The document presents a comprehensive overview of leadership theories and styles, including trait and behavioral theories, situational leadership, path-goal theory, and transformational leadership. It discusses various factors influencing effective leadership, such as leader-member exchange (LMX) quality, substitutes for leadership, and styles like servant-leadership and superleadership. Through case studies and examples, it emphasizes the dynamic nature of leadership and the importance of adapting to different organizational contexts.

1. Project Selection Criteria List Template
Category
Project Criteria
Criteria Description
Reasonableness
(Insert additional rows as necessary to complete the Project
Selection Criteria List table)
Definitions for Project Selection Criteria Categories:
Relevance: the extent to which the project supports the class

2. objectives, the Information Systems Management program and
your own professional goals.
Risk: the level of potential events or uncertainty that could
have a negative effect on your project.
Reasonableness: an assessment of the ability to successfully
complete the project as related to the triple constraint and
related issues (availability of expertise, availability of required
equipment and facilities, proposed level of scope for a two-
month period, etc.).
Return: the overall benefit of completing the project (financial
gain, value of experience, networking opportunities, providing
professional and/or community service, etc.).
Other: any other areas of project considerations not mentioned
above.
Kreitner/Kinicki/Cole
Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour: Key Concepts,
Skill, and Best Practices
Chapter 11
Leadership
Chapter Learning Objectives
· Explain the theory of leadership and discuss behavioural
leadership theory.
· Explain, according to Fiedler’s contingency model, how
leadership style interacts with situational control.
· Discuss path-goal theory.
· Describe how charismatic leadership transforms followers and
work groups.

3. · Explain the leader-member exchange (LMX) model of
leadership and the substitutes for leadership.
· Review the principles of servant-leader and superleadership.
Opening Case
Land of the Giant
This case profiles a visionary leader, Gwyn Morgan of EnCana
Corp. in Calgary, know as the ‘philosopher-king’ of the oil
patch. He exhibits charismatic qualities including a clear vision
of a global energy giant headquartered in Canada, and strong
communication skills to inspire others to work toward this
vision. He appeals to ideological values through the ‘corporate
constitution’, and provides intellectual stimulation for followers
through the values such as ‘seize opportunities’, ‘teamwork and
trust’, and ‘fear of the status quo’. He inspires followers to rise
to new levels of performance by communicating his
expectations for leadership ‘with character, competence, and
humility’ to achieve ‘nothing less than the best effort’. His
display of confidence in himself and in the employees of
Alberta Energy Co. Ltd. and PanCanadian Energy Corp., led to
the merger of these two companies to form EnCana Corp. –
definitely performance beyond the call of duty.
Chapter Summary
Leadership
Leadership is defined as influencing employees to voluntarily
pursue organizational goals. It is a social influence process in
which the leader seeks the voluntary participation of
subordinates in an effort to reach organizational goals.
Trait and Behavioural Theories of Leadership

4. A leader trait is a personal characteristic that differentiates
leaders from followers. Although dozens of leadership traits
were initially identified, researchers were unable to uncover a
consistent set of traits that accurately predicted which
individuals became leaders in organizations. A cross-cultural
study of leadership found that universally favourable traits
include dynamism, decisiveness, honesty, capacity to motivate,
capacity to negotiate with others, and focus on performance.
The International OB box provides more information on
important skills for global managers – international business
knowledge, cultural adaptability, perspective-taking, and
innovation.
Gender and leadership. Research has uncovered the following
differences:
(1) men and women were seen as displaying more task and
social leadership respectively;
(2) women used a more democratic or participatory style than
men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than
women;
(3) men and women were equally assertive; and
(4) women executives, when rated by their peers, managers, and
direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a
variety of effectiveness criteria.
Does this not raise the question of why there are not more
women as CEO or at least, in high positions? Yes, it is changing
but is it changing fast enough to save some of our companies
that are failing do to male infighting, e.g., Xerox and other
autocratic problems?
Behavioural Leadership Theory. This is the approach that looks
at behaviours rather than at traits. It began because trait theory

5. did not answer the questions of who is a leader. Researchers
have discovered two independent dimensions of leader
behaviour. Consideration involves creating mutual respect and
trust with followers, and initiating structure involves organizing
and defining what group members should be doing.
The Leadership Grid is formed by the intersection of these two
dimensions of leader behaviour, as shown in Figure 11-1. Five
leadership styles can be identified using the Grid:
(1) impoverished - low concern for people and low concern for
production;
(2) country club - high concern for people, low concern for
production;
(3) authority-compliance - low concern for people, high concern
for production;
(4) middle-of-the-road - moderate concern for people and
moderate concern for production; and
(5) team management (or ‘high-high’) - high concern for people
and high concern for production.
Although it was initially believed that the ‘high-high’
leadership style would be the most effective, researchers have
concluded that there is no one best style of leadership and that
the effectiveness of a given leadership style depends on the
situation.
Behavioural style theories in perspective. These are approaches
that can be learned and show that leaders are not born, as trait
theory assumed. It also revealed there is no one best way of
leading. The situation at hand is shown to be the key.
Situational Theories

6. Situational leadership theories grew out of an attempt to explain
the inconsistent findings about traits and styles. Situational
theories propose that the effectiveness of a particular style of
leader behaviour depends on the situation. As situations change,
different styles become appropriate. Is this common sense? Can
leaders change their approaches with the situation? Is this a
problem for many leaders that even though the organization has
changed let’s say to teams, they still like autocratic leadership?
What can be done to change a leader’s perception of her or his
own leadership style?
Fiedler’s Contingency Model. Fiedler believes that leaders are
either task motivated or relationship motivated, and bases his
theory on the assumption that leaders have one dominant
leadership style that is resistant to change. He suggest that
leaders must learn to manipulate or influence the leadership
situation in order to create a ‘match’ between their leadership
style and the amount of control within the situation at hand.
How can leaders do this in a crisis? Is this ethical? Are leaders
manipulators or managers?
Situational control refers to the amount of control and influence
the leader has in her or his immediate work environment. It
ranges from high to low. There are three dimensions of control:
· Leader-member relations reflect the extent to which the leader
has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group.
· Task structure is concerned with the amount of structure
contained within tasks performed by the work group.
· Position power refers to the degree to which the leader has
formal power to reward, punish, or otherwise obtain compliance
from employees.
Linking leadership motivation and situational control. See

7. Figure 11-2 for the complete model, which involves eight
different situations. Under high control and low control
situations, task-motivated leaders are most effective, and under
moderate control situations, relationship-motivated leaders are
most effective.
Research and managerial implications. There is mixed support
for this model, but it has reinforced the notion that there is no
one best style of leadership.
Path-Goal Theory. Path-goal theory is a model that describes
how expectancy perceptions are influenced by the contingent
relationships among four leadership styles and various
employee attitudes and behaviours. The full model is shown in
Figure 11-3. According to this theory, leader behaviour is
acceptable when employees view it as a source of satisfaction or
as paving the way to future satisfaction. In addition, leader’s
behaviour is motivational to the extent that it:
(1) reduces roadblocks that interfere with goal accomplishment;
(2) provides the guidance and support needed by employees;
(3) ties meaningful rewards to goal accomplishment.
Because the model deals with pathways to goals and rewards, it
is called the path-goal theory of leadership. How does this
compare with the other theories? Is it more complete or less? Of
what use would it be to you as a leader?
Leadership styles. This theory proposes that leaders can exhibit
more than one leadership style, a contrast to Fiedler. These are:
(1) Directive leadership,
(2) Supportive leadership,

8. (3) Participative leadership, and
(4) Achievement-oriented leadership.
How are these different or similar to other theories or models?
Contingency factors. Contingency factors are situational
variables that cause one style of leadership to be more effective
than another.
Research and managerial implications. The research supports
the idea that leaders exhibit more than one leadership style, and
that a small set of task and employee characteristics are relevant
contingency factors. However, there is limited support for most
of the moderating relationships predicted with the theory.
From Transactional to Charismatic and
Transformational Leadership
Transactional leadership focuses on the interpersonal
transactions between managers and employees. Leaders are seen
as engaging in behaviours that maintain a quality interaction
between themselves and followers, using contingent rewards
and corrective action when warranted. Charismatic leadership is
defined as the use of interpersonal attraction, or ‘charisma’, to
motivate employees to pursue organizational goals over self-
interest. It emphasizes symbolic leader behaviour, visionary and
inspirational messages, nonverbal communication, appeal to
ideological values, intellectual stimulation of followers by the
leader, display of confidence in self and in followers, and leader
expectations for follower self-sacrifice and for performance
beyond the call of duty. You might ask your students whom they
think fit this description and what are the pros and cons of this
form of leadership. Was Hitler a charismatic leader? Pierre
Elliott Trudeau? Colin Powell?
Figure 11-4 illustrates the charismatic model of leadership.

9. Charismatic leaders transform followers by creating changes in
their goals, values, needs, beliefs and aspirations. They tend to
engage in three key sets of leader behaviour. The first set
involves establishing a common vision of the future. In the
second set of behaviours there are two key components: high
performance expectations and standards and the need to publicly
express confidence in the followers’ ability to meet high
performance expectations. The third set involves being a role
model.
A variation of charismatic leadership is known as
transformational leadership, which is a leadership style
involving the creation, communication, and modeling of a
vision, and behaviours aimed at building commitment to the
vision on the part of their followers. The Focus on Diversity
box provides some interesting research results regarding the
transformational leadership style demonstrated by
‘thirtysomething’ women.
Research and managerial implications. Research has found that
the best leaders are not just charismatic; they are both
transactional and charismatic. Charismatic leadership is most
likely to be effective when the situation offers opportunities for
moral involvement, and when exceptional effort, sacrifices and
performance are required of both leaders and followers.
Employees at any level can be trained to be more transactional
and charismatic. Charismatic leaders can be ethical or unethical.
The Ethics at Work box illustrates a current example of an
ethical dilemma involving charismatic leader Jack Welch,
former CEO of General Electric.
Additional Perspectives on Leadership
Four other approaches to leadership will be reviewed.
The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership.
The model revolves around the development of dyadic

10. relationships between managers and their direct reports. It
focuses on the quality of relationships between managers and
subordinates as opposed to the behaviours or traits of either
leaders or followers. There is the in-group exchange where a
partnership is characterized by mutual trust, respect, and liking
and out-group exchange that is a partnership characterized by a
lack of mutual trust, respect and liking. You might ask your
students to think of supervisors with whom they have had in-
group and out-group exchanges.
Research findings. The research has shown that an in-group
exchange is positively related to job satisfaction, job
performance, goal commitment, trust between managers and
employees, work climate, and satisfaction with leadership. Also,
personality similarity and demographic similarity influence the
quality of an LMX.
Managerial implications. There are three managerial
implications:
(1) leaders are encouraged to establish high performance
expectations for all their direct reports because setting high-
performance standards fosters high-quality LMXs;
(2) because personality and demographic similarity between
leaders and followers is associated with higher LMX, managers
need to be careful not to avoid a heterogeneous work
environment just to have good relationships with direct reports
(How does this finding impact employment equity and
discrimination?); and
(3) those who find themselves in a poor LMX need to take
action to improve the quality of their LMX situation.
Substitutes for Leadership. Substitutes for leadership are
situational variables that can substitute for, neutralize, or
enhance the effects of leadership. They increase or decrease a

11. leader’s ability to exert influence on the work group.
Kerr and Jermier’s substitutes for leadership model. Table 11-1
lists the various substitutes for leadership ranging from ability,
experience, training and knowledge to spatial distance between
superior and subordinate. There are more substitutes for task-
oriented leadership than for relationship-oriented leadership.
You might have your students analyze the list and see what they
think and how it compares to the other theories on leadership.
Research and managerial implications. Research has shown that
substitutes for leadership were more important that leader
behaviours in accounting for employee attitudes and behaviours.
Thus managers should be attentive to the substitutes for
leadership because they have such a strong impact on
employees.
Servant-Leadership. Servant leadership refers to a focus on
increased service to others rather than to oneself. What are the
cultural implications of this approach? This approach is more of
a philosophy of management than a testable theory. Table 11-2
lists characteristics of servant leaders, ranging from listening to
empathy to foresight to building community. Is this the
approach or philosophy relevant in a competitive, globalized
economy of now and in the future?
Superleadership. A superleader is someone who leads others to
lead themselves. The leader empowers followers by acting as a
teacher and a coach rather than a dictator and autocrat.
Productive thinking is the cornerstone of superleadership and
managers are encouraged to teach followers how to engage in
productive thinking.
Internet Exercises
1. Evaluating Leadership Styles

12. The purpose of the exercise is for student to evaluate the
leadership style of an historical figure. They are directed to go
to the Internet homepage for Leadership Values (www.leader-
values.com) and to select the subheading ”4 E’s” on the left
side of the screen. This section provides an overview of
leadership and suggests four essential traits/behaviours that are
exhibited by leaders to envision, enable, empower and energize.
After reading the material, they then go back to the home page
and select the subheading “Historical Leaders” from a list on
the left-hand side of the page, choose one of the leaders and
read the description about his or her leadership styles. You
might want your students to do additional research on the
person and present it in class to see more sides than can be
presented in one site. You might first go to the site yourself and
then assign or have the students pick different leaders or work
in teams of 2-3 on a leader. The questions asked are:
1. Describe the 4 E’s of leadership. Envision refers to being
forward looking and thinking, and having a broad vision for
what is to be accomplished. Enable refers to the leader’s actions
aimed at enhancing followers’ feelings of self-efficacy
regarding the accomplishment of the vision. Empower refers to
the actions the leader takes to provide followers with the
support they need to do their part of the work in accomplishing
the vision. Energize refers to the leaders’ actions to instill the
energy and motivation their followers need to accomplish their
tasks.
2. Using any of the theories or models discussed in this chapter,
how would you describe the leadership style of the historical
figure you investigated? Personal opinion.
3. Was this leader successful in using the 4 E’s of leadership?
Describe how he/she used the 4 E’s. Personal opinion.
2. Top Seven Questions on Leadership
This exercise asks students to go tot the Website of the

13. Canadian Centre for Management Development (www.ccmd-
ccg.gc.ca) and review information on leadership, including the
‘top seven questions on leadership’. The questions asked are:
1. Do the answers provided reflect the material in this chapter?
Students should be able to pick out material relating to traits,
behaviours, and situational theories. There may be some
material that relates to charismatic/transformational leadership
as well.
2. Would you change or enhance any of the answers? If so,
how? Personal opinion.
Experiential Exercises
1. Assessing Your Leader-Member Exchange
This exercise introduces students to four specific components of
LMX – mutual affection, loyalty, contribution to work
activities, and professional respect. After completing the 12-
item questionnaire using the 5-point scale provided, students
obtain a score for each of the four components. These scores
can be interpreted by using the arbitrary norms provided. Class
discussion can then proceed using the questions provided. A
review of their scores will guide students through an assessment
of their relationship with their manager, and into consideration
of aspects of that relationship that need improvement.
2. Leadership Dimensions Instrument
This exercise provides an opportunity for students to assess
their supervisor with regard to his or her transactional and
transformational qualities. After completing the 16-item
questionnaire using the 5-point scale provided, the responses
can be scored using the scoring key provided in endnote 49, as
follows:

14. · For transactional leadership, add the scores circled for the
odd-numbered items (maximum score 40). Higher scores
indicate the supervisor has a strong inclination towards
transactional leadership.
· For transformational leadership, add the scores circled for the
even-numbered items (maximum score 40). High scores indicate
that the supervisor has a strong inclination towards
transformational leadership.
Class discussion can revolve around specific examples from
students who work for high transactional and high
transformational leaders. Students can compare their
experiences as followers of leaders in each category. Make sure
that the situation is described and considered as part of the
discussion.
Personal Awareness and Growth Exercises
1. How Ready Are You to Assume the Leadership Role?
This exercise provides an opportunity for students to assess
their readiness for the leadership role. It will help them
consider the implications of the gap between their career goals
and their readiness to lead. After completing the 20-item
questionnaire using the 5-point scale, the responses are summed
to calculate a total score. The total score can then be interpreted
using the norms provided: 90-100 = high readiness for the
leadership role; 60-89 = moderate readiness for the leadership
role; 40-59 = some uneasiness with the leadership role; 39 or
less = low readiness for the leadership role. The questions asked
are:
1. Do you agree with the interpretation of your readiness to
assume the leadership role? Explain why or why not. Personal

15. opinion.
2. If you scored below 60 and desire to become a leader, what
might you do to increase your readiness to lead? To answer this
question, we suggest that you study the statements carefully –
particularly those with low responses – to determine how you
might change an attitude or a behaviour so that you can
realistically answer more questions with a response of ‘agree’
or ‘strongly agree’. Personal opinion.
3. How might this evolution instrument help you to become a
more effective leader? The questions indicate the types of
behaviour that are important for leadership effectiveness, and
students can think about whether they should ask more
provocative questions or give more compliments etc.
2. Are You a Charismatic Leader?
This exercise provides an opportunity for students to assess
whether or not they are charismatic. The questionnaire measures
six basic leader behaviour patterns:
1 Management of attention (1, 7, 13, 19) – paying close
attention to other people when communicating with them,
focusing in on the key issues under discussion and helping
others to see clearly these key points.
2 Management of meaning (2, 8, 14, 20) – ability to get the
meaning of a message across, even if this means devising some
quite innovative approach.
3 Management of trust (3, 9, 15, 21) – perceived trustworthiness
as shown by willingness to follow through on promises,
avoidance of ‘flip-flop’ shifts in position, and willingness to
take a clear position.
4 Management of self (4, 10, 16, 22) – general attitudes toward

16. oneself and others; overall concern for others and their feelings,
as well as for ‘taking care of’ feelings about yourself in a
positive sense ie. self-regard.
5 Management of risk (5, 11, 17, 23) – being deeply involved in
what is being done, not spending excessive amounts of time or
energy on plans to ‘protect’ themselves against failure;
willingness to take risks, not on a ‘hit-or-miss’ basis, but after
careful estimation of the odds of success or failure.
6 Management of feelings (6, 12, 18, 24) - consistently
generating a set of feelings in others; others feel their work is
meaningful and that they are masters of their own behaviour ie.
they feel competent; they feel a sense of community, a ‘we-
ness’ with their colleagues and their coworkers.
After completing the 24-item questionnaire using the 5-point
scale provided, students add up the scores for each behaviour,
which will range from 4-20. Higher scores indicate more
charisma. Discussion can revolve around what kinds of effort
are required to become more charismatic, and whether it is even
possible to control whether or not one is charismatic.
Video Case
Banff School of Management
This video profiles the Banff School of Management’s
leadership development program. A wide variety of activities
designed to push personal limits are included in order to bring
creative thinking back to business. Particular emphasis is placed
on the role of emotion and soul in leadership. The questions
asked are:
1. Does this course primarily build task-oriented or people-
oriented behaviours in leaders, or both? Explain. The main

17. focus of the Banff School of Management experience is on
emotion and soul, communication, and creativity which relate
primarily to the people aspects of leadership. However,
traditional classroom training is also provided, with more
emphasis on the task aspect of leadership.
2. Do you agree that the soul and emotion are important aspects
of leadership? Personal opinion. What leadership theories would
support your views? Primarily charismatic and transformational
leadership theories; possibly path-goal theory and LMX to a
small degree.
3. Would this course help to enhance a charismatic or
transformational leadership style? Explain. Yes, the course
would likely enhance charismatic and transformational
tendencies, particularly the activities that focus on
strengthening drive and passion.
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