The document discusses the implications of trade liberalization and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) on higher education. It notes that GATS aims to progressively promote freer trade in services, including education, by removing barriers. However, there is debate around whether GATS threatens public funding and provision of higher education. The document also examines issues around which education services are covered by GATS and implications for developing countries. It concludes that more clarification is needed on the agreement's impact on higher education policy and funding.
This document discusses the impact of trade liberalization and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) on higher education. GATS aims to promote freer trade in services including education by removing barriers. It covers four modes of supplying education services across borders, including distance education, students studying abroad, international branch campuses, and scholar mobility. While critics argue it threatens public goods and government control, supporters believe it increases innovation, access, and economic gains. The growing commercialization of education and potential changes to the role of governments are important policy implications of GATS for higher education.
Armend Muja: Market forces in higher education Armend Muja
Mass quality higher education is crucial for economic prosperity and has become a requirement of technologically advanced societies. But the cost of higher education is high and as such it ‘competes for public funds with other imperatives. As a result, it has been argued that market forces in higher education are both desirable and inevitable .The article analyses which market forces are, in general, inevitable, identifies the potentially desirable market forces in terms of equity and efficiency and describes the role of government in the sector
Globalization, liberalization, and privatization have significantly impacted India's education sector. The 1991 economic crisis prompted India to embrace economic reforms promoting free trade. This included joining the GATS to liberalize trade in services like education. Reforms privatized public education institutions and allowed foreign universities to establish campuses in India. While this increased investment and standards, there are concerns about the commercialization of education reducing access and equity. The impacts of these reforms on India's education system are still debated.
Part a comments and edits please revise and send backjulie92
The document discusses several external factors that influence students' decisions on where to attend post-secondary business education, including competitive, economic, and socio-cultural factors. It analyzes the competitive environment of the Haskayne School of Business at the University of Calgary compared to other Alberta business schools. The economic environment is also evaluated, noting how high tuition and cost of living can sway students towards more affordable options. Finally, socio-cultural trends like increasing diversity and urbanization that may impact the Haskayne School's potential market are recognized.
The document discusses several external factors that influence students' decisions on where to attend post-secondary education, including competitive, economic, and socio-cultural factors. It analyzes the competitive environment of business schools in Alberta and notes the University of Calgary's Haskayne School of Business has around 2,000 students, competing with larger schools that can accommodate more students. High tuition costs and the economic environment are also discussed, with the recession potentially leading students to more affordable options. Changing demographics and cultural diversity are examined as socio-cultural trends that could impact enrollment.
An overview of the issues highlighted by the 2021 FE White Paper using 3 lenses. The paper itself, the reaction from FE bodies and our view from an Architecture of Participation perspective
This document summarizes case studies on technical and vocational education (TVE) systems from several countries. It discusses the present economic and human resource development situations in the countries. It also describes existing TVE systems, including legislation, institutions, and articulation with other education levels. The case studies addressed strategies to innovate TVE to meet changing labor market needs, policies to strengthen industry linkages, and other issues like improving teacher quality and career guidance. Countries described innovative approaches like competency standards, modular courses, and industry-school partnerships to adapt their TVE systems.
SCHOLARSHIP OF THE MARKETING DISCIPLINE AND PROFESSION IN KENYAOsman Chesula
Abstract- The purpose of this paper was to critically examine the scholarship of the marketing discipline and profession in Kenya. The paper empirically analyses secondary literature and scholarly articles related to scholarship in the marketing field. From the results, it is clear that several challenges are facing marketing scholarship in the country. Specifically, the declining number of marketing scholars and lecturers mainly attributed to leaning institutions concentrating on research and neglecting the teaching aspect. The results provided are not exhaustive and therefore there is need for further research preferably primary descriptive study on the subject in order to shed more light.
Index Terms- Scholarship, Practice, Teaching, Research
This document discusses the impact of trade liberalization and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) on higher education. GATS aims to promote freer trade in services including education by removing barriers. It covers four modes of supplying education services across borders, including distance education, students studying abroad, international branch campuses, and scholar mobility. While critics argue it threatens public goods and government control, supporters believe it increases innovation, access, and economic gains. The growing commercialization of education and potential changes to the role of governments are important policy implications of GATS for higher education.
Armend Muja: Market forces in higher education Armend Muja
Mass quality higher education is crucial for economic prosperity and has become a requirement of technologically advanced societies. But the cost of higher education is high and as such it ‘competes for public funds with other imperatives. As a result, it has been argued that market forces in higher education are both desirable and inevitable .The article analyses which market forces are, in general, inevitable, identifies the potentially desirable market forces in terms of equity and efficiency and describes the role of government in the sector
Globalization, liberalization, and privatization have significantly impacted India's education sector. The 1991 economic crisis prompted India to embrace economic reforms promoting free trade. This included joining the GATS to liberalize trade in services like education. Reforms privatized public education institutions and allowed foreign universities to establish campuses in India. While this increased investment and standards, there are concerns about the commercialization of education reducing access and equity. The impacts of these reforms on India's education system are still debated.
Part a comments and edits please revise and send backjulie92
The document discusses several external factors that influence students' decisions on where to attend post-secondary business education, including competitive, economic, and socio-cultural factors. It analyzes the competitive environment of the Haskayne School of Business at the University of Calgary compared to other Alberta business schools. The economic environment is also evaluated, noting how high tuition and cost of living can sway students towards more affordable options. Finally, socio-cultural trends like increasing diversity and urbanization that may impact the Haskayne School's potential market are recognized.
The document discusses several external factors that influence students' decisions on where to attend post-secondary education, including competitive, economic, and socio-cultural factors. It analyzes the competitive environment of business schools in Alberta and notes the University of Calgary's Haskayne School of Business has around 2,000 students, competing with larger schools that can accommodate more students. High tuition costs and the economic environment are also discussed, with the recession potentially leading students to more affordable options. Changing demographics and cultural diversity are examined as socio-cultural trends that could impact enrollment.
An overview of the issues highlighted by the 2021 FE White Paper using 3 lenses. The paper itself, the reaction from FE bodies and our view from an Architecture of Participation perspective
This document summarizes case studies on technical and vocational education (TVE) systems from several countries. It discusses the present economic and human resource development situations in the countries. It also describes existing TVE systems, including legislation, institutions, and articulation with other education levels. The case studies addressed strategies to innovate TVE to meet changing labor market needs, policies to strengthen industry linkages, and other issues like improving teacher quality and career guidance. Countries described innovative approaches like competency standards, modular courses, and industry-school partnerships to adapt their TVE systems.
SCHOLARSHIP OF THE MARKETING DISCIPLINE AND PROFESSION IN KENYAOsman Chesula
Abstract- The purpose of this paper was to critically examine the scholarship of the marketing discipline and profession in Kenya. The paper empirically analyses secondary literature and scholarly articles related to scholarship in the marketing field. From the results, it is clear that several challenges are facing marketing scholarship in the country. Specifically, the declining number of marketing scholars and lecturers mainly attributed to leaning institutions concentrating on research and neglecting the teaching aspect. The results provided are not exhaustive and therefore there is need for further research preferably primary descriptive study on the subject in order to shed more light.
Index Terms- Scholarship, Practice, Teaching, Research
This document outlines the objectives, methodology, and background context of a study on analyzing TVET and its contribution to job creation in The Gambia. The study aims to evaluate TVET services and labor market needs, review TVET policies, and analyze public attitudes towards TVET. A nationwide survey was conducted interviewing over 3,000 youths, parents, and other stakeholders to understand opportunities and challenges with TVET and inform recommendations.
This presentation by Allan FELS AO (Professor, University of Melbourne, Monash & Oxford and former Chair of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission) was made during the session on Competition in public markets held at the 16th meeting of the OECD Global Forum on Competition on 8 December 2017. More papers and presentations on the topic can be found out at oe.cd/28n
Uday salunkhe pedagogical changes and challengesudaysalunkhe
This article gives an in depth analysis on the Pedagogical Changes And Challenges For The Future Growth Of Decision Sciences. It has been co- authored by Dr. Uday Salunkhe, Director of the prestigious Welingkar Institute of Management and Research.
The financial health of the UK higher education sector improved in 2014/15, with the highest surplus in 7 years at 5.6% of income, though performance varied significantly between institutions. Capital infrastructure investment also increased substantially to £4.3 billion. However, the sector faces an increasingly competitive environment and need to adapt to changes like those proposed in the recent White Paper to ensure long-term sustainability.
Concept Note on SIS Nationwide Network (20082103)FMuhammad Javaid
This document provides a concept note on developing a Skill Information System (SIS) nationwide network in Pakistan. It discusses the need for a SIS to provide reliable labor market information to various stakeholders in order to help align technical education and skills training with market needs. The proposed SIS network would act as a single source of TVET-related information for the government, employers, job seekers, education institutions, and industry associations. Drawing from leading practices in other countries, the SIS network aims to establish government ownership, provide user-friendly access to comprehensive and up-to-date data, and ensure efficient management of information through centralized collection and analysis.
Supporting Sector Strategies In The District Of Columbiatimothy_riordan
This document summarizes discussions from forums on workforce trends in three sectors in Washington DC: hospitality and tourism, healthcare, and banking/financial services. Industry professionals provided insights into challenges they face in developing a qualified workforce. The findings provide recommendations for partnerships between businesses, education, and workforce programs to ensure DC residents can access jobs and the city has a talented labor pool. Suggestions include developing policies to enhance employment opportunities and training programs, leveraging underutilized populations, and establishing performance metrics to evaluate workforce strategies. The goal is collaboration between all stakeholders to align training with employer needs and support a workforce with the skills to fill current and future positions.
The document analyzes reforms to Morocco's vocational education system in the 1980s and 1990s that aimed to increase youth employment. It finds that policies privatizing vocational training and encouraging small business formation were largely ineffective. However, participation in a traineeship program after graduation had strong positive impacts on subsequent employment outcomes. Selection bias is addressed through estimating average treatment effects. Overall, the reforms did not substantially improve employment prospects for vocational graduates despite aims to make the system more responsive to labor market needs.
This Working Paper was published by United Nations University Maastricht Economic and social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology (UNU-MERIT). It seeks to provide insights about the main characteristics of innovative firms and to gather new evidence with regard to the nature of the innovation process in the Latin American and Caribbean region. This Paper analyses data from a number of CARICOM countries.
Public procurement is the purchase by governments of goods, services and works and accounts for 13% of GDP in OECD member countries. It is the government activity most vulnerable to waste, fraud and corruption. Integrity in public procurement is essential in maintaining citizens’ trust in government. More information at www.oecd.org/gov/ethics/procurement
The document discusses approaches to promoting women's economic empowerment through development cooperation. It outlines barriers women face including accessing skills training, business services, and overcoming unpaid care responsibilities. Arab and DAC providers can support partner countries by addressing these challenges, such as increasing access to finance, public services, and skills training for formal employment. The document also recommends areas for Arab-DAC collaboration, including conducting joint studies, policy dialogue, and ensuring development systems track financing to support women's economic empowerment.
This document provides an outline for a thesis proposal that will investigate factors influencing procurement practices in public sectors in Gurage Zone, Ethiopia. The study will examine how procurement planning, staff competency, ICT utilization, procurement policy, procedures, and employee ethics affect procurement practices. Data will be collected through questionnaires and interviews with procurement officials. Descriptive and inferential statistics will then be used to analyze the data and determine the influence of each factor. The results could help improve procurement practices in the region's public sectors.
The ultimate-consumer-good-education-trend-le kreportYichen Li
The document discusses trends in the Chinese private education market. It notes that education has become the ultimate consumer good in China, with affluent families spending up to $400,000-$600,000 on a child's education. This is driven by competitive pressures to gain admission to top universities, a demand for international education opportunities, and a Chinese preference for premium branded goods. The trends discussed include an intensifying battle between education brands to attract students, the rise of education technology integrating online and offline learning, and growing consolidation in the industry as companies seek greater scale.
Reforming trade in services and negotiation processes in moroccoAdil Diani
Morocco has signed, ratified, and implemented several Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and is engaged in discussions with other partners. Issues that concern the market of services are gaining in importance in Morocco’s foreign trade policy. Moreover, Morocco has continued to reform its sectoral policies, making notable progress in services sector performances in a bid to diversify its economy.
This paper tries to outline some features that concern the trade in services policies and reforms in Morocco and its negotiation process adopted by enforcing bilateral, regional and multilateral agreements.
This presentation by Ms. Jyoti Jindgar Bhanot was made at the workshop on Competition in Publicly Funded Markets (28 February 2019). Find out more at http://www.oecd.org/daf/competition/workshop-on-competition-in-publicly-funded-markets.htm
Vocational education can drive sustainable economic growth by developing skills beyond specific jobs, like problem solving, communication, and entrepreneurship. Smart growth policies recognize that vocational education institutions can play an enabling role by linking to local businesses and communities. For vocational education to truly contribute to innovation and sustainable growth, policies must consider how skills are utilized by businesses and address the underlying factors that drive firm competitiveness, not just skills supply. Evidence shows vocational education can stimulate entrepreneurship and help address global challenges through innovative education programs.
This document discusses the advantages and disadvantages of implementing e-marketing strategies in emerging countries. It begins by defining e-marketing and how it differs from traditional marketing by having fewer geographical boundaries and costs. While e-marketing provides extensive customization possibilities and global reach, it also increases competition and relies heavily on internet technology infrastructure, which is still developing in many emerging markets. The document concludes that a balanced approach combining e-marketing and traditional marketing techniques may be most effective given the opportunities and challenges of marketing in emerging country contexts.
Planning and Managing Technical and Vocational Education in Polytechnics: Pri...inventionjournals
The desire to plan and manage vocational education adequately as an investment for economic and human resource is reinforced by studies in the field of educational economics such as UNESCO and UNICEF through advocacy for „Equitable, Quality Education and Lifelong Learning for All‟ as the main goal for education. In third world countries, large numbers of graduates from formal schools are unemployed. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gather information about planning and managing technical and vocational education in polytechnics with priorities in training trends and prospects. The objectives of the study were to: find out instructors‟ perceptions about instructional methodologies employed by youth polytechnic instructors; examine trainees‟ and instructors‟ views about training tools, equipment and materials at their disposal as the necessary implements towards acquisition of vocational skills and knowledge. The study adopted survey research design. The study population was 1880. Census and purposive sampling were used to draw a sample of 31.06% informants. The study employed questionnaires, interview schedules and checklists for collect data. Data were presented in percentages, pie charts, frequencies, bar graphs and ratios. A major finding was that agriculture trade was offered as common a course to first years only. Community‟s negative attitude towards vocational training discouraged youths from enrolling at YPs. 72.8% respondents observed that YPs were poorly enrolled. 79.9% trainees reported instructors demonstrated skills while trainees explained them. Some trainees shared tools during practicals. 93.1% instructors were ICT illiterate. Few YPs had automated tools/equipment and trade workshops were poorly equipped. The study concluded that YPs were in dire need of instructors, adequate training tools/equipment, materials and workshops. The study recommended that County Government building a YP in every location and craft comprehensive policies on financing/staffing of YPs.
The document discusses how globalization and trade agreements like GATS have transformed higher education into a transnational system with new providers, programs, and delivery modes across borders. This has led to concerns about lack of quality control and the provision of substandard education, as well as the commercialization of higher education with a focus on profits over quality. Stricter oversight is needed from stakeholders to ensure quality assurance and consumer protections are in place for cross-border higher education.
The document discusses how globalization and trade agreements like GATS have transformed higher education into a transnational system with new providers, programs, and delivery modes. This has led to concerns about lack of quality control and the provision of substandard education. Additionally, some operators have entered higher education as profit-seekers, contradicting principles of quality assurance, and developing countries may end up as losers in this globalized system without proper safeguards.
This document is a submission by the Canadian Federation of Students to the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade regarding negotiations on trade in services under the World Trade Organization's General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The Federation expresses concerns that GATS negotiations aim to treat education as a tradable commodity rather than a public good. Liberalizing trade in education services could undermine Canada's publicly funded post-secondary system by allowing private companies to establish for-profit educational institutions in Canada. The Federation urges the Canadian government to protect public education and not subject it to market forces during the GATS negotiations.
This document outlines the objectives, methodology, and background context of a study on analyzing TVET and its contribution to job creation in The Gambia. The study aims to evaluate TVET services and labor market needs, review TVET policies, and analyze public attitudes towards TVET. A nationwide survey was conducted interviewing over 3,000 youths, parents, and other stakeholders to understand opportunities and challenges with TVET and inform recommendations.
This presentation by Allan FELS AO (Professor, University of Melbourne, Monash & Oxford and former Chair of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission) was made during the session on Competition in public markets held at the 16th meeting of the OECD Global Forum on Competition on 8 December 2017. More papers and presentations on the topic can be found out at oe.cd/28n
Uday salunkhe pedagogical changes and challengesudaysalunkhe
This article gives an in depth analysis on the Pedagogical Changes And Challenges For The Future Growth Of Decision Sciences. It has been co- authored by Dr. Uday Salunkhe, Director of the prestigious Welingkar Institute of Management and Research.
The financial health of the UK higher education sector improved in 2014/15, with the highest surplus in 7 years at 5.6% of income, though performance varied significantly between institutions. Capital infrastructure investment also increased substantially to £4.3 billion. However, the sector faces an increasingly competitive environment and need to adapt to changes like those proposed in the recent White Paper to ensure long-term sustainability.
Concept Note on SIS Nationwide Network (20082103)FMuhammad Javaid
This document provides a concept note on developing a Skill Information System (SIS) nationwide network in Pakistan. It discusses the need for a SIS to provide reliable labor market information to various stakeholders in order to help align technical education and skills training with market needs. The proposed SIS network would act as a single source of TVET-related information for the government, employers, job seekers, education institutions, and industry associations. Drawing from leading practices in other countries, the SIS network aims to establish government ownership, provide user-friendly access to comprehensive and up-to-date data, and ensure efficient management of information through centralized collection and analysis.
Supporting Sector Strategies In The District Of Columbiatimothy_riordan
This document summarizes discussions from forums on workforce trends in three sectors in Washington DC: hospitality and tourism, healthcare, and banking/financial services. Industry professionals provided insights into challenges they face in developing a qualified workforce. The findings provide recommendations for partnerships between businesses, education, and workforce programs to ensure DC residents can access jobs and the city has a talented labor pool. Suggestions include developing policies to enhance employment opportunities and training programs, leveraging underutilized populations, and establishing performance metrics to evaluate workforce strategies. The goal is collaboration between all stakeholders to align training with employer needs and support a workforce with the skills to fill current and future positions.
The document analyzes reforms to Morocco's vocational education system in the 1980s and 1990s that aimed to increase youth employment. It finds that policies privatizing vocational training and encouraging small business formation were largely ineffective. However, participation in a traineeship program after graduation had strong positive impacts on subsequent employment outcomes. Selection bias is addressed through estimating average treatment effects. Overall, the reforms did not substantially improve employment prospects for vocational graduates despite aims to make the system more responsive to labor market needs.
This Working Paper was published by United Nations University Maastricht Economic and social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology (UNU-MERIT). It seeks to provide insights about the main characteristics of innovative firms and to gather new evidence with regard to the nature of the innovation process in the Latin American and Caribbean region. This Paper analyses data from a number of CARICOM countries.
Public procurement is the purchase by governments of goods, services and works and accounts for 13% of GDP in OECD member countries. It is the government activity most vulnerable to waste, fraud and corruption. Integrity in public procurement is essential in maintaining citizens’ trust in government. More information at www.oecd.org/gov/ethics/procurement
The document discusses approaches to promoting women's economic empowerment through development cooperation. It outlines barriers women face including accessing skills training, business services, and overcoming unpaid care responsibilities. Arab and DAC providers can support partner countries by addressing these challenges, such as increasing access to finance, public services, and skills training for formal employment. The document also recommends areas for Arab-DAC collaboration, including conducting joint studies, policy dialogue, and ensuring development systems track financing to support women's economic empowerment.
This document provides an outline for a thesis proposal that will investigate factors influencing procurement practices in public sectors in Gurage Zone, Ethiopia. The study will examine how procurement planning, staff competency, ICT utilization, procurement policy, procedures, and employee ethics affect procurement practices. Data will be collected through questionnaires and interviews with procurement officials. Descriptive and inferential statistics will then be used to analyze the data and determine the influence of each factor. The results could help improve procurement practices in the region's public sectors.
The ultimate-consumer-good-education-trend-le kreportYichen Li
The document discusses trends in the Chinese private education market. It notes that education has become the ultimate consumer good in China, with affluent families spending up to $400,000-$600,000 on a child's education. This is driven by competitive pressures to gain admission to top universities, a demand for international education opportunities, and a Chinese preference for premium branded goods. The trends discussed include an intensifying battle between education brands to attract students, the rise of education technology integrating online and offline learning, and growing consolidation in the industry as companies seek greater scale.
Reforming trade in services and negotiation processes in moroccoAdil Diani
Morocco has signed, ratified, and implemented several Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and is engaged in discussions with other partners. Issues that concern the market of services are gaining in importance in Morocco’s foreign trade policy. Moreover, Morocco has continued to reform its sectoral policies, making notable progress in services sector performances in a bid to diversify its economy.
This paper tries to outline some features that concern the trade in services policies and reforms in Morocco and its negotiation process adopted by enforcing bilateral, regional and multilateral agreements.
This presentation by Ms. Jyoti Jindgar Bhanot was made at the workshop on Competition in Publicly Funded Markets (28 February 2019). Find out more at http://www.oecd.org/daf/competition/workshop-on-competition-in-publicly-funded-markets.htm
Vocational education can drive sustainable economic growth by developing skills beyond specific jobs, like problem solving, communication, and entrepreneurship. Smart growth policies recognize that vocational education institutions can play an enabling role by linking to local businesses and communities. For vocational education to truly contribute to innovation and sustainable growth, policies must consider how skills are utilized by businesses and address the underlying factors that drive firm competitiveness, not just skills supply. Evidence shows vocational education can stimulate entrepreneurship and help address global challenges through innovative education programs.
This document discusses the advantages and disadvantages of implementing e-marketing strategies in emerging countries. It begins by defining e-marketing and how it differs from traditional marketing by having fewer geographical boundaries and costs. While e-marketing provides extensive customization possibilities and global reach, it also increases competition and relies heavily on internet technology infrastructure, which is still developing in many emerging markets. The document concludes that a balanced approach combining e-marketing and traditional marketing techniques may be most effective given the opportunities and challenges of marketing in emerging country contexts.
Planning and Managing Technical and Vocational Education in Polytechnics: Pri...inventionjournals
The desire to plan and manage vocational education adequately as an investment for economic and human resource is reinforced by studies in the field of educational economics such as UNESCO and UNICEF through advocacy for „Equitable, Quality Education and Lifelong Learning for All‟ as the main goal for education. In third world countries, large numbers of graduates from formal schools are unemployed. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gather information about planning and managing technical and vocational education in polytechnics with priorities in training trends and prospects. The objectives of the study were to: find out instructors‟ perceptions about instructional methodologies employed by youth polytechnic instructors; examine trainees‟ and instructors‟ views about training tools, equipment and materials at their disposal as the necessary implements towards acquisition of vocational skills and knowledge. The study adopted survey research design. The study population was 1880. Census and purposive sampling were used to draw a sample of 31.06% informants. The study employed questionnaires, interview schedules and checklists for collect data. Data were presented in percentages, pie charts, frequencies, bar graphs and ratios. A major finding was that agriculture trade was offered as common a course to first years only. Community‟s negative attitude towards vocational training discouraged youths from enrolling at YPs. 72.8% respondents observed that YPs were poorly enrolled. 79.9% trainees reported instructors demonstrated skills while trainees explained them. Some trainees shared tools during practicals. 93.1% instructors were ICT illiterate. Few YPs had automated tools/equipment and trade workshops were poorly equipped. The study concluded that YPs were in dire need of instructors, adequate training tools/equipment, materials and workshops. The study recommended that County Government building a YP in every location and craft comprehensive policies on financing/staffing of YPs.
The document discusses how globalization and trade agreements like GATS have transformed higher education into a transnational system with new providers, programs, and delivery modes across borders. This has led to concerns about lack of quality control and the provision of substandard education, as well as the commercialization of higher education with a focus on profits over quality. Stricter oversight is needed from stakeholders to ensure quality assurance and consumer protections are in place for cross-border higher education.
The document discusses how globalization and trade agreements like GATS have transformed higher education into a transnational system with new providers, programs, and delivery modes. This has led to concerns about lack of quality control and the provision of substandard education. Additionally, some operators have entered higher education as profit-seekers, contradicting principles of quality assurance, and developing countries may end up as losers in this globalized system without proper safeguards.
This document is a submission by the Canadian Federation of Students to the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade regarding negotiations on trade in services under the World Trade Organization's General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The Federation expresses concerns that GATS negotiations aim to treat education as a tradable commodity rather than a public good. Liberalizing trade in education services could undermine Canada's publicly funded post-secondary system by allowing private companies to establish for-profit educational institutions in Canada. The Federation urges the Canadian government to protect public education and not subject it to market forces during the GATS negotiations.
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) created a framework for international trade rules in services. GATS aims to promote services trade liberalization on a mutually advantageous basis. It covers four modes of supplying services: cross-border trade, consumption abroad, commercial presence, and presence of natural persons. Under GATS, countries schedule specific commitments to liberalize certain services sectors and modes of supply, while maintaining exceptions. Commitments are bound under the GATS framework and principles of most-favored nation treatment and transparency.
The document discusses education services and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) framework. It explains that GATS covers four modes of supplying services, including cross-border delivery and commercial presence. Public education is currently excluded from GATS commitments as it is not considered a commercial service. While inclusion in GATS scope has little direct impact, WTO members can choose to make commitments on market access and national treatment for education services. Forty-six members have made some commitments on education, primarily for higher education and adult learning. Recent proposals focus commitments on circumscribed areas like adult and higher education that complement, rather than replace, public systems.
Share nl report for the ministry of economic affairs on the innovation in the...shareNL
This report summarises research on barriers to investment in innovation and whether opportunities are currently feasible or not in the collaborative economy, and in the area of green growth. For this purpose, multiple roundtable meetings have been organised and interviews have been held with entrepreneurs, academics, legal experts, representatives of companies and government, who are active in the field of the collaborative economy. This summary sets outs the priority aspects of the collaborative economy which require action.
The collaborative economy contributes to green growth, but its potential can be utilised better. This can be achieved by looking at the opportunities and barriers, which now exist because the difference between producers and consumers has become more blurred, as well as changing trends of consumers renting or sharing products rather than owning products. As a result new risks and questions arise concerning liability, taxation, and competition. This report suggests a role for the government in four areas: (1) to ensure that current legislation is clear in how it applies to the collaborative economy; (2) to provide regulatory flexibility for experiments; (3) to monitor relevant developments and safeguard the public interest; and (4) to address the barriers that have been identified in this research.
Aid for trade is designed to help developing countries meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by connecting them in a sustainable manner to the global trade system. Indeed, SDG target 17.11 specifically calls for doubling the share of least developed country (LDC) exports by 2020. However, many are being left behind. Their collective share of world trade remains below one percent and export baskets tend to be concentrated in a narrow set of low value-added products.
In the lead up to the biennial Aid for Trade Global Review, which took place at the World Trade Organization on 3-5 July 2019, this series of short analytical articles explores some of the key trends and policy discussions impacting LDCs. The collection is structured along the event's themes of economic diversity, inclusive trade and emerging issues. It is intended as an impartial platform for dialogue among experts and stakeholders that adequately reflects LDC priorities.
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This policy series has been funded by the Australian Government through the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. The views expressed in this publication are the author’s alone and are not necessarily the views of the Australian Government.
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) was one of the landmark agreements signed as part of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. GATS aims to liberalize international trade in services by promoting non-discrimination and transparency among its over 140 member countries. It covers 10 broad sectors and defines four modes of supply for trade in services - cross-border supply, consumption abroad, commercial presence, and movement of natural persons. Key principles of GATS include Most Favored Nation treatment, transparency, national treatment, and market access commitments made by members in specific sectors.
IRJET- The Role of International Cooperation for Globalization TradingIRJET Journal
1. International cooperation on trade in services can help build regulatory capacity and support domestic reforms to maximize the economic benefits of liberalization.
2. Rapid technological changes are challenging regulators and blurring lines between goods and services, increasing pressure on governments to further open markets.
3. Cooperation under trade agreements may provide resources to reduce barriers if it also facilitates dialogue between regulators to discuss regulations and experiences. This could support ongoing domestic reforms.
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is the first agreement under the World Trade Organization (WTO) to liberalize international trade in services. GATS provides a framework for countries to negotiate commitments to open up their services markets. While little liberalization was achieved initially, GATS established the foundation for ongoing negotiations to reduce barriers to trade in services. Developing countries have been hesitant to fully embrace GATS due to lack of prior rules around services trade. However, liberalizing services markets could provide opportunities for developing countries to integrate further into the global economy and experience welfare gains from greater competition and efficiency.
The document discusses the transformation of career services in the context of new and emerging markets. It explores public, private, and social enterprise arrangements for career services and assesses how current policies may influence individual career choices and learning. The document also examines themes around the changing landscape, drivers, enablers, barriers to transformation, and implications for future delivery models and governments.
News, case studies and articles from Asian-Pacific competition authorities are welcome. If you have material that you wish to be considered for publication in this newsletter, please contact ajahn@oecdkorea.org.
1 how should governments help those hurt by internalicservernoida
This document discusses how governments should help those negatively impacted by international trade. It argues that governments need to address the hardship faced by displaced workers to maintain public support for free trade policies. The key principles that should guide government policy are: 1) supporting displaced workers rather than protecting jobs to avoid discouraging necessary economic dynamics, 2) protecting all displaced workers regardless of the cause of job loss, and 3) avoiding policies that discourage workers from finding new employment. Vocational training and wage subsidies have mixed results, while programs providing information about other job opportunities seem more promising. Governments should also ensure communities facing substantial job losses can still provide public goods like education.
The document discusses various topics related to international business management.
It first discusses the importance of environment scanning for international businesses and the factors that need to be scanned, such as economic, political, legal, demographic, and socio-cultural factors.
It then discusses greenfield investment, describing it as constructing new facilities from the ground up. Greenfield investments are beneficial for developing countries like India as they create new production capacity and jobs.
Finally, it discusses different types of regional integration, including preferential trading agreements, free trade areas, customs unions, and common markets, explaining how regional integration can help grow trade between countries.
The document discusses India's growing services sector and its increasing involvement in preferential trade agreements (PTAs) regarding services. It notes that the growth of India's services sector output and contribution to GDP has been significant in recent years. As a result, India has engaged in negotiations through the WTO and in signing PTAs to further open its services markets and increase exports. While initially focused on IT/ITES, India is now positioned to offer many other services sectors and has taken a generally liberal approach in negotiations, with some restrictions on mode 4 delivery. The paper analyzes India's commitments and sectors of interest in various existing and negotiating PTAs to understand how it is gradually further opening its services markets through regional trade agreements.
The document discusses key changes occurring in the service sector and their impact on competition. Technological advances and changes in customer needs are driving service innovation. Effective strategic leadership is important for success in navigating these challenges. Understanding threats and opportunities from increasing competition is vital for developing marketing strategies. The service sector is an important part of modern economies and its growth reflects social and economic changes.
The document discusses various topics related to international trade and global links for Bangladesh, including:
- Bangladesh's initial trade regime focused on import substitution to encourage domestic industrialization.
- The evolution of the global trade regime from a period of free trade in the 19th century to rising protectionism prior to World War 2 and the establishment of institutions like the GATT and WTO to promote trade liberalization.
- Key features of the GATT/WTO system including reciprocity, non-discrimination, liberalizing trade through successive negotiation rounds, and provisions for developing countries.
- Bangladesh's trade policies in the 2000s including rules/regulations, tariffs and other instruments, and relevant institutions
The concept of demand and supply and information asymmetricMarko Lucas Hupa
This presentation is about the concept of demand and supply in the process of service delivery, it also provide elaborations on the concept of information asymmetric in service delivery and how it act as a challenge to service recipients and therefore it suggest strategies and measure which the government can take to avoid the problem of information asymmetric in service delivery.
The demand side of open government data a case study of kingdom of bahrainIJMIT JOURNAL
Governments around the world have realized the importance of Open Government Data - OGD as new paradigm shift in government that focuses on making governments more service oriented, transparent and competent. However, as with many countries, the situation of OGD initiative in Kingdom of Bahrain is not promising as reflected by number of assessments that measure the implementation and progress of OGD worldwide. The current research aims at investing the local situation regarding consuming and reusing OGD in Kingdom of Bahrain. Specifically, this research assesses the level of citizen awareness towards OGD, determines citizens’ requirements of OGD and identifies the key challenges and obstacles in using/reusing OGD. A questionnaire was developed to investigate the demand side of OGD. The findings show that serious and responsible efforts from the publishers of OGD, namely: Government Organizations are believed to be a necessity in order to progress the implementation process of OGD initiative in Kingdom of Bahrain.
This document contains a single word - "GMA6PhotoAlbum" - which appears to be the title of an album or collection. In a very concise form, it relates to photos organized into an album potentially related to GMA6.
The Secretary General concludes the meeting by thanking the participants for their rich and productive conversation. She notes they focused on challenges and solutions for higher education to increase social innovation, including recognition in academia and interdisciplinarity. While some viewed universities negatively, discussions highlighted positive examples like supportive research funders in Canada and universities creating innovation labs. The diversity of participants enriched the discussions by providing contextual insights. All agreed new problems require new solutions and a paradigm shift is needed in learning, research and community engagement to better address social issues through social innovation. The Secretary General thanks all involved in organizing the successful meeting.
This document summarizes the findings of a global study on organizational structures that support community-university research partnerships (CURPs). The study included a global survey of 336 respondents from 53 countries as well as 12 case studies. Key findings include that most higher education institutions have created structures to support CURPs in the last 10 years, but there is still a large variation in how CURPs are conceptualized and practiced globally. National policies that explicitly include community engagement and research in higher education tend to encourage the institutionalization of CURPs. Specific funding programs and knowledge-sharing platforms at the national level also help strengthen CURPs. While many countries have made progress, true co-creation of knowledge and accountability to communities is still lacking in most partnerships.
This document contains the opening remarks from the Secretary General of the International Association of Universities (IAU) at the 6th Global Meeting of Associations. The Secretary General welcomed participants and thanked partners for hosting the event in Montreal. Originally planned for Accra, Ghana, the meeting was relocated due to Ebola and the theme was changed to "Social Innovation". Over the two-day event, participants will discuss the role of universities and associations in social innovation through case studies and panels on defining social innovation, measuring impact, and engaging stakeholders. The Secretary General emphasized that while technology is important, social problems require social solutions and universities are well-positioned to contribute through learning, research, and outreach.
Rémi Quirion, Chief Scientist of Québec, discusses social innovation and the future of higher education. As Chief Scientist, he advises the government on research strategy and chairs boards that fund intersectoral research on major societal challenges. The three Fonds de recherche du Québec support research, training, and knowledge mobilization. Examples of knowledge mobilization centers focus on social issues. The FRQ also supports innovative social practices through strategic clusters, research teams, and Actions concertées programs that foster co-creation with partners. Looking ahead, Quirion suggests increasing social innovation training and focusing research on challenges like demographic changes, the labor market, sustainability, and measuring social impact. Key will be
This document discusses measuring the impact of higher education on social innovation. It notes that while impact has become a popular concept, universities have always aimed to serve society. Measuring impact is challenging as it involves both qualitative and quantitative factors. The workshop will discuss how higher education contributes to social innovation and how this is currently being measured and monitored within universities and their effects on society. The impact of universities is complex and involves things like research, teaching, culture, projects and generating trust.
The document summarizes a citizens' agenda for science, technology and innovation organized by UDUAL and various Mexican universities and government institutions. It describes a national consultation process held in Mexico from 2012-2013 that allowed citizens to vote on and discuss 10 proposed challenges. The top 3 voted challenges were to modernize education, ensure clean drinking water, and improve environmental protection. Over 70 organizations participated in the initiative. Following the consultation, 10 volumes of analysis and solutions were published. A university contest was also held asking students to propose innovative projects addressing the 10 challenges. The overall goals were to increase citizen participation in science policy and promote social innovation.
The document discusses social innovation at Kenyatta University in Kenya. It defines social innovation as novel solutions to socio-economic challenges. The benefits of social innovation include social outcomes like inclusion, education, and health, as well as workplace benefits like productivity and improved services. Universities can promote social innovation through programs, labs, and developing leaders to solve challenges. Kenyatta University engages in several social innovation initiatives including a business incubation center, funeral home, legal aid clinic, supporting orphans, student work programs, and building a teaching hospital. It emphasizes the importance of partnerships, leadership, and institutionalizing creativity to promote social innovation.
The document discusses social innovation and transformative change in higher education. It argues that social innovation often ignores power imbalances and fails to build community capacity for change. True social change requires higher education to challenge injustice, environmental degradation, and inequality through transformative knowledge that values multiple ways of knowing. It calls for universities to form equal partnerships with communities and social movements to co-create knowledge aimed at sustainable, inclusive development. The document recommends that higher education educate citizens committed to ethical values and social responsibility by linking teaching, research, and engagement to real-world problems through participatory learning.
The document discusses the establishment of the Inter-American Network of Co-Laboratories in Social Innovation (REDICIS) by the Inter-American Organization for Higher Education (IOHE). REDICIS aims to encourage knowledge sharing and partnerships between higher education institutions working in social innovation. It currently includes 14 universities and 5 organizations across 9 countries in the Americas. The network seeks to consolidate reference centers for social innovation, develop training in the field, and support decision-making around measuring, evaluating, and funding social innovation initiatives.
The document discusses social innovation at the University of Gothenburg. It notes that global challenges require new solutions and universities are well-positioned partners. The University of Gothenburg has strong interdisciplinary research and education, a focus on sustainable development, and a history of stakeholder collaboration. It provides support for social innovation projects that address societal problems through knowledge and are sustainable over time. An example success story is the University of Gothenburg Centre for Person-centred Care, which improved patient care while reducing costs through interdisciplinary research. Challenges include understanding societal problems and increasing investment in certain fields of study.
This document discusses social innovation and its relationship to social impact. It explores how social innovation can drive systemic change through four elements: being purpose driven, viewed as a new phenomenon, led by communities, and through developing equipped ecosystems. The document also examines challenges and perspectives for social innovation in higher education, including the need for theoretical and practical knowledge, motivation, transdisciplinary work, and strategic development. Finally, it poses questions about how institutions can transition towards new collaborations and whether they are currently part of the problem or solution regarding social innovation.
The document discusses measuring the impact of social innovation. It makes three key points:
1. Measuring the impact of social innovation is challenging due to its complex, long-term nature and dependence on social contexts.
2. Universities should better support the evaluation of social innovation through monitoring inputs/outputs, using relevant indicators, and developing new evaluation models like developmental evaluation.
3. Networks like OLTIS, CLT, and RQIS in Quebec help catalyze social innovation and support its evaluation through knowledge transfer between researchers and communities.
The document summarizes the 6th Global Meeting of Associations held in Montreal from 6-8 May 2015. It discusses GUNi's membership network and projects focusing on analyzing the dual responsibilities of universities at local and global scales. Key areas of focus include identifying best practices for universities to improve social, cultural, and economic impact locally and globally while addressing conflicts between local/global demands. International expert working groups will be formed among UNESCO chairs and city-university partnerships to test frameworks in Catalonia and make recommendations.
The document discusses social innovation, specifically regarding drone technology. It notes that drones have promising economic and social applications, and their use could create significant economic opportunities. However, several challenges around regulation, safety, privacy, and public acceptance must be overcome to realize the benefits of drone technology. Social innovation requires collaboration between government, academia, the private sector, and communities. Government can play various roles in supporting social innovation from regulating to enabling to endorsing.
The document discusses social innovation and its place in higher education for sustainability. It defines sustainability as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. Social innovation moves from an unsustainable model of separate disciplines to a transdisciplinary approach that provides a more comprehensive understanding. Higher education needs to become more future-oriented, challenge existing approaches, and focus on community through practices like social innovation to work toward a more balanced and sustainable model.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against developing mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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1. The Impact of Trade Liberalization on Higher Education: Policy Implications1<br />Dr. Jane Knight<br />Visiting Scholar, University of Toronto<br />20 September 2002<br />The General Agreement on Trades in Service ( GATS), plus other regional trade agreements, are testimony to the increased emphasis on trade and the market economy in this era of globalization. GATS is the first legal trade agreement which focuses exclusively on trade of services - as opposed to trade of products. It is administered by the World Trade Organization, a powerful organization with 144 member countries. Education is one of the 12 service sectors covered by GATS. The purpose of GATS is to progressively and systematically promote freer trade in services by removing many of the existing barriers to trade. What does this mean for higher education?<br />The current debate on the impact of GATS on higher education is divided, if not polarized. Critics focus on the threat to the role of government, the ‘public good’ and the quality of education. Supporters highlight<br />the benefits that more trade can bring in terms of innovations through new providers and delivery modes, greater student access and increased economic gain. Trade liberalization has the potential to profoundly change the nature and provision of higher education provision and the role that government plays in that provision. The purpose of this paper is to discuss both risks and opportunities that GATS brings to higher education and to identify some of the policy implications and issues which need further analysis.<br />Changes and Challenges in the Provision of Higher Education<br />The promotion of trade in education services is directly linked to a number of significant trends in higher education. These include i) the emergence of new for- profit education providers, ii) the growth of alternate electronic delivery modes both domestically and internationally, iii) the response to the labour market, iv) the increase in international academic mobility of students, professors and programs, and v) the limited budget capacity (or political will) of government to meet the increasing domestic demand for higher education. In short, these trends are contributing to, as well as responding to, the expanding business of cross border delivery of higher education services. The GATS aims to capitalize on this market potential<br />and promote further international trade in education services by establishing rules and procedures to eliminate barriers to trade.<br />1 This is an abridged and updated version of a paper «Trade in Higher Education Services: Implications of GATS»<br />prepared for The Observatory on borderless higher Education, March 2002<br />1<br />The scenario of higher education provision is changing as providers - public and private, new and<br />traditional - are delivering education services across national borders to meet the need in other countries. As a result, an exciting but rather complex, picture of higher education provision is emerging. So what? It is important to ask ‘so what’. Many educators would point out that demand for higher education has been steadily increasing for years and that academic mobility for students, scholars, teachers and knowledge has been an integral aspect of higher education for centuries. This is true. But the picture is changing. Now,<br />not only are more people moving; academic programs and providers are also moving across borders. More and more, economic rationales and benefits are driving a large part of the international or cross border supply of education. This profit motive is a reality today, and applies to both private providers and in some cases public institutions. In short, the business or commercial side of education is growing.<br />A recent OECD study ( Larsen et al, 2002) estimated that the value of trade in education services was about<br />$US 30 billion in 1999. In fact, because this figure only includes students studying abroad and does not include other types of cross border education, it represents only a portion of the current level of trade. The future market is growing and this is one reason why education is one of the major sectors targeted by GATS. It is therefore important that educators are cognizant of the impact of trade liberalization on higher education and are taking steps to maximize the benefits and opportunities, and at the same time, minimize the threats to a robust and quality higher education system.<br />Structure and Purpose of GATS<br />The GATS is the first ever set of multilateral rules covering international trade in services. The GATS has three parts. The first part is the framework which contains the general principles and rules. The second part consists of the national schedules which list a country’s specific commitments on access to their domestic market by foreign providers. The third part consists of annexes which detail specific limitations for each sector and are attached to the schedule of commitments. To understand GATS, it is essential to understand what kind of education services will be covered by GATS and what is meant by higher education services<br />The GATS defines four ways in which a service can be traded, known as ‘modes of supply’. (WTO, 1998 ) These four modes of trade apply to all service sectors in GATS. Chart One provides a generic definition for each mode, applies them to the education sector and comments on the relative size of the market supply and demand.<br />Chart One: Mode of Supply<br />Mode of SupplyExplanationExamples in HigherEducationSize /Potential of market1. Cross BorderSupply-the provision of a service where the service crosses the border ( does not require the physical movement of the consumer)-distance education- e-learning-virtual universities-currently a relatively small market-seen to have greatpotential through the use of new ICTs and especiallythe Internet2. Consumption-provision of the service-students who go to-currently represents the<br />Abroadinvolving the movement of the consumer to the country of the supplieranother country to studylargest share of the global market for education services3 CommercialPresence-the service provider establishes or has presence of commercial facilities in another country in order to render service-local branch or satellite campuses-twinning partnerships- franchising arrangements with local institutions-growing interest and strong potential for future growth-most controversial as it appears to set international rules on foreign investment4. Presence of Natural Persons- persons travelling to another country on a temporary basis to provide service-professors, teachers, researchers working abroad-potentially a strongmarket given the emphasis on mobility of professionals<br />Trade in education is organized into five categories of service according to the UN Provisional Central Classification . They are Primary, Secondary , Higher, Adult and Other. The last three are of particular interest to this paper. Clarification is needed to determine what is included each group, especially the<br />‘Other’ services group. At this time it is wide open and includes services as diverse as language testing, student recruitment and quality assessment of programs.<br />Three Major Principles<br />The overall framework contains a number of general obligations applicable to all trade in services regardless of whether a country has made a specific commitment to sectors or not. These are called unconditional obligations. There are three which are fundamental to this discussion. The Most Favoured Nation (MFN) rule requires equal and consistent treatment of all foreign trading partners. It means treating one’s trading partners equally. Under GATS, if a country allows foreign competition in a sector, equal opportunities in that sector should be given to service providers from all WTO members. This also applies to mutual exclusion treatment. For instance, if a foreign provider establishes branch campus in Country A, then Country A must permit all WTO members the same opportunity/ treatment. Or if Country A chooses to exclude Country B from providing a specific service, then all WTO members are excluded. It may apply<br />even if the country has made no specific commitment to provide foreign access to their markets. Therefore, MFN has implications for those countries who already are engaged in trade in educational services and/or who provide access to foreign education providers<br />MFN is not the same as National Treatment which requires equal treatment for foreign providers and domestic providers. Once a foreign supplier has been allowed to supply a service in one’s country there should be no discrimination in treatment between the foreign and domestic providers. It is important to note that it only applies where a country has made a specific commitment and exemptions are allowed. It is the national treatment principle which GATS critics believe can put education as a ‘public good’ at risk.<br />The third important element is Market Access. It means the degree to which market access is granted to foreign providers in specified sectors. Each country determines limitations on market access for each committed sector and lists in its national schedules those services for which it wishes to provide access to foreign providers. In addition to choosing which service sector/s will be committed, each country determines the extent of commitment by specifying the level of market access and the degree of national treatment they are prepared to guarantee.<br />The GATS is described as a voluntary agreement because countries can decide which sectors they will agree to cover under GATS rules. This is done through the preparation of their national schedules of commitments and through the ‘request-offer’ negotiation rounds. However, there are aspects of the agreement that question its voluntary nature, notably the built-in progressive liberalization agenda. There are several aspects of GATS which are most controversial and require the serious attention of the higher education sector. One of the key issues is which education services are covered or exempted?<br />Probably, the most controversial and critical issue related to the agreement is the meaning of Article 1.3. (AUCC, 2001) This article defines which services are covered or exempted. According to the WTO, the agreement is deemed to apply to all measures affecting services except ‘those services supplied in the exercise of governmental authority’. GATS supporters (Ascher, 2001) maintain that education provided and funded by the government is therefore exempted.. Sceptics question the broad interpretation of the clause and ask for more a detailed analysis. The agreement states that «in the exercise of governmental authority’ means the service is provided on a ‘non-commercial basis’ and ‘not in competition’ with other service suppliers. These are the core issues at the heart of much of the debate about which services are covered.<br />Education critics of the GATS maintain that due to the wide-open interpretation of ‘non-commercial’ and<br />‘not in competition’ terms, the public sector/government service providers may not in fact be exempt. (Cohen, 2000) The situation is especially complicated in those countries where there is a mixed public/private higher education system; or where a significant amount of funding for public institutions is in fact, coming from the private sector; or where so called public institutions are providing privatized programs. Another complication is that a public education institution in an exporting country is often defined as private/commercial when it crosses the border and delivers in the importing country. Therefore, one needs to question what ‘non-commercial’ really means in terms of higher education trade.<br />The debate about what ‘not in competition’ means is fuelled by the fact that there does not appear to be any qualifications or limits on the term. (Gottlieb and Pearson, 2001). For instance, if non-government providers (private non-profit or commercial) are delivering services, are they deemed to be in competition with government providers. In this scenario, public providers may be defined as being «in competition» by the mere existence of non-governmental providers. Does the method of delivery influence or limit the concept of «in competition»? Does the term cover situations where there is a similar mode of delivery, or for instance, does this term mean that public providers using traditional face-to-face classroom methods could be seen to be competing with foreign for-profit e-learning providers? These are unanswered questions which need clarification.<br />Supporters of the GATS emphasize that education is to a large extent a government function and that the agreement does not seek to displace the public education systems and the right of government to regulate and meet domestic policy objectives. Critics express concern that the whole question of the protection of public services is very uncertain and potentially at risk by the narrow interpretation of what governmental<br />authority means and a wide-open interpretation of what ‘not in competition’ and ‘ non- commercial basis’ mean. Clearly, the question -which higher and adult education ‘services exercised in governmental authority’ are exempted from GATS - needs to be front and centre in the debate on the risks and opportunities associated with the agreement. Further and immediate action is required to gain clarification of which higher education providers or services are exempt from GATS. The higher education sector is not the only sector who has been troubled by the ambiguity of the Clause 1.3. For instance the Financial Services sector, took an important step and prepared two annexes to the agreement which spelled how what was meant by financial services and secondly, delineated which ones were considered to be 'those services supplied in the exercise of governmental authority'. This is a constructive and concrete step that the higher education, or perhaps the entire education sector needs to consider.<br />Extent of country commitments<br />The education sector is one of the least committed sectors. The reason is not clear, but perhaps it can be attributed to the need for countries to strike a balance between pursuing domestic education priorities and exploring ways in which trade in education services can be further liberalized. Or it could be linked to the fact that to date, education has taken a very low priority in the major bilateral/regional trade agreements and rightly or wrongly, the same may be true for GATS.<br />Only 44 of the 144 WTO Members have made commitments to education, and only 21 of these have included commitments to higher education. (WTO, 2000) It is interesting to note that Congo. Lesotho, Jamaica and Sierra Leone have made full unconditional commitments in higher education, perhaps with the interest and intent of encouraging foreign providers to help develop their educational systems. Australia’s commitment for higher education covers provision of private tertiary education services including at the university level. The European Union has included high education in their schedule with some limitations on all modes of trade except ‘consumption abroad’ which generally means foreign tuition paying students. As of March 2002, only four (USA, New Zealand, Australia, Japan) of the 21 countries with higher education commitments have submitted a negotiating proposal outlining their interests and issues. In June,<br />2002 all requests for liberalization of trade were due. It should be noted that these were bilateral requests and are not required to be made public. The response to these requests, known as offers, are due in January of 2003. This is a critical time for educators to be in close contact with the government education and trade officials to ensure that their opinions and expertise are heard.<br />Different rationales and approaches exist. For example, a consumer oriented rationale can be interpreted as the need to provide a wider range of opportunities to consumers or the need to protect consumers by assuring appropriate levels of access to and quality of education services. The economic rationale can be understood as a way to increase trade revenues for exporting countries or it can be seen as a means to attract additional investment for education for importing countries. Other see the economic rationale as<br />sabotaging the social development goals of education or even the scientific and knowledge purposes. Any number of issues can be used to illustrate the dichotomy of opinions on the rationales and benefits of increased trade in education. Different opinions exist between and within countries, and certainly among education groups as well. Further debate and analysis is necessary so that an informed position is taken on why or why not trade liberalization is attractive to an individual country and how trade agreements help or hinder achieving national goals and global interests.<br />Developing Country Interests<br />The voices of developing countries need to be heard so that the benefits and risks associated with increased trade are clear and do not undermine their own efforts to develop and enhance their domestic higher education system. However, the voices and interests of the developing countries differ. The opportunity to have foreign suppliers provide increased access to higher and adult education programs, or to invest in the infrastructure for education provision is attractive to some. The threat of foreign dominance or exploitation of a national system and culture is expressed by others. Trade liberalization ‘for whose benefit’ or ‘at what cost’ are key questions.<br />Quality and accreditation are at the heart of this debate. The importance of frameworks for licensing, accreditation, qualification recognition and quality assurance are important for all countries whether they are importing and exporting education services. Developing countries have expressed concern about their capacity to have such frameworks in place in light of the push toward trade liberalization and increased cross border delivery of education. (Singh, 2001)<br />The GATS, is one of many factors or instruments, which is encouraging greater mobility of professions. Although the agreement focuses on temporary movement of the labour force, it may lead to and facilitate permanent migration as well. The implications from increased mobility of teachers and researchers are particularly relevant to developing countries. It will be a major challenge to improve education systems if well-qualified professionals and graduates are being attracted to positions in other countries.<br />At the root of the question about the impact of GATS on developing countries is the fundamental issue of their capacity to participate effectively in the global trading system and to be equal members in the WTO. Strong sentiments exist about the potential for trade rules to make poor countries poorer, instead of narrowing the gap between developed and developing countries. The perceived injustice regarding the expectation that poor nations are expected to remove trade barriers while rich nations retain barriers on certain goods, contributes to the strong reactions of some developing countries about GATS in general.<br />Trade liberalization and trends in higher education<br />Trade liberalization is firmly enmeshed with other issues and trends in higher education and it is therefore challenging to isolate implications emanating from trade alone. These trends include: 1) the use of information and communication technologies ( ICTS ) for domestic and cross border delivery of programs;<br />2) the growing number of private for-profit entities providing higher education opportunities domestically and internationally; 3) the increasing costs and tuition fees faced by students of public (and private) institutions; 4) the need for public institution to seek alternate sources of funding which sometimes means engaging in for-profit activities or seeking private sector sources of financial support; and 5) the ability (or inability) of government to fund the increasing demand for higher and adult education<br />The following sections identify questions and issues which need to be explored in terms of the impact of trade liberalization and GATS on policy directions for higher education.<br />Student access<br />Government and public education institutions have keenly felt the responsibility of ensuring access to education. In many, if not in most countries, this is a challenging issue as the demand for higher and adult education is steadily growing, often beyond the capacity of the country to provide it. This is one reason<br />why some students are interested in out- of -country education opportunities and more providers are prepared to offer higher education services across borders.<br />When increased trade liberalization is factored into this scenario the question of access becomes complicated. Advocates of freer trade maintain that consumers/students can have greater access to a wider range of education opportunities at home and abroad. Non-supporters of trade believe that access may be more limited because trade will commercialize education and consequently escalate the cost of education and perhaps lead to a two tiered system. This raises a fundamental question regarding the capacity and role of government with respect to providing open or limited access to higher education and the question of funding.<br />Funding<br />Many governments have limited budget capacity or at least lack the political will to allocate funds to meet the escalating costs of higher education. Can international trade provide alternate funding sources through new providers? Advocates of trade in education services would answer yes. Or, does it mean that public funding will be spread across a broader set of domestic and foreign providers because of GATS’ rules such as national treatment and the unanswered question of whether public funding is seen as an unfair subsidy. Furthermore, does the presence of foreign providers signal to government that they can decrease public funding for higher education thereby jeopardizing domestic publically funded institutions. Does international trade in education advantage some countries, such as those with well-developed capacity for export, and disadvantage others in terms of funding or access?<br />Regulation of foreign or cross border providers<br />The development of a regulatory framework to deal with the diversity of providers and new cross border delivery modes becomes more critical as international trade increases. In some countries, this will likely mean a broader approach to policy which involves licensing, regulating, monitoring, both private (profit and non-profit) and foreign providers in order to ensure that national policy objectives are met and public<br />interests protected. More work is necessary to determine how domestic/ national regulatory frameworks are compatible with, or part of a larger international framework and how they relate to trade agreement rules.<br />Recognition and transferability of credits<br />New types of education providers, new delivery modes, new cross border education initiatives, new levels of student mobility, new opportunities for trade in higher education- all this can spell further confusion for the recognition of qualifications and transfer of academic credits. This is not a new issue. Trade agreements are not responsible for the creation of this confusion, but they contribute to making it more complicated<br />and also to making resolution more urgent. National and international recognition of qualifications and the transfer of credits have already been the subject of a substantial amount of work and the UNESCO Global Forum on International Quality Assurance, Accreditation and the Recognition of Qualifications is currently focussing on this important issue.<br />Quality assurance and accreditation<br />Increased transnational education activity and new legal trade rules require that more attention be given to the question of quality assurance and accreditation of cross border education programs and providers. It is<br />clear that national quality assurance schemes are being challenged by the complexities of the international education environment. Not only is it important to have domestic/national policy and mechanisms, it is equally important that attention be given to developing an international policy approach to quality<br />assurance and accreditation. Can coherence between a domestic/national system and an international policy framework actually strengthen national quality schemes not weaken them? Clearly there are risks and opportunities associated with this issue but doing nothing is a risk unto itself.<br />Quality assurance of higher education is in some countries regulated by the sector, and in others by the government to a greater or lesser degree. The key point is that authority for quality assurance, regulation, accreditation for cross border delivery needs to be examined and guided by stakeholders and bodies related to the education sector and not left in the hands of trade officials or the market.<br />Mobility of professionals<br />GATS is facilitating the mobility of professionals to meet the high demand for skilled workers. This<br />impacts many of the service sectors and has particular implications for the mobility of teachers and scholars in the higher education sector. In many countries, the increasing shortage of teachers is resulting in active recruitment campaigns across borders. Since many teachers and researchers want to move to countries with more favourable working conditions and salaries, there is a real concern that the most developed countries will benefit from this mobility of education workers.<br />Culture and acculturation<br />Last, but certainly not least, is the issue of culture. Education is a process through which cultural assimilation takes place. Concern about the homogenization of culture, through cross border supply of education is expressed by GATS sceptics. Advocates maintain, that a new hybridization and fusion of culture will evolve through increasing mobility and the influence of ICTs. In fact, they believe that this has been happening for decades and is a positive development. Once again, the divergence of opinion shows that there are new opportunities and new threats to consider, especially on the question of acculturation.<br />Trade dominates<br />Finally, it needs to be asked whether trade liberalization has the potential of dominating the higher education agenda? There is a risk of ‘trade creep’ where education policy issues are being increasingly framed in terms of trade and economic benefit. Even though, domestic challenges in education provision are currently front and centre on the radar screen of most countries, the issue of international trade in education services will likely increase in importance and perhaps at the expense of other key objectives and rationales for higher education such as social, cultural and scientific development and the role of education in promoting democracy and citizenship.<br />At this stage, there seem to be more questions than answers about the impact of GATS and trade liberalization. The questions are complex as they deal with technical/legal issues of the agreement itself; education policy issues such as funding, access, accreditation, quality and intellectual property and; the larger more political/moral issues for society such as the role and purpose of higher education and the<br />‘public good’ or ‘market commodity ‘ approach to education. GATS is new, complex, untested and a work-in-progress. It is therefore difficult to understand or predict its impact. The one thing that is certain<br />though, is that the higher education sector needs to be better informed and more involved in the debate and provide advice to the trade officials about potential unintended consequences or possible opportunities.<br />Concluding comments and recommendations<br />At this stage, it appears that there are more questions than clear answers about the impact and implications of GATS on higher education. The questions are both complex and contentious. They deal with technical/legal issues of the agreement itself; education policy issues such as funding, access, accreditation, quality and intellectual property and, the larger more political/moral issues for society such as the role and purpose of higher education and whether education is a ‘public good’ and/or ‘tradeable commodity».<br />This paper ends with the note and recommendation that education policy makers, researchers and senior administrators give more attention to analysing the opportunities, risks and policy implications emanating from the inclusion of higher education services in GATS and other international trade agreements. The education sector needs to work more closely with the trade officials, negotiators and researchers to become better informed of the issues but also to exchange information and provide advice on the implications for education policy and influence future directions of trade of higher education services. Trade officials also need to take the initiative to consult with educators.<br />It is suggested that international governmental bodies and non-governmental organizations as well as regional and national education groups give more priority to the policy issues emanating from trade liberalization and be proactive in examining how to fully benefit from new opportunities that are available from global competitive trade and be mindful of risks and unintended consequences. Finally, it is important not to overstate the impact of GATS. Trade in education was alive and well prior to trade agreements. It will undoubtedly increase under the auspices of GATS but the policy issues such as funding, access and quality assurance need to be addressed and managed by the education sector and not left to the purview of trade agreements and the WTO.<br />References and Bibliography<br />Ascher, B.( 2001) Education and Training Services in International Trade Agreements. 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