -31
50 Qāf 45 -5
52 Al- ūr 49 -3
59 Al- ashr 24 -35
60 Al-Mumta inah 13 -47
61 Al- aff 14 -47
62 Al-Jumu‘ah 11 -51
65 Al- alāq 12 -53
67 Al-Mulk 30 -37
69 Al- āqqah 52 -17
71 Nū 28 -43
73 Al-Muzzammil 20 -53
75 Al-Qiyāmah 40 -35
76 Al-Insān 31 -45
69

110. Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir
www.symmetricbook.com
77 Al-Mursalāt 50 -27
79 Al-Nāzi‘āt 46 -33
82 Al-Infi ār 19 -63
83 Al-Mu affifīn 36 -47
84 Al-Inshiqāq 25 -59
85 Al-Burūj 22 -63
86 Al- āriq 17 -69
89 Al-Fajr 30 -59
92 Al-Layl 21 -71
95 Al-Tīn 8 -87
96 Al-‘Alaq 19 -77
99 Al-Zilzāl 8 -91
100 Al-‘Ādiyāt 11 -89
104 Al-Humaza 9 -95
108 Al-Kawthar 3 -105
109 Al-Kāfirūn 6 -103
110 Al-Na r 3 -107
List-22
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 34
34.
The surahs of which their number of the ayats is smaller
than the sequence numbers and has an even number
difference
No. Surah Ayat Difference
32 Al-Sajdah 30 -2
45 Al-Jāthiyah 37 -8
57 Al- adīd 29 -28
58 Al-Mujādalah 22 -36
63 Al-Munāfiqūn 11 -52
64 Al-Taghābun 18 -46
66 Al-Ta rīm 12 -54
68 Al-Qalam 52 -16
70 Al-Ma‘ārij 44 -26
72 Al-Jinn 28 -44
70

111. Surahs of which the number of ayats are smaller than sequence number
74 Al-Muddaththir 56 -18
78 Al-Naba’ 40 -38
80 ‘Abasa 42 -38
81 Al-Takwīr 29 -52
87 Al-A‘lā 19 -68
88 Al-Ghāshiyah 26 -62
90 Al-Balad 20 -70
91 Al-Shams 15 -76
93 Al- u a 11 -82
94 Al-Inshirā 8 -86
97 Al-Qadr 5 -92
98 Al-Bayyinah 8 -90
101 Al-Qāri‘ah 11 -90
102 Al-Takāthur 8 -94
103 Al-‘Asr 3 -100
105 Al-Fīl 5 -100
106 Quraysh 4 -102
107 Al-Mā‘ūn 7 -100
111 Tabbat 5 -106
112 Al-Ikhlā 4 -108
113 Al-Falaq 5 -108
114 Al-Nās 6 -108
List-23
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 32
32.
Now let’s look at the sequence numbers of the surahs of
which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence numbers:
The surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller
than the sequence number and which have odd
sequence numbers
No. Surah Ayat No. Surah Ayat
45 Al-Jāthiyah 37 83 Al-Mu affifīn 36
47 Mu ammad 38 85 Al-Burūj 22
71

112. Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir
www.symmetricbook.com
49 Al- ujurāt 18 87 Al-A‘lā 19
57 Al- adīd 29 89 Al-Fajr 30
59 Al- ashr 24 91 Al-Shams 15
61 Al- aff 14 93 Al- u a 11
63 Al-Munāfiqūn 11 95 Al-Tīn 8
65 Al- alāq 12 97 Al-Qadr 5
67 Al-Mulk 30 99 Al-Zilzāl 8
69 Al- āqqah 52 101 Al-Qāri‘ah 11
71 Nū 28 103 Al-‘Asr 3
73 Al-Muzzammil 20 105 Al-Fīl 5
75 Al-Qiyāmah 40 107 Al-Mā‘ūn 7
77 Al-Mursalāt 50 109 Al-Kāfirūn 6
79 Al-Nāzi‘āt 46 111 Tabbat 5
81 Al-Takwīr 29 113 Al-Falaq 5
List-24
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 32
32.
The surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller
than the sequence number and which have even
sequence numbers
No. Surah Ayat XX No. Surah Ayat
32 Al-Sajdah 30 82 Al-Infi ār 19
46 Al-A qāf 35 84 Al-Inshiqāq 25
48 Al-Fat 29 86 Al- āriq 17
50 Qāf 45 88 Al-Ghāshiyah 26
52 Al- ūr 49 90 Al-Balad 20
58 Al-Mujādalah 22 92 Al-Layl 21
60 Al-Mumta inah 13 94 Al-Inshirā 8
62 Al-Jumu‘ah 11 96 Al-‘Alaq 19
64 Al-Taghābun 18 98 Al-Bayyinah 8
66 Al-Ta rīm 12 100 Al-‘Ādiyāt 11
68 Al-Qalam 52 102 Al-Takāthur 8
70 Al-Ma‘ārij 44 104 Al-Humaza 9
72

113. Surahs of which the number of ayats are smaller than sequence number
72 Al-Jinn 28 106 Quraysh 4
74 Al-Muddaththir 56 108 Al-Kawthar 3
76 Al-Insān 31 110 Al-Na r 3
78 Al-Naba’ 40 112 Al-Ikhlā 4
80 ‘Abasa 42 114 Al-Nās 6
List-25
As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number
of such surahs is 34
34.
Evaluation
The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than
the sequence number and which have odd sequence number is 32 On the other hand,
32.
the number of those which have even number difference of (number of ayats-
sequence number) is also 32
32.
The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than
the sequence number and which have even sequence number is 34 On the other
34.
hand, the number of those which have odd number difference of (number of ayats-
sequence number) is also 34
34.
Let’s see the results which outcome collectively:
<
“Yāsīn. By the Hakīm Qur’ān”
(Yāsīn/
(Yāsīn/1-2)
īn
73

114. Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir
www.symmetricbook.com
number of ayats < sequence number number of ayats < sequence number
(number of ayats sequence number) (number of ayats sequence number)
NO. SURAH AYAT ODD NUMBER DIFFERENCE EVEN NUMBER DIFFERENCE
ODD sequence number EVEN sequence number
1 Al-Fāti a 7
2 Al-Baqarah 286
3 Āl ‘Imrān 200
4 Al-Nisā 176
5 Al-Māidah 120
6 Al-En‘ām 165
7 Al-A‘rāf 206
8 Al-Anfāl 75
9 Al-Tawbah 129
10 Yūnus 109
11 Hūd 123
12 Yūsuf 111
13 Al-Ra‘d 43
14 Ibrāhīm 52
15 Al- ijr 99
16 Al-Na l 128
17 Al-’Isrā 111
18 Al-Kahf 110
19 Maryam 98
20 āhā 135
21 A l- Anb iyā 112
22 Al- ajj 78
23 Al-Mu’minūn 118
In the figure, symmetric distribution for the surahs of which their number of the ayats is smaller than the sequence numbers is shown.
24 Al-Nūr 64
25 Al-Furqān 77
26 Al-Shu‘arā 227
27 Al-Naml 93
28 Al-Qa a 88
29 Al-‘Ankabūt 69
30 Al-Rūm 60
31 Luqmān 34
32 Al-Sajdah 30 X X
33 Al-A zāb 73
34 Saba 54
35 Fā ir 45
36 Yāsīn 83
37 Al- affāt 182
38 ād 88
39 Al-Zumar 75
40 Al-Mu’min 85
41 Fu ilat 54
42 Al-Shūrā 53
43 Al-Zukhruf 89
44 Al-Dukhān 59
45 Al-Jāthiyah 37 X X
46 Al-A qāf 35 X X
47 Mu ammad 38 X X
48 Al-Fat 29 X X
49 Al- ujurāt 18 X X
50 Qāf 45 X X
51 Al-Dhāriyāt 60
s y m m e t r y
52 Al- ūr 49 X X
53 Al-Najm 62
34 32 32 34
54 Al-Qamar 55
55 Al-Ra mān 78
56 Al-Wāqi‘ah 96
57 Al- adīd 29 X X
58 Al-Mujādalah 22 X X
59 Al- ashr 24 X X
o f
60 Al-Mumta inah 13 X X
61 Al- aff 14 X X
a x i s
62 Al-Jumu‘ah 11 X X
63 Al-Munāfiqūn 11 X X
64 Al-Taghābun 18 X X
65 Al- alāq 12 X X
66 Al-Ta rīm 12 X X
67 Al-Mulk 30 X X
68 Al-Qalam 52 X X
69 Al- āqqah 52 X X
70 Al-Ma‘ārij 44 X X
71 Nū 28 X X
72 Al-Jinn 28 X X
73 Al-Muzzammil 20 X X
74 Al-Muddaththir 56 X X
75 Al-Qiyāmah 40 X X
76 Al-Insān 31 X X
77 Al-Mursalāt 50 X X
78 A l - N a b a’ 40 X X
79 Al-Nāzi‘āt 46 X X
80 ‘A b a s a 42 X X
81 Al-Takwīr 29 X X
82 Al-Infi ār 19 X X
83 Al-Mu affifīn 36 X X
84 Al-Inshiqāq 25 X X
85 Al-Burūj 22 X X
86 Al- āriq 17 X X
87 Al-A‘lā 19 X X
88 Al-Ghāshiyah 26 X X
89 Al-Fajr 30 X X
90 Al-Balad 20 X X
91 Al-Shams 15 X X
92 Al-Layl 21 X X
93 Al- u a 11 X X
94 Al-Inshirā 8 X X
95 Al-Tīn 8 X X
96 Al-‘Alaq 19 X X
97 Al-Qadr 5 X X
98 Al-Bayyinah 8 X X
99 Al-Zilzāl 8 X X
100 Al-‘Ādiyāt 11 X X
101 A l - Q ā r i ‘a h 11 X X
102 Al-Takāthur 8 X X
103 A l - ‘A s r 3 X X
104 Al-Humaza 9 X X
105 Al-Fīl 5 X X
106 Quraysh 4 X X
107 Al-Mā‘ūn 7 X X
108 Al-Kawthar 3 X X
109 Al-Kāfirūn 6 X X
110 Al-Na r 3 X X
111 Tabbat 5 X X
112 Al-Ik hlā 4 X X
113 Al-Falaq 5 X X
114 A l - N ā s 6 X X
74

115. International Seminar on Islamic Science and Technology (InSIST’08): Reviving The
Supremacy of Islamic Science, Putra World Trade Centre, Kuala Lumpur, 18-19 March 2008.
THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF THE SEVEN-YEAR-CULTIVATION RULE OF THUMB (7-Y-C
RoT) IN FARMING MANAGEMENT
by
Abdul Hamid b. Hj. Mar Iman, Ph.D.
Centre for Real Estate Studies,
Faculty of Engineering & Geoinformation Science,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 UTM, Skuai, Johor Darul Ta’azim.
e-mail: hamid@fksg.utm.my
academic portal: http://ac.utm.my/web/hamidiman
Abstract
Underlying the verses describing a prophetic interpretation of an Egyptian King’s dream about “seven
lean cows devouring seven fat ones and seven dry ears of corn withering around seven green ones”
are some principles that remain to be further uncovered in farming research. The relevance of the
principles probably lies in the science and economics of farming management. Firstly, seven-year-
cultivation period is a basis for many crop production systems, especially in terms of efficiency and
major production decisions. Secondly, seven-year-cultivation period is also a basis for analyzing the
cyclical nature of many agricultural crops. This paper discusses some examples of agricultural crop
systems that demonstrate such characteristics. It is found that the agronomic and economic aspects
of crop production are logically tied to the concept of seven-year time horizon and, therefore, it makes
sense to strategize farming management on a seven-year cycle basis.
Key words: Seven-year-cultivation rule of thumb (7-Y-C RoT), farming management.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The prophetic rule of thumb about seven-year-cultivation period (7-Y-C RoT) in farming based on
Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of an Egyptian King’s dream has set some important scientific and
economic principles in the agricultural sector since the old times. The principles laid down in the 7-Y-C
RoT is recorded in the al-Quran, surah Yusof: verses 43-49 as follows (adapted from Yusof ‘Ali):
43. And the King (of Egypt) said: "Verily, I saw (in a dream) seven fat cows whom seven lean ones
were devouring - and of seven green ears of grain and (seven) others dry. O notables! Explain to me
my dream, if it be that you can interpret dreams."… 47. [(Yusof] said: "For seven years you shall
devote yourself assiduously or steadily* to raising crop as usual and that (the harvest) which you reap
you shall leave in ears, (all) - except a little of it which you may eat. 48. "Then will come after that,
seven hard (years), which will devour what you have laid by in advance for them, (all) except a little of
that which you have guarded (stored). 49. "Then thereafter will come a year in which people will have
abundant rain and in which they will press (wine and oil)."
* Notes: The word ‫ دأب‬means persevere in, persist in, devote oneself assiduously or steadily to, apply oneself
َ ََ
eagerly to; to work hard, be diligent; to keep doing, keep on, continue to do, do persistently or regularly.
In brief, the above interpretation of dream is as follows: Farmers will sow for seven years diligently
whereby there will be seven years of bumper harvest in the country. From the harvests, it is better to
store and preserve the required quantity of grain in clusters because, next, there will be a famine
lasting for another seven years during which the preserved stores of grain shall be utilized for feeding
the famine-struck people and little quantity shall be used for cultivation. Afterwards, there will be a
year in which the people shall have heavy rains and bumper crops. They shall press grapes.

116. These verses underline a number of major scientific principles and/or aspects in farming
management. The verses clearly stipulate that the harvest should be stored and preserved for
consumption and growing materials. These have set the general principles in farm production and
food system management.
Farm production involves, among other things, the major aspects related to rotational farming
(applicable to animal production as well); seeds storage/breeding stock; crop and animal breeding
while food management involves, among things, the major aspects related to alleviating the effects of
agricultural cycle (including buffer stock); production planning; and consumption.
There could a question: what is the wisdom of “seven-year” cultivation strategy? The prophetic 7-Y-C
RoT is by no means a decree. It was, in the first place, a “ta`bur” by a prophet who has been divinely
inspired by Allah but, then, it was a management strategy that has a great wisdom in it. It sets some
general principles on aspects of farming management, especially with regards to crop and animal
production, for ensuring a well-managed economy. The main concern of any farming management is
to minimize the impacts of environmental uncertainties on the economic and social well-being of a
particular country. Thus, the only strategy for minimizing such impacts is proper management of the
farming system.
The next section discusses a brief background on ancient Egyptian farming system. This is followed
by the background to the quranic interpretation of the verses on the King’s dream. Theoretical and
empirical discussions on the scientific principles of 7-Y-C RoT are given in the ensuing sections. The
last section concludes this paper.
2.0 A BRIEF ACCOUNT ON ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FARMING SYSTEM
Like its modern version, the ancient Egyptian agriculture was largely dependent upon the Nile river
system. Throughout the history, the main water source for farming was the Nile. Rainfall was almost
non-existent in Egypt, and the Nile has always been the source of water for raising crops and animals
(Harris, 2001).The agriculture along the Nile was based on growing winter crops after the annual
floods had subsided (Cowen, 2008). However, crops were also grown in other seasons. The principal
crops of ancient Egypt included emmer (a type of wheat), barley, and flax (Robinson, 1961; Mellersh,
1962; James, 1979; Romano, 1990). Wheat and barley were the staple food of which bread and beer
were made, respectively. Other popular fruits and vegetables in the Egyptian ancient times were
dates, figs, grapes peas, beans, and cucumbers.
The people of Egypt have always been working closely with the seasons and understanding their
change. Crops used to be harvested three times a year (). This means, many ancient Egyptian
farmers used to grow either short-term or mixed crops. Due to the seasonality of groundwater from the
Nile river system, the ancient Egyptian farmers have devised a sophisticated irrigation system since
4,000 years ago (Gadalla, 2005; Cowen, 2008).
However, no man’s power can overcome Allah Almighty’s power. Famine was a critical problem of
national importance to the ancient Egyptian farming system whereby the first terrible drought that
lasted for seven years nicknamed as Famine Stela was said to have taken place during the reign of
Djoser, the Pharoah’s third dynasty king (Lichtheim, 1980; Haiying, 1998; Wilkinson, 1999). The place
of calamity was believed to be Sehel Island, Aswan, in the southern Egypt. During this time, the Nile
was said to have not flooded the nearby lands for years. Because of their obstinence and rejection of
Allah as the only God to be worshipped, Allah sent various disasters upon Pharaoh and his subjects.
The abovementioned period of extreme drought in Egypt was one of these. This occurred as a lesson
to Pharaoh and his subjects as mentioned in the al-Quran:
“We seized Pharaoh's people with years of drought and scarcity of fruits so that hopefully they would
pay heed” (al-‘Araaf: 130).
2

117. It was recorded in the Egyptian history that the 7-year good harvest and 7-year famine did really
occurred long before Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of the King’s dream. The water level of the Nile fell
tremendously and the country was hit by a severe drought. Since water was terribly crucial for the
Egyptians, the drought directly threatening their very livelihood. Agricultural products diminished in
availability and famine ensued. However, there were no reliable records as to how many times
draught has struck the ancient Egypt.
Some accounts mentioned that a severe famine struck the ancient Egypt again during the King’s rule
at a time before Prophet Yusof’s was born. At the Prophet Yusof’s adulthood time, however, by Allah’s
leave and due to Prophet Yusof’s divine foresight and planning, the calamity did not take place. The
country did not face a shortage of food. During the first seven years of famine he supplied grain to the
people according to their minimum needs and stored the rest in the newly-built granaries. By the time
the seven good years were over, the granaries were full. With the Prophet’s Yusof’s wisdom, the
years of famine have been salvaged through a well-managed system of farming (including seed
storage) and food consumption management.
Prophet Yusuf was then made a minister in charge of, among other things, finance and agriculture.
One of his agricultural and food management strategies was to make a brief tour of Egypt to assess
the best locations where intensive cultivation could be carried out. He allocated extra money to the
farmers in the most fertile areas of the Nile so that they would be able to grow the maximum amount
of grain. He also ordered the construction of huge storehouses (granaries), capable of storing several
hundred tons of the surplus grain.
3.0 BACKGROUND TO THE QURANIC INTERPRETATION OF VERSES
Although there are slight differences in the use of terminologies in interpreting surah Yusof verses 43-
49 among the scholars, their ijmaali interpretation does not deviate very much from each other. For
example al-Tabari and al-Ghurnathi give the following interpretations.
Table 1: Comparative interpretations of verses
Interpreter Quranic key words Interpretation
Al-Tabari (d. 310 H) ‫اﻟﺴﻤﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻘﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻨﻮن اﻟـﻤﺨﺼﺒﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻄﺒﺮي‬ (Fat cows) (Years of fertility)
‫اﻟﺴﻤﺎن‬ ‫اﻟـﻤﺨﺎﺻﻴﺐ‬
(The fat) (The fertile)
‫اﻟﺴﺒﻊ اﻟ ِﺠﺎف‬
‫ﻌ‬ ‫ﺳﻨﻮن ﻣـﺠﺪﺑﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻨﺒﺖ ﺷﻴﺌﺎ‬
ً
(Seven lean) (Years of infertility no crop at all)
‫اﻟﺒﻘﺮات اﻟﻌﺠﺎف‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻨﻮن اﻟـ ُـ ُﻮل اﻟـﺠ ُوب‬
‫ُﺪ‬ ‫ﻤﺤ‬
(Lean cows) (Years of draught and infertility)
‫اﻟـﺨﻀﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻨﻮن اﻟـﻤﺨﺎﺻﻴﺐ‬
(The green) (The fertile years)
‫اﻟـﻴﺎﺑﺴﺎت‬ ‫اﻟـﺠ ُوب اﻟـﻤـﺤﻮل‬
‫ُﺪ‬
(Dry out) (The infertile, the draught)
Jazii al-Ghurnaathi (d. 741 H) ‫ﺑﻘﺮات ﺳﻤﺎن‬ ‫( ﻣﺨﺼﺒﺔ‬Fertile, fruitful, productive)
ٌ َِ ْ ُ
‫ﺟﺰي اﻟﻐﺮﻧﺎﻃﻲ‬ “Fat cows” ‫( ﻣﺠﺪﺑﺔ‬Infertile, fruitless, unproductive)
ٌ َِ ْ ُ
‫اﻟ ِﺠﺎف اﻟﺒﻘﺮات‬
‫ﻌ‬ ‫( ﺳﺒﻊ ﺑﻘﺮات‬Seven years)
“Lean cows”
Based on the interpretation of Jazii al-Ghurnaathai (d. 741 H), the words “seven fat cows” mean cows
that became fat for seven years and “seven lean cows” mean cows that became thin for seven years.
Based on some clues in verse 46, scholars have concluded that the “fat” and “lean” conditions of
these cows occurred at different time periods. This means, the verses refer to different time periods of
3

118. fertility (or productivity) and infertility (or unproductivity). For example, Jazii al-Ghurnaathii mentioned
(Jazii):
‫ﻓﻌﻠﻤﻬﻢ ﺣﻴﻠﺔ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻨﻴﻦ اﻟﻤﺨﺼﺒﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴﻨﻴﻦ اﻟﻤﺠﺪﺑﺔ‬
(So, he taught them a strategy whereby they survive during years of fertility as well as years of
infertility)
Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of the King’s dream points to at least two main phenomena of the
physical world: cyclic nature of the environment (and, thus, agricultural production) and strategies to
alleviate the impact of the changing environment in terms of good farming and food system
management.
4.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF 7-Y-C RoT IN FARMING
The keywords seven years may not necessarily mean exactly seven years. It can mean “within” or “in
the region” or “plus-minus” seven years. It may also mean a “medium-term” period during which some
important farming strategies and decisions should be made. These approximations could be true
perhaps in light of the Egyptian farming of the time at which Prophet Yusof passed his divine
recommendations to the King. Nevertheless, the “seven-year” mythical principles can be broadly
applied to the modern farming management in many ways. Discussion follows.
4.1 Agronomic Aspects
In general, agricultural crops can be divided into short-term (e.g. arable) and long-term (perennial)
crops. Irrespective of their life structure, one important goal of agronomic practices is to protect soil
resources (e.g. maintaining soil’s biological quality) and improving production potential (e.g. best crop
combination and cultivation system).
For short-term crops, seven-year rotation system is a common practice in many parts of the world.
However, this depends, among other things, on the nature agricultural system practiced and the
climate of the country. Table 2 shows an example of crop systems practised in some countries.
Table 2: Example of Seven-Year Arable Crop Systems
Country Type of farming Example of general crop rotation system
1. Former Soviet Union in general Arable System 1 (5-year): W-W-B-O-F
[1] System 2 (6-year):
Option 1 W-W-W-B-B-F
Option 2 W-W-W-B-O-F
Option 3 W-W-W-O-O-F
System 3 (7-year): W-W-W-W-B-O-F
2. Ukraine [2] Arable System 1 (6-year): F-W-W-S-B-C
3. United States Arable Various systems (5-7 years)
United Kingdom (Pfiffner et al., Arable System 1 (7-year): Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt
1993)
Notes: B = barley; Bt = beetroot; C = corn; F = fallow; O = oat; S = sunflower; W = wheat
In the case of organic farming, successful organic production begins with crop rotation to break up
cycles of weeds, pests and diseases. Fairly simple rotation guidelines can be followed, for example,
by selecting three crop rotation elements over a seven-year period without using the same element
consecutively (Goforth, 2008). This means, there are fallows in between the years.
The right combination of rotation systems can be part of farming success (Pfiffner et al., 1993;
Bowman, 2002). For example, a farmer with 25 years of farming experience in the U.S. used a typical
4

119. seven-year rotation in planting an over-wintering rye cover crop followed by soybeans; a fall-planted
small grain; a legume/grass mix “frost-seeded” into the grain in late winter; several years of hay or
pasture; corn; another rye cover-soybeans sequence; cereal grain frost-seeded with a legume/grass
mix; finishing with a fallow year when the forage mix growth is clipped but left to replenish soil organic
matter. The seventh year’s “crop” was found to be an enrichment and regeneration of soil biological
life. The soil benefits which improved and protect succeeding crops easily offset the opportunity cost
plus clipping and $20 per acre in taxes. A late seeding of buckwheat for grain in the seventh summer
and then a fall seeding of rye to restart the rotation combine to provide a needed break in the legume
cycle that has prevented a buildup of soil disease organisms. In Russia, cultivation of 7 types of a
seven-year crop rotation system of fodder crops produced the highest yield (average of 10.92 t/ha)
and the best humus balance (+2.31 t/ha) when using crop rotations of pea, barley, and grasses;
lucerne and grasses; winter rye and sorghum, and maize (Stupakov et al., 2001).
Yield response needs sufficient time to show even in short-term cash crops. Although there is no
hard-and-fast rule for assessing crop performance, a seven-year period is commonly perceived to be
a reasonably sufficient duration for observing yield response to manuring and other treatments. For
example, wheat grain yield responds to nitrogen rates in the first five while to potassium rates in the
first two years of seven years of growth. Grain nitrogen content can be affected in six of seven years
of growth (Girma et al., 2006). The effect of organic farming on the production of crops under a mixed
organic system, a stockless all arable farming system, and a horticultural enterprise was assessed
over the first seven-year experiment with a potential for a further experiment over the second seven-
year phase (Leake, 1999; CWS Farms Group, 2002). In some farming research such as the livestock
production, a period of five to seven years is considered sufficiently long enough to produce reliable
field results on breeding and/or feeding (Dwayne Rohweder and Ken Albrecht).
Yield reduction due to soil compaction can reach a substantial proportion in a period of seven years.
For example, in Ohio, reductions in crop yields are 25% in maize, 20% in soybeans, and 30% in oats
over a seven-year period (Lal, 1996). Remedial agronomic practices are needed after such a period to
prevent further loss of crop output. In another context, a complete nutrient recycling in arable crops
occurs in seven year and with rotational cropping, this cycle may be somewhat modified.
Some aspects of farm husbandry such as pest and disease control take just enough time make an
impact. In the case of citrus farming, for example canker takes a farmer a seven-year trip before he
can start making money again. It includes two years' worth of quarantine on the land and five years
before the farmer can start getting any real production off those trees. So, there are about seven
years' worth of no cash income at all. [3]
4.2 Farm Economics
Crop production optimisation strategy normally necessitates calculation of short-term or medium-term
profit from a particular enterprise. For instance, whether one could recoup capital investments within
the seven-year period needed to depreciate them (Thompson, 1997). In agricultural property
valuation, the concept of seven-year profit capitalisation has been accepted by the court as a basis for
estimating the value of rubber plantation. Such a principle may have some economic basis since long-
term investments such as those in perennial crop and livestock have some components of medium-
term income and profit profiles, during which important production decisions need to be known. For
instance, some long-term crops such as oil palm and rubber have a span of productive age of about
20 years, which is divided into three production stages whereby the outputs follow the law of
diminishing returns (Figure 1). Stage I is an irrational stage at which there tends to be under-
employment of input. Stage II, at which there is full employment of inputs, is a rational stage. Stage III
is again an irrational stage for a different reason, i.e. over-employment of input. On average, the
length of each stage is about seven years.
5

120. Figure 1: Principles of production efficiency
(Notes: Figures at the bottom are based on the study case – Bukit Lawiang oil plam plantation)
These stages also reflect three important production events. The terminal point of Stage I is
characterized by maximum profit is at A; the point of maximum revenue at B; while the point of
terminal productive cycle at C. Each stage can have a time-span of around 7 years.
Study Case
To illustrate the above three events, a study case was chosen, namely the Tabung Haji oil palm
plantation at Bukit Lawiang, Kluang, Johor. A summary of production area is shown in Table 3 while the
basic production profile is shown in Table 4.
Table 3: Production area of Tabung Haji oil palm plantation, Bukit Lawiang, Kluang, Johor
Block Planted year Area (ha.)
PM 82A 1982 219
PM 83B 1993 356
PM 84A 1984 334
PM 84B 1984 282
PM 84C 1984 269
PM 84D 1984 296
PM 85A 1985 105
PM 85B 1985 128
Building/office/quarters 12
Hilly forest/vacant land 13
Total 2,014
Using the data in columns 2 and 4 of Table 4, a production prediction curve was estimated as FFB =
6.205 + 2.0548*year - 0.0622*year2 where year represents the age of oil palm trees from field
transplanting. Based on output mean differential adjustment technique (Hamid, 2000) the equation was
used to further predict the FFB production for years 16 through 28. It was then multiplied by price of FFB
per ton to obtain total revenue curve. Two essential production functions were then estimated as follows:
6

121. Table 4: Production data of Tabung Haji oil palm plantation, Bukit Lawiang, Kluang, Johor
Year Age Total output (ton FFB/ha (ton) FFB price Production cost
(Year) FFB) (RM/ton) (RM/ton)
1990 5 33,593.22 16.89 120.49 77.72
1991 6 36,057.28 18.13 157.01 85.00
1992 7 40,956.37 20.59 184.07 82.62
1993 8 45,142.11 22.70 170.77 80.26
1994 9 38,142.00 19.18 270.77 105.3
1995 10 40,207.59 20.21 286.41 107.54
1996 11 45,581.18 22.92 234.24 113.95
1997 12 43,334.00 21.79 210.00 95.00
1998 13 41,900.00 21.07 210.00 93.00
1999 14 46,000.00 23.13 210.00 90.00
2000 15 42,000.00 21.12 210.00 92.00
Note: FFB = fresh fruit bunch.
TREV = 0.771785 + 798.035*YEAR - 21.84*YEAR2 (1)
TCOS = 250*YEAR (2)
where TREV = total revenue and TCOS = total cost.
Using equations (1) and (2) above, three fundamental aspects of production decisions in oil palm
cultivation can be analysed (see Figure 2). Firstly, the point at which profit is the highest, i.e. the point is
when MR = MC, i.e. at point A. Secondly, age of maximum yield is achieved when MR =
d(TREV)/d(Year) = 0, i.e. at point B. With the production function given, this point can be ascertained by
mathematical differentiation of the function. Thirdly, age at which replanting is needed is when profit is
equals zero, i.e. at point C.
(a) Age of highest profit
MR = d(TREV)/d(YEAR) = 798.035 - 43.68*YEAR.
MC = d(TCOS)/d(YEAR) = 250
At point A, MR = MC. Thus, 798.035 - 43.68*YEAR = 250
∴YEAR = (798.035 – 250)/43.68 = 12.55
(b) Age of maximum revenue
TREV = 0.771785 + 798.035*YEAR - 21.84*YEAR2
d(TREV)/d(Year) = 798.035 - 43.68*YEAR
At point B, MR = d(TREV)/d(Year) = 0. Thus,
∴YEAR = 798.035/43.68 = 18.27
(c ) Age of replanting
π = TREV - TCOS = 0
= 0.771785 + 798.035*YEAR - 21.84*YEAR2 - 250*YEAR = 0
= (548.035 - 21.84*YEAR)*YEAR = -0.771785
The logical solution is 548.035 - 21.84*YEAR = -0.771785
∴YEAR = 548.806786/21.84 = 25
The summary of the above calculation is shown in Table 5.
7

122. Table 5: Three important production events in oil plam
Production stage Criteria Remarks
Point of maximum When MR = MC (where MC = 250) Achieved after about 9 years
profit Calculation: Year = 12.6 from first production (3.5
years of age)
Point of maximum When MR = 0 Achieved about 6 years after
revenue Calculation: Year = 18.3 age of maximum profit
Point of terminal When TREV - TCOS = 0 Achieved about 7 years after
production Calculation: Year = 25 age of maximum revenue
From Table 5, it can be said that the 7-Y-C RoT is useful in the production planning of long-term crop.
For such a crop, the manager should embark on an efficient approach to produce the highest profit
within seven years after the first year of FFB production. From this point, he knows that production
rate is going to decline whereby the rate will reduce to zero when the production reaches the
maximum level of revenue over the next seven years. The final seven years is a period that prepares
the manager for a replanting scheme.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF “SEVEN-YEAR” PERIOD IN FOOD MANAGEMENT
UNDERSTANDING CYCLES
One important aspect of 7-Y-C RoT is related to seasonal fluctuation in agricultural production and
output price or simply called agricultural cycle. This cycle is reflected in the successions of good
period and abundant yields or favourable prices (period 1); followed by dry period, bad growth, bad
harvest, famine, and unfavourable product prices (period 2); and finally rainy period, good growth,
good harvest, abundant yields, and favourable product prices again (period 1). This cycle is illustrated
in Figure 2.
Figure 2: The concept of cycle
Agricultural cycle can last for a few, say five to seven years. Examples of such a phenomenon were 5-
year production cycle starting in 2000 in China (China Daily, 7/3/2008); seven-year downward trend in
wheat production starting in 1998 in the U.S. (USDA, 2004a, 2004b). The El Niño that affects
agricultural production can develop every 4 to 7 years (Strock and Everett, 2002). Output price cycles
in some crops such oil palm and soya bean have an average cycle length of seven years (Figure 3).
8

123. Figure 3: Price fluctuation in crude palm oil (CPO) and soya bean oil (source: PT SMART Tbk, 2006)
One of the challenges as a result of agricultural cycles is to stabilize production and/or price. As
shown in Figure 3, both oil palm and soya ben faced a tremendous pressure to increase their market
prices during the periods of 1989-1990, 1994-1996, 1999-2001, and 2003-2005. Therefore, it is crucial
to understand such changes and to put up farming strategy during such periods. Indeed, this is a
difficult task.
One widely adopted agricultural risk stabilizing strategy is agricultural contract scheme. In this context,
seven-year contract schemes in agricultural subsidies have become the common ground in many
countries, especially to alleviate the impacts of production and price risks since producers normally
rely totally on the marketplace. USDA’s Risk Management Agency, for instance, has an agricultural
support scheme whereby producers receive fixed payments over a seven-year period, on a declining
basis (Kintzle, 2005).
FOOD SUSTAINABILITY
Food production has the fundamental function of providing necessary nutrition to the society
permanently. In order to achieve this goal, agricultural sustainability is a must. This needs a well-
managed farming system. Among other things, the key food sustainability strategy is well-managed
food production, consumption, and stock systems. This, in turn, requires a thorough understanding of
life cycle stages of the food system. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an analytical method used to
evaluate the resource consumption and environmental burdens associated with a product, process, or
activity. In agriculture, food LCA uses indicators that address economic, social, and environmental
aspects of each life cycle stage: origin of (genetic) resource, agricultural growing and production, food
processing, packaging and distribution, preparation and consumption, and end of life (Heller and
Keoleian, 2000).
The basic principle of this has been laid down by Prophet Yusof himself. Firstly, he recommended
continuous food production through seven good years or cultivation. Secondly, he recommended
grain storage for seeds propagation. Thirdly, he allocated the budget for agricultural production and
building storage and processing facilities. Fourthly, during the following seven famine years, he
allocated the amount of stored grains to the Egyptian people according to per capita minimum
requirement. This way, he managed to avoid starvation and control the prices of grains. Prophet
Yusof’s approach to providing grain storage has set the principle in the use of buffer stock for many
commodities in the modern world’s economies as a strategy of facing production and economic
9

124. cycles. Rubber, cocoa, etc. are examples of such commodities. The concept was then broadened to
include processed foodstuff. For example, as a result of shortage of supply and rising prices Malaysia
has made a move by creating buffer stock for controlled consumer food items such as sugar, cooking
oil, and flour in 2008. It has done so for rice in the 1960s.
One very crucial aspect of food sustainability, as taught by Prophet Yusof, is food production planning.
The main objective is to ensure food sufficiency through farm production. We may have wondered
how he has planned crop cultivation for a 14-year period to ensure food security. The principle lies in
the sustainability mentioned above. A simple example of cultivation planning is as follows:
Od = Cd x Sf x Dt x Pt [where Po(1 + g)n] (3)
Rr = Od/[Fd x (1 – Fl)] (4)
Ac = Rr/Og (5)
where Od = minimum annual dry-weight-equivalent dietary (ADWED) needs of the population; Cd =
minimum daily per capita per serving dietary needs of a particular type of grain crop; Sf = frequency of
daily intake of that grain food; Dt = number of days of annual consumption of that grain type; Pt =
population size in a particular year; Po = population size in the base year; g = population’s annual net
growth (%);n = number of years of growth; Rr = minimum required annual fresh-weight grain (AFWeG)
production (metric ton); Fd = dry food content conversion factor (per tonnage basis); Fl = processing &
marketing inefficiency factor (per tonnage basis); Ac = total minimum annual area of cultivation
(AAoC) needed (ha.); and Og = potential grain production (metric ton/ha.).
Let say Po = 100,000; g = 2%; t = 7; Cd = 0.2 kg; Sf = 2; Dt = 365; Og = 35 metric tons/ha.; Fd = 0.45;
and Fl = 0.15. The solutions for the above models are tabulated as follows:
Table 6: Hypothetical example of grain production functions
Year Population Minimum ADWED needs Minimum AFWeG Total minimum AAoC
(metric ton) production (metric ton) needed (ha.)
0 100,000 14,600.00 38,169.93 1,090.57
1 102,000 14,892.00 38,933.33 1,112.38
2 104,040 15,189.84 39,712.00 1,134.63
3 106,121 15,493.64 40,506.24 1,157.32
4 108,243 15,803.51 41,316.36 1,180.47
5 110,408 16,119.58 42,142.69 1,204.08
6 112,616 16,441.97 42,985.55 1,228.16
Total 108,540.54 283,766.11 8,107.60
Average 106,204 27,135.13 70,941.53 2,026.90
Table 7: Hypothetical example of grain production planning
Year Minimum AFWeG production (metric ton) Total minimum AAoC needed (ha.)
Current Future Current Future
0 38,169.93 - 1,090.57 -
1 38,933.33 - 1,112.38 -
2 39,712.00 - 1,134.63 -
3 40,506.24 - 1,157.32 -
4 41,316.36 - 1,180.47 2,702.53
5 42,142.69 141,883.06 1,204.08 2,702.53
6 42,985.55 141,883.06 1,228.16 2,702.53
10

125. Since the first “good” seven years should be planned to provide a buffer stock for the next “bad” seven
years, the minimum AFWeG production at the end of the first seven years should be twice the total
AFWeG figure (row 9, column 4) in Table 6. In the same way, the total minimum AAoC needed at the
end of the first seven years should be twice the total AAoC figure (row 9, column 5) in Table 6. In
general, the total area of cultivated land should be doubled beginning from the fifth of the first seven
years while crop output should be doubled beginning from the sixth and seventh years.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE 7-Y-C ROT
A question that perhaps worth pondering is: do we need to change our farming management strategy
from a five-year to a seven-year basis? This paper does not provide the answer for the question since
it did not carry out a comparative analysis of farming management in that way. Nevertheless, there is
reason to believe that resource use and production optimality may be best achieved over a seven-
year period. Therefore, there can be an opportunity to strategize the management of agricultural
sector on a seven-year basis to achieve such optimality.
Russia has ever done this a long time before (Rutland, 1985). Korea has also done this whereby
together with its First Six-Year Plan (1971-76), the Second Seven-Year Plan (1978-84) and Third
Seven-Year Plan (1985-1992) have, among other things, aimed at the improvement of rural living
conditions and rural infrastructure; expansion of food grain production to achieve self-sufficiency;
development of land and water resources to protect farmers from unfavorable climatic conditions;
accelerated farm mechanization so as to free farm workers from heavy manual labor (1998; 1999).
CONCLUSION
The 7-Y-C RoT was a prophetic interpretation of a dream that took a place thousands of years ago. It
was then repeated in the al-Qur’an through a story in surah Yusof. Since al-Qur’an is a miracle, there
must be a great wisdom behind the event. This paper has discussed the basic principles underlying 7-
Y-C RoT in farming management. Although the discussion is far from conclusive, there is some
reason to believe that 7-Y-C RoT has some scientific rationales for farming practices. Among other
things, there is evidence to believe that various aspects in farming changes crucially over a seven-
year period. In other words, seven-year period can be said to be a crucial period during which
agricultural phenomena change.
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