PUB 611Seminar in Public Human Resources Administration: Questions & Key Terms [Day Four] Critical Thinking Questions 1. Identify the relationship between training and strategic planning. Can you give an example from an organization you are familiar with that illustrates how training is or should be connected to strategic thinking about agency goals? 2. Distinguish between training, education, and staff development as part of the development function. 3. Briefly describe training needs assessment, design, and evaluation. 4. Describe four operational functions of a performance appraisal system. Do you think all four can be accomplished with one appraisal method? Are the four functions complementary? 5. Why is performance appraisal associated most closely with civil service systems? How has it contributed to public perceptions that civil service systems are inefficient or ineffective, in comparison with those systems based on employment at will? 6. Identify the contemporary challenges to performance appraisal. How is the tension between administrative efficiency and individual rights reflected in the appraisal function? 7. Identify the six characteristics of an effective rating system. Which of the six do you believe are the more difficult to implement? 8. Utilize an expectancy theory perspective and analyze the motivation of supervisors to rate the performance of subordinates honestly and accurately. Key Terms: Please define and give one example 1. Basic skill development vs Continuous learning 2. Coaching and counseling 3. Development function / On-the-job training [OJT] 4. Organization development (OD) 5. Staff development vs Team building 6. 360-degree evaluation 7. Behaviorally anchored rating scale (bars) 8. Critical incident (work sampling) 9. Forced-choice techniques vs. Graphic-rating scale 10. Performance-based rating system vs Person-based rating system Performance Appraisal 1 1 From Position Management to Performance Management…. Position Management: emphasizing analyzing jobs, establishing essential duties and responsibilities, determining necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, classifying jobs, setting a pay scale, and using the position as a critical feature of financial management It could all be done without a single reference to a real live person. Any deliberate act intended to affect employee performance falls’ under the category of Performance Management. Formal performance appraisal provides employees with feedback on their work. Because this leads to organizational decisions regarding promotion and pay the process becomes more complicated: As it is accompanied by heightened legal scrutiny for civil rights violations and demands for reasons behind the decisions. 2 Why Evaluate a Performance? 3 Performance appraisal is directed toward technical and management goals but rarely toward employee aspirations. The technical part focuses on developing an instrument that accurately mea ...

1. PUB 611Seminar in Public Human Resources Administration:
Questions & Key Terms [Day Four]
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Identify the relationship between training and strategic
planning. Can you give an example from an organization you
are familiar with that illustrates how training is or should be
connected to strategic thinking about agency goals?
2. Distinguish between training, education, and staff
development as part of the development function.
3. Briefly describe training needs assessment, design, and
evaluation.
4. Describe four operational functions of a performance
appraisal system. Do you think all four can be accomplished
with one appraisal method? Are the four functions
complementary?
5. Why is performance appraisal associated most closely with
civil service systems? How has it contributed to public
perceptions that civil service systems are inefficient or
ineffective, in comparison with those systems based on
employment at will?
6. Identify the contemporary challenges to performance
appraisal. How is the tension between administrative efficiency
and individual rights reflected in the appraisal function?
7. Identify the six characteristics of an effective rating system.
Which of the six do you believe are the more difficult to
implement?
8. Utilize an expectancy theory perspective and analyze the
motivation of supervisors to rate the performance of
subordinates honestly and accurately.
Key Terms: Please define and give one example
1. Basic skill development vs Continuous learning
2. Coaching and counseling
3. Development function / On-the-job training [OJT]

2. 4. Organization development (OD)
5. Staff development vs Team building
6. 360-degree evaluation
7. Behaviorally anchored rating scale (bars)
8. Critical incident (work sampling)
9. Forced-choice techniques vs. Graphic-rating scale
10. Performance-based rating system vs Person-based rating
system
Performance Appraisal
1
1
From Position Management to Performance Management….
Position Management:
emphasizing analyzing jobs,
establishing essential duties and responsibilities,
determining necessary knowledge, skills and abilities,
classifying jobs, setting a pay scale,
and using the position as a critical feature of financial
management
It could all be done without a single reference to a real live
person.
Any deliberate act intended to affect employee performance
falls’ under the category of Performance Management.
Formal performance appraisal provides employees with
feedback on their work.

3. Because this leads to organizational decisions regarding
promotion and pay the process becomes more complicated:
As it is accompanied by heightened legal scrutiny for civil
rights violations and demands for reasons behind the decisions.
2
Why Evaluate a Performance?
3
Performance appraisal is directed toward technical and
management goals but rarely toward employee aspirations.
The technical part focuses on developing an instrument that
accurately measures individual performance in order to identify
an individual’s strengths and weakness and to differentiate one
employee from another.
With this process management hopes to accomplish the
following:
Communicate management goals and objectives to employees.
Motivate employees to improve (through feedback and
constructive criticism) their performance.
Distribute organizational rewards such as salary increases and
promotions equitably.
Conduct personnel management research.
Performance Appraisal and Alternate Personnel Systems..
Performance appraisal and civil service systems go hand in hand
to the extent they can help distinguish and document employee
performance by advancing the goals of personnel systems based
on merit.
Merit-pay plans are those that attempt to tie compensation to
performance.
Other Alternative Personnel Systems include:
Affirmative Action Personnel Systems

4. Collective Bargaining Personnel System
The use of a formal performance appraisal system has a limited
use for the following personnel:
Contractors
Part-time or temporary workers;
Can be used for those folks that are looking for full-time
permanent job.
Volunteer labor.
Can be used strengthen the psychological contract between
volunteers and a public agency or a nongovernmental
organization (NGO).
4
Contemporary Challenges to Performance Appraisal
Because it’s difficult to imagine behavior changing without
feedback.
Therefore , it makes sense that formalizing feedback from
supervisor to employee would lead employees to behave in ways
their employer valued.
While most formal appraisal systems are administrative
(hierarchical) procedures several contemporary work trends
challenge the utility of the traditional approach:
The changing nature of work:
Less commitment to the organization and more to the contract
More part-time and or temporary work
Privatization / outsourcing
Flatter organizational hierarchies
Shift from physical work (that can be observed) to knowledge
workers
Limited organizational rewards and punishments
These factors combine to diminish the value of performance
evaluation in all but traditional civil service systems.
5

5. Performance-Based and Person-Based Evaluation Criteria…
It begins with a Question: “What factors should be evaluated?”
Performance-Based or Person-Based or a mixture of these two?
In the person-based rating system the rater compares employees
against other employees or against some absolute standard.
Are the easiest and cheapest to design, administer, and
interpret.
Unfortunately they have low validity and low reliability and fail
in improving performance…
Performance-based rating systems measure each employee’s
behaviors against previously established behaviors and
standards.
They communicate managerial objectives clearly;
both are relevant to job performance and reasonably reliable;
and better fulfill the purpose of reward allocation, performance
improvement, and personnel management research.
6
Why are Performance-Based systems harder to Develop?
First, because performance standards will vary, separate
performance standards must be developed for each employee, or
for each class of similar position.
Second, the organization may wish to specify desired methods
of task performance as well as objectives…
Third, because of the changing nature of organizations and
environments the employee performance standard may also
change…
Fourth, Job-related objectives measurements are more suited to
simple jobs (as apposed to complex high tech jobs) with
tangible outputs than can be attributed to employee
performance.
Five, its difficult to compare the performance of employees
with different standards.

6. 7
Appraisal Methods…
The following seven methods are commonly utilized in
appraisal methods…
Graphic rating (or adjective scaling)
Ranking
Forced-choice
Essay
Objective
Critical incident (or work sampling)
Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS)
Some of these techniques, primarily the first three, are more
adaptable to person-oriented systems. Others are utilized
primarily to performance-based systems.
8
Graphic rating (or adjective scaling)
A graphic rating scale, defined as any rating scale consisting of
points on a continuum, is a generic label given to a broad
category of rating formats.
Individuals are presented with a description of a dimension on
which to rate the subjects that are to be evaluated, and a
continuum with anchor points that demarcate levels of
effectiveness along that continuum.
The to evaluate the rater is asked to judge the level of
effectiveness for each person, using that rating continuum. The
number of points on the rating scale can vary from three
upward.
Research has indicated that five to nine scale points result in
the highest quality of ratings.
Graphic rating scales are probably the most common rating

7. format. One reason for this popularity is that the graphic rating
scale category can be adapted to a wide variety of specific
formats. Other reasons for their popularity include:
They are fairly easy to construct;
They have a fairly high level of user acceptability;
And they have face validity.
Graphic rating scales can be differentiated based on the type
and amount of information presented in the anchors.
The most common format uses ambiguous adjectives (e.g.,
“marginal,” “average,” or “outstanding”) as anchors.
9
Critical Incident Technique
The Critical Incident Technique (or CIT) is a set of procedures
used for collecting direct observations of human behavior that
have critical significance and meet methodically defined
criteria.
These observations are then kept track of as incidents, which
are then used to solve practical problems and develop broad
psychological principles.
A critical incident can be described as one that makes a
contribution—either positively or negatively—to an activity or
phenomenon.
Critical incidents can be gathered in various ways, but typically
respondents are asked to tell a story about an experience they
have had.
CIT is a flexible method that usually relies on five major areas.
The first is determining and reviewing the incident,
then fact-finding, which involves collecting the details of the
incident from the participants.
When all of the facts are collected, the next step is to identify
the issues.
Afterwards a decision can be made on how to resolve the issues
based on various possible solutions.
The final and most important aspect is the evaluation, which

8. will determine if the solution that was selected will solve the
root cause of the situation and will cause no further problems.
10
Who Should Evaluate Employee Performance?
An employee’s performance may be rated by a number of
people.
The immediate supervisor most commonly assesses the
performance of subordinates, and most employees prefer this.
Supervisory assessments reinforce authority relationships in an
organization and are frequently see as the primary function
distinguishing a superior from a subordinate.
Problem: Because the superior-subordinate relationship itself is
affected by so many factors, supervisory ratings are easily
biased.
Peer ratings (sometime self-ratings) have prove acceptable both
in terms of reliability and validity…
11
Mager’s Performance Analysis
12
Characteristics of an Effective Appraisal System…
Ultimately performance appraisal systems should be aligned
with an organization’s mission and culture, and even though
different systems are likely identifying the same employees as
high or low performers:
First: Because missions (and cultures) are different, it’s wise to
utilize the appraisal system suitable for the needs of the
organization.

9. Second: Raters should have the opportunity, ability, and desire
to rate employees accurately…
Third: Appraisal systems should be more in line with
occupation-specific job descriptions in order for the
organization to structure itself along team lines…
Fourth: Appraisal system must be able to capture and measure
the employee’s motivational needs especially in the area of self-
improvement…
Fifth, The effectiveness of the system should be subjectively
grounded on a foundation of trust within the organization and
open communication between the person being rated and the
rater.
Sixth: The most important characteristic of an effective
appraisal system relates to criteria used to select supervisors…
13
The Human Dynamics of the Appraisal Process…
Question: Even though, feedback is essential to goal
accomplishment and productivity, why were appraisal systems
regarded so lightly prior to judicial scrutiny and the emphasis
on pay-for-performance?
Not all employees were interested in quality productivity.
As the case load increased of the income-maintenance worker
(because of budgetary constraints) the emphasis was on quantity
at the expense of quality.
Because the visibility and tangibility of these reports many
folks were limiting the use of the data just to find out what
motivates the individual worker.
Because of reservations in the way information was gathered
concerns for the reliability and validity of the instrument
became an issue of concern.
Question: What three factors that can contribute to success of
the process…
Goal setting during the interview…
Encouragement of the subordinate participation in the

10. interview…
Support of the rater expressed in terms of encouragement,
constructive guidance, and sincere, specific praise of the
subordinate.
Note: Criticism from superior to subordinate produces mixed
results…
14
Performance Appraisal, The Sanctions Process, and Fairness..
Question: What is the difference between discipline and
punishment?
Discipline is a formal way for an organization to preform the
sanctions function by letting employees know they have
violated an organizational expectation and by imposing negative
consequences (punishment).
A performance appraisal is a critical precursor to disciplining
an employee for poor performance unless
the discipline involves a performance incident that is clear
policy violation that places the organization at a legal or
financial risk.
If a third party is called upon to make a judgement about the
fairness of the discipline, it is crucial to establish an
environment of organizational justice.. This requires:
Preset expectations; accurate observations of behavior, and a
written record of the discussion.

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16
Training, Education, and Staff Development
1
1
The Path towards Professionalism Begins with Self…
We can view a study of the Public Administration as a detail
examination of criminal justice system; or the public school
system;
or the various functions that encompass a wide range public
servants working at the local, state, and federal level and how
they work independently and collectively.
Although the study of these systems are for some individuals a
path towards professionalism, some, unfortunately, who pursue
this route find out that the job is not for them and they drop out
to follow some other line of work.
Still others who learn the basic craft and trade of the job but do
not wish to advance their kills or knowledge, do the minimum
effort required and explore other concerns.
However for those that do seek out professional development in
the field of public administration there’re is a number of
different paths, depending on their area of interest, in which

41. they can take.
2
Training vs. Professional Development …
Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any
skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies.
Training has specific goals of improving one's capability,
capacity, productivity and performance.
In addition to the basic training required for a trade, occupation
or profession, observers have noted the need to continue
training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain, upgrade and
update skills throughout working life.
People within many professions and occupations may refer to
this sort of training as professional development
Professional development encompasses all types of facilitated
learning opportunities including credentials such as academic
degrees to formal coursework, conferences and informal
learning opportunities situated in practice.
It has been described as intensive and collaborative, ideally
incorporating an evaluative stage.
There are a variety of approaches to professional development,
including:
consultation, coaching, communities of practice, lesson study,
mentoring, reflective supervision and technical assistance
3
The Future is Now….
Factors such as increasing retirement rates that are responsible
for a projected shortages in valued competencies; rapid
technological change; a demand for new KSA’s for new
employees; and demographic changes in the environment are
making training a key component in todays strategic planning
process to encompass individuals, groups, and the organization
as a whole.

42. Inappropriate operational and management decisions by today’s
public administrators are highlighting the need for
public servants to be retained in order to meet the current
demands of our changing environment.
Additional team-based training is a common way to help
identity and provide the needed resources and mechanisms to
clarify and advance agency goals.
4
Education and Staff Development….
Because education is more future oriented, it can include skill
building with more of an emphasis on learning.
Learning is the ability to apply what you have been taught in
the classroom to different challenges and situations.
Staff Development is also more future oriented, but the future is
less clear and less defined.
The focus is to prepare employees for changes that are not
specifically anticipated or clearly known.
While skill building may still be a component of this type of
development, the emphasis is on building attitudes and
knowledge that are consistent with the organization’s values
and changing requirements.
The emphasis is also on developing the competencies that will
enhance the individual’s ability to lead.
5
Organizational Approaches to Development
Organizations, like individuals, seek feedback to improve
themselves through some sort feedback mechanism so they can
change through their own self-assessment. Such as:
Organizational Development and planned change;
Works when the managers and supervisors who are responsible

43. training employees, implement the programs that are designed
to improve the agency…
Diversity Training;
For all full and part time employees and contract workers.
Commitment to Continuous Learning.
6
Developing New Employees
New employee orientation
Formal orientation programs can facilitate understanding of
company culture, and introduces new employees to their work
roles and the organizational social environment.
Formal orientation programs may consist of lectures,
videotapes, and written material, while other organizations may
rely on more usual approaches.
More recent approaches such as computer-based orientations
and Internets have been used by organizations to standardize
training programs across branch locations.
A review of the literature indicates that orientation programs,
like onboarding, are successful in communicating the company's
goals, history, and power structure.
Training for Basic Skill Development
Integrating On-the-Job Training (OJT) with Other Training
7
Developing New Employees
New employee orientation
Formal orientation programs can facilitate understanding of
company culture, and introduces new employees to their work
roles and the organizational social environment.
Formal orientation programs may consist of lectures,
videotapes, and written material, while other organizations may
rely on more usual approaches.

44. More recent approaches such as computer-based orientations
and Internets have been used by organizations to standardize
training programs across branch locations.
A review of the literature indicates that orientation programs,
like onboarding, are successful in communicating the Agency’s
goals, history, and power structure.
Basic Skill Development training, (AKA Basic Training) is the
initial indoctrination and instruction given to new personnel.
This is where they all have various background checks,
examination, physical requirements, medical requirements, legal
training, and if needed driving skills, equipment training and
firearm training.
Basic Skill Development after completion of this training, new
employees will undergo a type of advanced Individual training
where they learn additional skills needed for their jobs.
These new employees may undergo a more detailed programs
(OJT) that may either precede or follow the program provided
them in the basic training program.
8
Onboarding …
9
Developing Current Employees…
Questions:
With the increased use of temporary and part-time employees,
“How much training must be offered to these workers?”
Coaching and Counseling: Whose Job Is It?
Is training available for those managers and supervisor who has
to provide coaching and counseling assistance?
Is online interactive and self-paced training available?
Is there mandatory or mandated training for those specialize

45. KSA’s required by the worker?
10
Three Roles for the Human Resource Development Specialist
….
Learning Specialist:
facilitator of learning, designer of learning programs, developer
of instructional strategies.
Manager of HRD:
supervisor of HRD programs, developer of HRD personnel,
arranger of facilities and finance, maintainer of relations.
Consultant:
expert, advocate, stimulator, change agent
11
Training Needs Assessment, Design, and Evaluation…
Assessment Function
Training is frequently used as a solution to a performance
problem without considering alternatives
So when is training appropriate?
Only after an investigation into the performance reveals what
challenges have cause or created the discrepancy and only when
it has been determined that they are suitable to a training
solution.
Once the program is completed another assessment should be
made to determined if the program was effective in reducing
any negative challenges to the workers job performance.
How does one design and evaluate training development
programs?
By assessing training needs…
So what’s a training need?

46. 12
Assessing Training Needs….
General Treatment Need
When management requires training for all employees in a job
classification without regard for data concerning a particular
employee’s performance.
Observable Performance Discrepancies:
These training needs are indicated by problems such as:
standards of work performance not being met, accidents,
frequent need for equipment repair, several low ratings on
employee evaluation reports, high rate of turnover, the use of
many methods to do the same job, and deadlines not being met.
In this case, a managers job is to observe the jobs and workers
in question and uncover the difficulties. This may be done
through:
observation,
interviews,
questionnaires,
performance appraisal,
and by requiring employees to keep tract of their own work
output.
Educational and Staff Development Needs
These are based on anticipated future discrepancies caused by
technological advances and or changes in strategic goals.
13
Planning, Delivering, and Evaluating a Training Program…
Designing a training program:
Once a program area is identified an intervention can be
planned.
Please note: training can only benefit an employee who does not
know how to work effectively.
If training is an appropriate intervention then that particular

47. training design is dependent on the target of the change…
The simplest distinction in training methods, which are more
directive, teacher-oriented, and have as their objective
transferring knowledge, work best where the trainees are
motivated to change...
Please Note: The more significant the change anticipated, the
more likely it will involve rejection of something the employee
already knows and relies upon.
If the anticipated change is tangible and involves technical
training, the trainer must maintain a delicate balance between
getting the material across and recognizing
that not all the trainees may be eager to reject what they already
know and what may still serve them well… (i.e. supervisory
training)
14
The steps involved in tailoring a training intervention to a
specific agency or work group move through five Phases.
Change depends on the nature of expected change…
Does it present a relative advantage to the person who is
supposed to adopt the change?
Can the person see what the change will produce or is the
proposed result vague?
Is the change compatible with past practice, competencies, and
values?
Can change be adopted gradually and incrementally, or does it
need to be adopted completely?
15
Problem perception
Diagnosis

48. “Unfreezing”
“Movement”
“Refreezing”
Evaluating Training Programs….
All solutions are tomorrow’s problem,
Redefine the problem as a challenge,
Then look for opportunities.
16
Training can be Evaluated at Five Levels:
Reaction:
How well did the trainees like the training? Do they feel they
benefited from the training?
Learning:
to what extent did the trainees learn the facts, principles, and
approaches that were included in the training?
Behavior:
To what extent did the trainee’s job behavior change because of
the program?
Results:
What increases in productivity or decreases in cost were
achieved?

49. To what extent were unit or organizational goals advance?
Cost effectiveness:
Assuming the training is effective, is it the least expensive
method of solving the program?
17
Summary
Seeking quality requires an employer investment in the
competences of a workforce that must become intimately
acquainted with
service delivery systems and committed to a customer
orientation.
The value of efficiency that is captured in the basic concept of
civil service systems provides
the foundation for government to face these challenges.
Investments in the development function go beyond traditional
training and extend into the areas of education and staff
development,
where employers indicate their willingness to make long-term
investments in their employees.
In part, this depends upon whether public employers are able to
view their employees as assets rather than costs and whether
citizens are willing to do the same.
Strategic thinking in human resources management depends in
large part on being able to connect the
development function to the organization’s short- and longer-
term goals and objectives
identifying the competencies needed and then preparing to
develop them.

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