The document discusses biological and environmental foundations of human development. It covers several key topics in 3 sentences: Genetic inheritance is determined by chromosomes containing DNA that is passed down from parents. Phenotypes (observable traits) are influenced by both genetic makeup and experiences over one's lifetime. Environmental factors like family socioeconomic status and community ties also shape child development outcomes.

1. Biological & Environmental
Foundations

2. Can a child walk, talk, learn, make friends, imagine &
create in the future?
How can we sure he can do all of this or not?
Why is she a girl and not boy?
Why is she blond?
Is she calm or energetic?
Biological & Environmental Foundations

3. Biological & Environmental Foundations
Phenotypes
Genetic
make-up of
an individual
Observable
characteristics
of an individual.
it is affected by
history of
experiences
Genotypes

4. • Cells
• within every cell is a control center - Nucleus
• Nucleus contains rodlike structures called:
Chromosomes
• Store and transmit genetic information
• 23 pairs in humans
• Each member of a
pair - size, shape & genetic
functions with one inherited
from mother & one from father
Biological Foundations

5. • Chromosomes made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Gene is a segment of DNA
• One of DNA unique features is: it can duplicate itself via
mitosis so chromosmoes copy themselves
• One celled fertilized ovum to develop a complex organism
(human)
Biological Foundations

6. • Genes - send instructions for making a rich variety of
proteins to the area surround the cell nucleus. Cytoplsm
• Proteins: Trigger chemical reactions throughout the body
so our characteristics are build.
• worms & flies - have twice as many as humans genes
How do humans with far fewer genes manage to develop into
such complex beings?
Biological Foundations

7. • Genes make proteins break up and reassemble in about 10-
20 million all together
• Simpler species have far fever proteins
• Communication between cell nucleus & cytoplsm complex
in humans
Biological Foundations

8. • New individual is created when,
• Gametes (Sex cells): Sperm and ova combine
• 23 chromosomes (half of body cell)
• Sperm and ovum united: the new cell called Zygot
• 46 chromosomes
The Sex Cells

9. • Autosomes: The 22 pairs of chromosomes are matching
pairs that are not sex chromosomes
• Sex Chromosomes: 23rd pair of chromosomes
• Determines sex
• XX = female, XY = male
• Gamates form in females all carring X
• Gamates form in males X and Y seperate into different
sperm
• The sex of new organizm is determined by whether X
bearing sperm or Y bearing sperm fertilizes ovum.
Boy or Girl

10. • Fraternal/Dizygotic
⚬ Twins - resulting from the release and fertilization of two
ova
⚬ Two zygotes
• Identical/Monozygotic
⚬ One zygote that divides into two individuals
⚬ Same genetic makeup
Twins

11. Genetic inheritence pattern
Except for the XY, all choromosomes are
matching pairs so;
why one has dark-hair and other is blonde?

12. • Two forms of each genes occur at the same place on the
choromosomes, one from mother, one from father. Each form of gene
is called Allele
• If Alleles from both parents are alike, the child is Homozygous &
display inherited trait
• If Alleles differ, the child is heterozygous.
• Relationship between the alleles determine the phenotype.
Genetic inheritence pattern

13. • Dominant-recessive inheritance occurs when:
• Only one allele effects the child chacateristics - Dominant
• Second allele has no effect - Recessive
Genetic inheritence pattern
• Heterozygous individuals
with one Recessive allele
can pass the trait to their
child. This is called
Carriers of the trait.

14. Genetic
inheritence
pattern

15. Genetic inheritence pattern
• Heterozygous individuals may carry recessive disorderse.
• e.g., phenylketonuria (PKU) – inability to breakdown protein
contained in many foods
• Infants born with 2 recessive alleles lack an enzyme that
coverts one of the basic amino acids make up proteins into
byproduct essential for body functioning. Without this enzyme,
occurs severe damage in central nervous system in the first
year of life
• Mentally retarded, posture problems, organ damage
• If we know genetic makeup of parents, we can predict the
percentage of children carrying a trait
• Life-long diet

16. Genetic inheritence pattern
Incomplete dominance: a pattern of inheritance
• Both alleles expressed and combined in the phenotype
• Results in combined trait or intermediate between the two
• Sickle cell anemia: 2 recessesive genes, affects red boold cell
shape. Sickled cells block the flow of blood cause pain, swelling
and tissue damage
• African American
• Africa - where malaria is common

17. X-Linked Inheritance
• When an allele is on an X chromosome
• Y can be too short to have a
corresponding chromosome
• Thus less variety of genes than females
• Males are more vulnerable because
their sex chromosomes are not match
• Birth defects, complications, and
miscarriage, learning disability, mental
retardation are all higher in boys.
Genetic inheritence pattern

18. Imprinting
• Chemical marker that activates either father’s or mother’s gene
• Often temporary, not runs in next generation
• Genetic imprinting
• The marking of an allele in a chromosome pair so it is expressed regardless of any
other factor.
• e.g., explains why kids are more likely to inherit diabetes from fathers than
mothers.
• e.g. asthma tend to passed from mothers, not fathers
• e.g., fragile X syndrome linked to autism is more likely to passed from mother.
Mostly seen in boys
Genetic inheritence pattern

19. Genetic inheritence pattern
• 3 % of pregnancies result in the birth of baby with heredity
abnormality
• 20% infant deaths
How harmful genes created in the first place?

20. Genetic inheritence pattern
Mutation
Sudden, permanent change in a DNA segment
⚬ Mutation may affects one or two genes & many genes
⚬ Some may happen spontaneously or others can be as a
result of environmental agents.
⚬ Germline mutation: occurs in the cell that give rise to
gamates
⚬ Somatic mutation: mutation of the normal body cell. Can
happen at any time of life - Cancer

21. Polygenic Inheritance
• Many genes combine to influence a trait; e.g., intelligence,
personality, height or weight
Genetic inheritence pattern

22. A chromosomal disorder: chromosomes cause
major developmental problems
• Failure to divide in the Meiosis stage, when the
ovum and sperm are formed
• A chromosome pair does not separate properly, or
parts of choromosomes breaks of
• Many physical and mental problems
Chromosomal
Abnormalities

23. Down Syndrome: Inability of the 21st chromosome pair to
divide
so new individual receives 3 of these choromosomes
(Trisomy)
• 47 chromosomes
Consequences:
• Slow motor development – delayed development
• Language problems – vocabulary, articulation
• Mental retardation
• Distinct physical features
• Cardiological problems
• Benefit from parental and educational stimulation
Chromosomal
Abnormalities

24. Chromosomal
Abnormalities
Sex Chromosome Abnormalities:
• Generally cannot be diagnose until puberty
• Problems with the X or Y chromosomes
• Absence of one X in females or presence of an extra (X or Y)
• Popular myths about individuals with sex chromosome disorders include the
erroneous belief that males with XYY syndrome are more aggressive and
antisocial than XY males and the belief that children with sex chromosome
disorders suffer from mental retardation.
• Research indicates that adding to or subtracting from the usual number of X
chromosomes results in particular intellectual deficits.

25. How can we prevent ourselves from bringing genetically
unhealthy child in the world?

26. Reproductive
Choices
• Genetic counseling
• Prenatal diagnosis and fetal medicine
• Genetic testing
• Adoption

27. Reproductive
Choices
Genetic Counseling
• A process of assessing the probability of giving birth to an
infant with hereditary disease(s).
• Pedigree – IDs realtives with affected members of the
family.

28. Reproductive Choices
• Donor Insemination
• injection of sperm from donor man to women
• In Vitro Fertilization
• given hormones to women that stimulate ripening of
several ova
• When ova fertilized & duplicate several cells injected it
in uterus.
• Surrogate Mother
• couple’s fertilized ova to impragnate women
• New Technologies
• postmenopausal women can become pregnant by
using donor ova
• design baby - manipulate genetic makeup
• ethics? psychological consequences?

29. the pros & cons of Reproductive
Choices
Helps couples:
• Assess chances of hereditary disorders
• Choose best course of action
⚬ Risks
⚬ Family goals
Recommended when:
• Couple has had difficulties
• Aware of genetic problems
• Woman is over 35
Legal, ethical concerns
• Individuals at risk may not show symptoms
• Legal safeguards

30. Reproductive Choices
Prenatal diagnosis: medical procedures permit detection of
developmental problems before birth
• Genetic engineering
• Mostly aiming at the correction of genetic defacts
• Amniocentesis
• Chorionic villus sampling
• Fetoscopy
• Ultrasound
• Maternal blood tests
• Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis
• MRI

31. Reproductive
Choices
Amniocentesis: a sample of fluid
in the uterus. 1-2 weeks from
conception
Chorionic Villus Sampling: a thin
tube inserted from vagina to
uterus, examine cells’ genetic
defect. 9 weeks from conception

32. Reproductive
Choices
Adoption and Adjustment
• Less availability of healthy babies in North America and Europe
(the less number of young unwed mothers give up their babies)
• Families adopt elsewhere (3rd world)
• Adopted children/adolescents have more problems (learning&
emotional) than other children
• Problems and challenges increase with increased age of adoption

33. Environmental
Contexts
for Development

34. Family Influences on
Development
• Family is the first longest-lasting context for development.
Then, friends, neighbors, school, workplace, community and
religious org.
(Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory)

35. Family Influences on
Development
• Family: Attachment is lifelong
⚬ Learn skills, language, moral values
⚬ warm family ties predict later development
⚬ isolation from family predict developmental problems
• Direct Influences: Two-person relationships.
• Kind, patient communication evokes cooperation
• Indirect Influences: Two members relationship is affected by others.
Third Parties
• Warm marital relationship - effective coparenting
• Adapting to Change
• Changes from within and outside the family
• Through important life events
⚬ a new baby coming to home
• Each family member’s status is influential

36. Socioeconomic Status
(SES)
• Social position and economic well-being
• Social Status
⚬ Years of education
⚬ Job prestige and skill required
• Economic Status
⚬ Income

37. Socioeconomic Status
(SES)
• SES linked with timing and duration of marriage, parenthood & family size
• Values and expectations differ
• Construction workers, truck drivers tend to marry and have child earlier & have more
children
• Lower SES parents expect children external characteristics like obedience, politeness,
cleanliness
• High SES parents expect psychological traits like happiness, curiosity, social maturity
• Father’s involvement differ
• Communication and discipline styles
• Authoritrian low SES
• Authoritative high SES
• Children’s cognitive development

38. Povert
y
• 12% in U.S. and Canada
• Parents under age 25 with young children
• Elderly living alone, especially women
• Ethnic Minorities
• Women
• Children

39. Poverty in Late
Adulthood

40. Poverty in Turkey
• Absolute poverty treshold: $4 a day
• Human development report: 92nd / 177 countries
• Property rates
• Primary school graduates: 42.5%
• Agricultural workers: 46.6%
• Eastern & SE Anatolia
• Reference:
• Saatçi, E. & Akpınar, E. (2007). Assessing Poverty and Related Factors in
Turkey. Croatian Medical Journal, 48(5), 628-635.

42. So, if low SES cause many problems,
Would high SES guarantee a good life?

43. Risks of Affluence
• Advanced education and great marital wealth but affleunt parents too often
fail to engage family interactions
• Growing up high SES but more Alcohol and drug use
• Anxiety
• Depression
• Why are so many affluent youths troubled?
• Unavailable parents
• Overscheduled
• Demanding
• Family time & eating dinner with parents - helps adjusting difficulties

44. Benefits of Strong Community Ties for Children and
Adults
• Social interaction, activities
• Cooperation to provide clean, safe
environment
• Participation in important tasks
• Mutual assistance

45. Extended
Families
• Three or more generations living
together
• More common in many minority
cultures
• Benefits
• Reduces stress of poverty
• Assistance for all generations
• Emotional bonds, support

46. Individualist
People define themselves as separate from other
people
Largely concerned with personal needs and
goals
Collectivist
People define themselves as part of a group
Stress group goals over individual goals

47. Heritability Estimates
Portion of individual differences attributable to genetics
Particularly for complex traits such as personality.
Ranges from 0 to 1.00
Concordance
What percent of the time do twins both show a trait?
Ranges from 0 to 100%

48. The Epigenetic Framework