The document provides an overview of realism as a theory of international relations. It discusses classical realism focusing on thinkers like Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Morgenthau who saw states primarily pursuing power in an anarchic system. It also covers neo-realism of Waltz who analyzed how the distribution of power among states and different systems of polarity (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar) impact international relations. A key concept for neo-realists is the balance of power where states form alliances to balance more powerful states or coalitions. The prisoner's dilemma is used as a game theory example of why cooperation can be difficult due to lack of trust among states as real
This document discusses Lenin's theory of imperialism and provides an eco-materialist critique. It summarizes Lenin's view that imperialism was the highest stage of capitalism and would lead to its collapse. However, it argues that abundant, cheap energy from fossil fuels allowed capitalism to overcome crises and outcompete socialist systems. As fossil fuel depletion increases, the limits of capitalism and imperialism may be reached as complexity can no longer be sustained without growing energy inputs. Systemic failures could induce further complex "solutions" and conflicts over declining resources.
The conflict in Darfur began in 2003 when two non-Arab rebel groups took up arms against the Arab-dominated Sudanese government to protest mistreatment. This led the government to carry out aerial bombings and arm Arab militias called the Janjaweed to attack non-Arab villages. Over 200,000 people have been killed so far and over 1.5 million displaced from their homes as the government and Janjaweed use scorched earth tactics, causing starvation, disease and violence. The UN and US provide most of the humanitarian aid but more action is still needed to address the ongoing crisis.
This document provides a national security strategy for Ukraine with the aim of achieving sovereignty, independence, strength, freedom and prosperity within NATO and the EU. It identifies the main objectives of Russia, which is to dominate Ukraine and reduce costs and risks of invasion through political means. It also outlines Ukraine's main objectives in the war, which is to fight using all means to defend its independence and sovereignty against Russian encroachment. The top challenges for Ukraine are addressed across legal/political, socio-economic, military, foreign relations, and hybrid dimensions. Key issues discussed include the role of the President, containing Russia strategically, economic and social revival, restructuring organizations, reforming defense, and international relations.
Lecture I developed directly after the attacks of 9-11-2001 at Washington & Lee University while teaching the History of Economic Thought course and specifically the Marxian critique of capitalism.
Political sociology analyzes political phenomena ranging from states to social movements. It examines how social inequality and power influence politics. There were four stages in its development: the classical period focused on society and politics; the great debate distinguished or not between state and society; the rise of elites viewed government as self-perpetuating; and the contemporary period highlights democracy versus dictatorship. Political sociology components include the modern state formation, informal group power relationships, and how social factors outside institutions impact formal politics. Theoretical frameworks include pluralism seeing multiple social divisions, elite theory examining state constraints and interests, and class analysis focusing on class conflict and struggle across societies.
This SlideShare introduces students to political science. It gives the basic understanding of the discipline and how political science can be studied scientifically.
The document provides an overview of realism as a theory of international relations. It discusses classical realism focusing on thinkers like Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Morgenthau who saw states primarily pursuing power in an anarchic system. It also covers neo-realism of Waltz who analyzed how the distribution of power among states and different systems of polarity (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar) impact international relations. A key concept for neo-realists is the balance of power where states form alliances to balance more powerful states or coalitions. The prisoner's dilemma is used as a game theory example of why cooperation can be difficult due to lack of trust among states as real
This document discusses Lenin's theory of imperialism and provides an eco-materialist critique. It summarizes Lenin's view that imperialism was the highest stage of capitalism and would lead to its collapse. However, it argues that abundant, cheap energy from fossil fuels allowed capitalism to overcome crises and outcompete socialist systems. As fossil fuel depletion increases, the limits of capitalism and imperialism may be reached as complexity can no longer be sustained without growing energy inputs. Systemic failures could induce further complex "solutions" and conflicts over declining resources.
The conflict in Darfur began in 2003 when two non-Arab rebel groups took up arms against the Arab-dominated Sudanese government to protest mistreatment. This led the government to carry out aerial bombings and arm Arab militias called the Janjaweed to attack non-Arab villages. Over 200,000 people have been killed so far and over 1.5 million displaced from their homes as the government and Janjaweed use scorched earth tactics, causing starvation, disease and violence. The UN and US provide most of the humanitarian aid but more action is still needed to address the ongoing crisis.
This document provides a national security strategy for Ukraine with the aim of achieving sovereignty, independence, strength, freedom and prosperity within NATO and the EU. It identifies the main objectives of Russia, which is to dominate Ukraine and reduce costs and risks of invasion through political means. It also outlines Ukraine's main objectives in the war, which is to fight using all means to defend its independence and sovereignty against Russian encroachment. The top challenges for Ukraine are addressed across legal/political, socio-economic, military, foreign relations, and hybrid dimensions. Key issues discussed include the role of the President, containing Russia strategically, economic and social revival, restructuring organizations, reforming defense, and international relations.
Lecture I developed directly after the attacks of 9-11-2001 at Washington & Lee University while teaching the History of Economic Thought course and specifically the Marxian critique of capitalism.
Political sociology analyzes political phenomena ranging from states to social movements. It examines how social inequality and power influence politics. There were four stages in its development: the classical period focused on society and politics; the great debate distinguished or not between state and society; the rise of elites viewed government as self-perpetuating; and the contemporary period highlights democracy versus dictatorship. Political sociology components include the modern state formation, informal group power relationships, and how social factors outside institutions impact formal politics. Theoretical frameworks include pluralism seeing multiple social divisions, elite theory examining state constraints and interests, and class analysis focusing on class conflict and struggle across societies.
This SlideShare introduces students to political science. It gives the basic understanding of the discipline and how political science can be studied scientifically.
This document provides a summary and analysis of the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and Russia. It outlines the historical background between pre-Soviet, Soviet times and the 1990s. It presents hypotheses for the causes of the war and analyzes factors such as military power, nationalism, and the political and economic strengths of Georgia and Russia. It also discusses research gaps and concludes that the war was due to sphere of influence politics and tensions when the timing was right for conflict.
Dependency theory argues that developing countries are held back by their economic dependence on developed countries in the North. However, some countries have shown development despite close links to the North through trade and technology. It is difficult for smaller countries to fully break ties and raise their own investment capital. While cutting ties could lead to less efficient resource use, in today's globalized world it is impossible to completely separate from Northern influence and markets.
Imperialism refers to the policy of extending a nation's authority over foreign territories or people. It has historically been used to justify acquiring lands and asserting political and economic dominance. There are varying degrees of imperialism from direct colonial rule to weaker forms like neo-colonialism. Motives for imperialism include economic gains, prestige, security, and surplus population adjustment. While it provided some benefits like development, imperialism is ultimately seen as inherently exploitative, undemocratic, and a violation of human rights. Decolonization movements have succeeded in dismantling some traditional forms of imperialism and colonial rule.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE in Stagira, Greece. He studied at Plato's Academy in Athens for 20 years before founding his own school, the Lyceum, in 335 BCE. Aristotle wrote on many topics and made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, physics, biology, zoology, ethics, and politics. In his work Politics, Aristotle defines humans as political animals and analyzes the ideal structure of the state.
This document contains information about an academic paper submitted by Bambha Kajal A on the topic of postcolonial literature and Orientalism. It includes their name, semester, roll number, year of study, paper number, enrollment number, email address, and the person the paper was submitted to. It then provides a brief overview of some of the key points made in Edward Said's book Orientalism, including his division of the book into three parts and his categorization of different aspects of contemporary reality and the distinction between pure and political knowledge.
The document discusses balance of power theory, a realist international relations theory. According to the theory, national security is strengthened when military power is distributed so that no single state can dominate others. If one state becomes stronger, it may attack weaker neighbors, prompting threatened states to form defensive coalitions. When faced with an external threat, states can counter through balancing, bandwagoning, buck-passing, or bloodletting. Balancing involves increasing one's own military capabilities or forming alliances to counter a rising power. Bandwagoning means aligning with the stronger power, while buck-passing passes responsibility for countering the threat to another state. Bloodletting causes rivals to engage in prolonged conflict while remaining neutral.
The document discusses dictatorship and oligarchy. Dictatorship is defined as a system where total power is vested in one individual or party, without restraint. An oligarchy is a social system under political control of a small elite. Robert Michels' theory is described, that social systems become oligarchical because people prefer others make decisions, systems are too complex for participation, and leaders consolidate power to maintain privileges. Dictatorships are characterized by one party, one leader, one program, absence of liberty, extreme nationalism, war glorification, and totalitarian control. Oligarchies are ruled by a small portion of people, controlled by powerful families, where people have few rights. Examples of each system are provided.
Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority within a territory. It is embodied in the state as the political institution. Sovereignty implies having supreme and unlimited power without being accountable to any external entity. There are different types and aspects of sovereignty including internal sovereignty over citizens and external sovereignty implying independence from foreign control. John Austin's theory defines sovereignty as a determinate human superior who receives habitual obedience from the bulk of society and is not in the habit of obedience to another like superior. Power refers to the ability to influence or control others and can take different forms like reward, coercive, expert and referent power. Authority is power that is seen as legitimate by both the ruler and the ruled, and can be rational-
The document discusses the nation state system. It begins by arguing that nation states and their willingness to obey governments have enabled international relations. However, some scholars believe the nation state system is disappearing as states can no longer fully protect citizens due to modern weapons. The document then defines the nation state system according to Palmer and discusses how sovereign nation states interact to protect national interests. It traces the origin of the nation state system to the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which recognized state sovereignty. Key elements of the modern nation state are discussed as sovereignty, territorial integrity, and legal equality. However, the nation state system faces setbacks from factors like growing interdependence, regional integration, nuclear weapons, and the roles of public opinion and mult
This document summarizes Aristotle's theory of the state according to Aristotle. It discusses that Aristotle viewed the state as a natural community that exists to allow humans to fulfill their needs and achieve the good life. It developed naturally from families forming villages and then multiple villages forming a state. Aristotle believed that humans are political animals by nature and cannot be self-sufficient without membership in a state. The state has priority over individuals and families, but individuals still maintain their separate identities within the organic whole of the state.
Socialism emerged in reaction to the harsh conditions of early industrial capitalism and offered an alternative based on common ownership and cooperation. Early socialists advocated revolution, but as conditions improved, evolutionary socialism developed which sought change through parliamentary means. However, gradualism failed as socialist parties moderated their policies to gain support and power, and capitalism proved more durable than predicted. The core themes of socialism emphasize community, cooperation, equality, and common ownership over private property and individualism.
The document defines international relations (IR) according to several sources. IR is generally defined as the study of interactions between and among states, and the workings of the international system as a whole. It can be viewed as both a multidisciplinary field or a meta-discipline focusing on systemic structures and patterns of interaction among humans globally. Key areas of study in IR include diplomacy, international law, international organizations, economics, and communications. The field emerged in the early 20th century and is influenced by both academic and policy considerations like reducing conflict.
The document discusses the concept of balance of power in international relations. It defines balance of power as a distribution of power among states that prevents any one state from becoming too powerful. It operates through alliances, military buildups, and dividing powerful states. Balance of power is seen as important by some scholars but faces criticism for being uncertain and accepting war. Soft power, regional agreements, and economic ties are now also part of maintaining balances of power.
The document outlines some of the key factors that can contribute to the outbreak of war between nations. It notes that countries may feel their needs for security, resources, land, and power are not being met through diplomacy or international organizations. They may also have fears about their neighbors' intentions and growing power. Along with nationalism and confidence in their military strength, these unmet needs and fears can create the political will for conflict. If a country also has the military capacity in terms of army size, weapons, logistics, technology, and intelligence, it may only take a triggering event and declarations of war for hostilities to break out.
This document discusses theories of sovereignty, including:
- John Austin's theory of absolute sovereignty, which defines sovereignty as residing in a single determinate human authority who receives habitual obedience.
- Pluralist theories that reject the idea of absolute state sovereignty, arguing that the state is just one of many associations with claims to individuals' allegiance.
- The key differences between monist/absolute and pluralist conceptions, with pluralists emphasizing limits on state power and recognizing other social groups/institutions.
বি-স্ক্যান প্রতিবন্ধী নারী নেতৃত্বের সংগঠন হিসেবে এবং বিভিন্ন নারী সংগঠনের সাথে কাজের ভিত্তিতে এমন একটি নথীর অভাব অনুভব করেছে যেখানে নারীদের সর্বক্ষেত্রে প্রবেশগম্যতা, অর্থনৈতিক অন্তর্ভুক্তি, নির্যাতন ও সহিংসতা থেকে মুক্তি এবং ক্ষমতায়ন বিষয়ক অধিকারসমূহ একটি সংকলনে একত্রে ও সহজবোধ্য রূপে রয়েছে। তাই নির্বাচিত কিছু আইন ও নীতিমালার উল্লেখযোগ্য অংশসমূহ এই উপস্থাপনায় যতটুকু সম্ভব সহজ ও সাবলীল ভাষায় তুলে ধরার চেষ্টা করা হয়েছে। যে নথীগুলো থেকে নিয়ে এই সংকলনটি তৈরি করা হয়েছে -
• টেকসই উন্নয়ন অভীষ্ট (এসডিজি) ২০১৫-২০৩০
• প্রতিবন্ধী ব্যক্তি অধিকার সনদ (সিআরপিডি) ২০০৬
• নারীর প্রতি বৈষম্য বিলোপ সনদ (সিডও) ১৯৭৯
• প্রতিবন্ধী ব্যক্তি অধিকার ও সুরক্ষা আইন ২০১৩
• প্রতিবন্ধী ব্যক্তি অধিকার ও সুরক্ষা বিধিমালা ২০১৫
• প্রতিবন্ধী ব্যক্তি বিষয়ক জাতীয় কর্মপরিকল্পনা ২০১৯
• জাতীয় নারী উন্নয়ন নীতি বাস্তবায়নকল্পে জাতীয় কর্মপরিকল্পনা ২০১৩
This document provides a summary and analysis of the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and Russia. It outlines the historical background between pre-Soviet, Soviet times and the 1990s. It presents hypotheses for the causes of the war and analyzes factors such as military power, nationalism, and the political and economic strengths of Georgia and Russia. It also discusses research gaps and concludes that the war was due to sphere of influence politics and tensions when the timing was right for conflict.
Dependency theory argues that developing countries are held back by their economic dependence on developed countries in the North. However, some countries have shown development despite close links to the North through trade and technology. It is difficult for smaller countries to fully break ties and raise their own investment capital. While cutting ties could lead to less efficient resource use, in today's globalized world it is impossible to completely separate from Northern influence and markets.
Imperialism refers to the policy of extending a nation's authority over foreign territories or people. It has historically been used to justify acquiring lands and asserting political and economic dominance. There are varying degrees of imperialism from direct colonial rule to weaker forms like neo-colonialism. Motives for imperialism include economic gains, prestige, security, and surplus population adjustment. While it provided some benefits like development, imperialism is ultimately seen as inherently exploitative, undemocratic, and a violation of human rights. Decolonization movements have succeeded in dismantling some traditional forms of imperialism and colonial rule.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE in Stagira, Greece. He studied at Plato's Academy in Athens for 20 years before founding his own school, the Lyceum, in 335 BCE. Aristotle wrote on many topics and made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, physics, biology, zoology, ethics, and politics. In his work Politics, Aristotle defines humans as political animals and analyzes the ideal structure of the state.
This document contains information about an academic paper submitted by Bambha Kajal A on the topic of postcolonial literature and Orientalism. It includes their name, semester, roll number, year of study, paper number, enrollment number, email address, and the person the paper was submitted to. It then provides a brief overview of some of the key points made in Edward Said's book Orientalism, including his division of the book into three parts and his categorization of different aspects of contemporary reality and the distinction between pure and political knowledge.
The document discusses balance of power theory, a realist international relations theory. According to the theory, national security is strengthened when military power is distributed so that no single state can dominate others. If one state becomes stronger, it may attack weaker neighbors, prompting threatened states to form defensive coalitions. When faced with an external threat, states can counter through balancing, bandwagoning, buck-passing, or bloodletting. Balancing involves increasing one's own military capabilities or forming alliances to counter a rising power. Bandwagoning means aligning with the stronger power, while buck-passing passes responsibility for countering the threat to another state. Bloodletting causes rivals to engage in prolonged conflict while remaining neutral.
The document discusses dictatorship and oligarchy. Dictatorship is defined as a system where total power is vested in one individual or party, without restraint. An oligarchy is a social system under political control of a small elite. Robert Michels' theory is described, that social systems become oligarchical because people prefer others make decisions, systems are too complex for participation, and leaders consolidate power to maintain privileges. Dictatorships are characterized by one party, one leader, one program, absence of liberty, extreme nationalism, war glorification, and totalitarian control. Oligarchies are ruled by a small portion of people, controlled by powerful families, where people have few rights. Examples of each system are provided.
Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority within a territory. It is embodied in the state as the political institution. Sovereignty implies having supreme and unlimited power without being accountable to any external entity. There are different types and aspects of sovereignty including internal sovereignty over citizens and external sovereignty implying independence from foreign control. John Austin's theory defines sovereignty as a determinate human superior who receives habitual obedience from the bulk of society and is not in the habit of obedience to another like superior. Power refers to the ability to influence or control others and can take different forms like reward, coercive, expert and referent power. Authority is power that is seen as legitimate by both the ruler and the ruled, and can be rational-
The document discusses the nation state system. It begins by arguing that nation states and their willingness to obey governments have enabled international relations. However, some scholars believe the nation state system is disappearing as states can no longer fully protect citizens due to modern weapons. The document then defines the nation state system according to Palmer and discusses how sovereign nation states interact to protect national interests. It traces the origin of the nation state system to the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which recognized state sovereignty. Key elements of the modern nation state are discussed as sovereignty, territorial integrity, and legal equality. However, the nation state system faces setbacks from factors like growing interdependence, regional integration, nuclear weapons, and the roles of public opinion and mult
This document summarizes Aristotle's theory of the state according to Aristotle. It discusses that Aristotle viewed the state as a natural community that exists to allow humans to fulfill their needs and achieve the good life. It developed naturally from families forming villages and then multiple villages forming a state. Aristotle believed that humans are political animals by nature and cannot be self-sufficient without membership in a state. The state has priority over individuals and families, but individuals still maintain their separate identities within the organic whole of the state.
Socialism emerged in reaction to the harsh conditions of early industrial capitalism and offered an alternative based on common ownership and cooperation. Early socialists advocated revolution, but as conditions improved, evolutionary socialism developed which sought change through parliamentary means. However, gradualism failed as socialist parties moderated their policies to gain support and power, and capitalism proved more durable than predicted. The core themes of socialism emphasize community, cooperation, equality, and common ownership over private property and individualism.
The document defines international relations (IR) according to several sources. IR is generally defined as the study of interactions between and among states, and the workings of the international system as a whole. It can be viewed as both a multidisciplinary field or a meta-discipline focusing on systemic structures and patterns of interaction among humans globally. Key areas of study in IR include diplomacy, international law, international organizations, economics, and communications. The field emerged in the early 20th century and is influenced by both academic and policy considerations like reducing conflict.
The document discusses the concept of balance of power in international relations. It defines balance of power as a distribution of power among states that prevents any one state from becoming too powerful. It operates through alliances, military buildups, and dividing powerful states. Balance of power is seen as important by some scholars but faces criticism for being uncertain and accepting war. Soft power, regional agreements, and economic ties are now also part of maintaining balances of power.
The document outlines some of the key factors that can contribute to the outbreak of war between nations. It notes that countries may feel their needs for security, resources, land, and power are not being met through diplomacy or international organizations. They may also have fears about their neighbors' intentions and growing power. Along with nationalism and confidence in their military strength, these unmet needs and fears can create the political will for conflict. If a country also has the military capacity in terms of army size, weapons, logistics, technology, and intelligence, it may only take a triggering event and declarations of war for hostilities to break out.
This document discusses theories of sovereignty, including:
- John Austin's theory of absolute sovereignty, which defines sovereignty as residing in a single determinate human authority who receives habitual obedience.
- Pluralist theories that reject the idea of absolute state sovereignty, arguing that the state is just one of many associations with claims to individuals' allegiance.
- The key differences between monist/absolute and pluralist conceptions, with pluralists emphasizing limits on state power and recognizing other social groups/institutions.
বি-স্ক্যান প্রতিবন্ধী নারী নেতৃত্বের সংগঠন হিসেবে এবং বিভিন্ন নারী সংগঠনের সাথে কাজের ভিত্তিতে এমন একটি নথীর অভাব অনুভব করেছে যেখানে নারীদের সর্বক্ষেত্রে প্রবেশগম্যতা, অর্থনৈতিক অন্তর্ভুক্তি, নির্যাতন ও সহিংসতা থেকে মুক্তি এবং ক্ষমতায়ন বিষয়ক অধিকারসমূহ একটি সংকলনে একত্রে ও সহজবোধ্য রূপে রয়েছে। তাই নির্বাচিত কিছু আইন ও নীতিমালার উল্লেখযোগ্য অংশসমূহ এই উপস্থাপনায় যতটুকু সম্ভব সহজ ও সাবলীল ভাষায় তুলে ধরার চেষ্টা করা হয়েছে। যে নথীগুলো থেকে নিয়ে এই সংকলনটি তৈরি করা হয়েছে -
• টেকসই উন্নয়ন অভীষ্ট (এসডিজি) ২০১৫-২০৩০
• প্রতিবন্ধী ব্যক্তি অধিকার সনদ (সিআরপিডি) ২০০৬
• নারীর প্রতি বৈষম্য বিলোপ সনদ (সিডও) ১৯৭৯
• প্রতিবন্ধী ব্যক্তি অধিকার ও সুরক্ষা আইন ২০১৩
• প্রতিবন্ধী ব্যক্তি অধিকার ও সুরক্ষা বিধিমালা ২০১৫
• প্রতিবন্ধী ব্যক্তি বিষয়ক জাতীয় কর্মপরিকল্পনা ২০১৯
• জাতীয় নারী উন্নয়ন নীতি বাস্তবায়নকল্পে জাতীয় কর্মপরিকল্পনা ২০১৩
this book review was done as a requirement of foundation training at BIAM foundation, Dhaka. the book- 'jiboner golpo' is written in bangla. it was edited by soumitro chakrobarty. and is a collection of 16 articles on biology.
হেনরি লুইস মরগান তার ‘Ancient society’ গ্রন্থে বলেন, “সভ্যতা,বিবর্তন নামক সিঁড়িটির একটি শিশু । যে সমাজে লেখ্য ভাষা ও বর্ণনা আছে ,ধাতুর তৈরি ব্যবহার ও লিখিত দলিল এর ব্যবহার আছে সে সমাজেই সভ্য।”
R.M Maclver & Page বলেন,“Our civilization is that we use.”অর্থাৎ আমরা যে সব উপকরন ও দ্রব্য সামগ্রী ব্যবহার করি সেসব একযোগে হলো আমাদের সভ্যতা ।
পৃথিবীর সাংস্কৃতিক বৈচিত্র্যের ৯০ শতাংশের মাঝে রোমান্টিক চুমোর বিষয়টি প্রচলিত। শিকাগোর নর্থওয়েস্টার্ন ইউনিভার্সিটির ফিনবার্গ স্কুল অব মেডিসিন এর মনোবিজ্ঞানী লরা বারম্যান বলেন, প্রেমময় চুমোর অর্থ হলো, আমরা একে অপরের পার্টনার এবং একসঙ্গে থাকবো। শুধু তাই নয়, এতে রয়েছে আরো বেশ কয়েক ধরনের অদ্ভুত ইতিবাচক স্বাস্থ্যগত বিষয়।
3. সামাজিক চুজি (ইংররজি: Social Contract) রাষ্ট্র ও রাষ্ট্রীয় বব্বির
বব্কাশ সংক্রান্ত একটি গুরুত্বপূর্ ণতত্ত্ব। যার মুল ব্ক্তব্য ল-
রািননবতক সমাি তথা রারষ্ট্রর উদ্ভব্ রয়রে সামাজিক চুজক্তর
ফলস্বরুপ। সমারির বব্ব্তণরন মানুরের সরচতন ইচ্ছার উপর
গুরুত্বাররাপ ও ব্যজক্তরক তার স্বাভাবব্ক অবিকাররর দৃটিরকার্ হথরক
অব্রলাকন করায় এ মতব্াদ অরনক বচন্তাবব্রদর মরিযই আরব্দন
সৃটি করর। িন লক, িমাস ব্স, িঁ -িাক রুরসা প্রমুখ এ
বচন্তািারার অনুসারী বেরলন। তরব্ এ চুজক্তর কারর্ বব্রেেরর্ তারদর
মারে মতবভন্নতা ররয়রে। ১৭শ ও ১৮শ শতরক এ িারর্া পাশ্চাতয
দশ ণ
ন ও রাষ্ট্র বচন্তায় িনবপ্রয়তা লাভ কররলও প্রাচীন বিরসর সবফস্ট
এব্ং চীরনর হমািুর দশ ণ
রনও এর আভাস পাওয়া যায়।
4. এ মতব্ারদর মূলকথা রলা, মানব্ ইবত ারস এমন একটি সময়
বেরলা যখন মানুরের মরিয রািননবতক হচতনা বেরলা না। তখন রাষ্ট্র
ও সরকাররর হকারনা অজিত্বই বেরলা না। তখন মানুে প্রক
ৃ বতর
রারিয ব্সব্াস কররতা ও বনি হখয়ালখুবশ মরতা পবরচাবলত রতা।
দুব্ ণ
রলর ওপর সব্ল অতযাচার কররল, দুব্ ণ
লরক রক্ষা করার িরনয
হকারনা আইনসম্মত ব্যব্স্থা বেল না। এভারব্ প্রক
ৃ বতর রারিয
অসুবব্িা সৃটি ওয়ায় পারস্পবরক চুজক্তর মািযরম মানুে রাষ্ট্র সৃটি
করররে। আর এিাই রাষ্ট্রবব্জ্ঞারনর ইবত ারস সামাজিক চুজক্ত
মতব্াদ নারম পবরবচত।অথ ণ
াৎ এ মতব্ারদর আসল কথা রচ্ছ চুজক্তর
মিয বদরয় রারষ্ট্রর সৃটি রয়রে।
5. িমাস ব্্স
Thomas Hobbes
িন্ম
৫ এবপ্রল ১৫৮৮
ওরয়স্টরপািণ বনকরি
মারেসব্াবর,
উইল্টশায়ার ,
ইংলযান্ড
মৃতুয
৪ বিরসম্বর ১৬৭৯
(ব্য়স ৯১)
িাবব্ ণ
শায়ার, ইংলযান্ড
হবসসর মতবাদ
িমাস ব্স তার Leviathan িরে সামাজিক চুজক্তর পরক্ষ যুজক্ত প্রদশ ণ
ন
কররন। তার মরত: আবদম সমাি বেল ব্ব্ ণ
ররাবচত, হযখারন অবিকার ব্া
নযারয়র িারর্া বেল অনুপবস্থত, এব্ং আইরনর বভবি বেল শজক্তপ্ররয়াগ ও
প্রতারর্া। বকন্তু সমরয়র বব্ব্তণরন মানুরের মারে যুজক্তশীলতার উরন্মে
ঘিায় পরস্পররর সারথ এ মরম ণসমরোতায় উপনীত য় হয, একিন
টিক যতিুক
ু স্বািীনতা ব্া অবিকার হভাগ কররব্, ততিুক
ু স্বািীনতা ব্া
অবিকার হস অনযরকও বদরত প্রস্তুত আরে। এর বভবিরত একত্র রয়
শাবন্তপূর্ ণ
ভারব্ ব্সব্ারসর হয চুজক্ত সম্পাবদত ল তা একটি সাব্ ণ
রভৌম
ক্ষমতার সুচনা করর;— হস ক্ষমতা একিন ব্যজক্তর ব্া হগাটির রত
পারর। এভারব্ শাবন্তর বনশ্চয়তা প্রয়াসী মানুে তারদর প্রাক
ৃ বতক
অবিকাররক একটি ক্ষমতার কারে িান্তর করর যা ব্যজক্তমানুেরক
বনরাপিা প্রদান করর ও সমািরক সািারর্ কলযারর্র বদরক বনরয় যায়।
হয ব্যজক্ত ব্া দল এ ক্ষমতা লাভ করর হস এই চুজক্তর হকান পক্ষ নয়, ব্রং
চুজক্তর ফল। উরেখয হয, ব্স হকান বব্রশে ঐবত াবসক ঘিনায়
সামাজিক চুজক্তর দ্বারা রারষ্ট্রর উদ্ভব্ রয়রে তার ওপর গুরুত্ব হদনবন;
ব্রং প্রাক
ৃ বতক রাষ্ট্ররক বতবন হদখরত হচরয়রেন সমাি রারষ্ট্রর যুজক্তপূর্ ণ
পূব্ ণ
াব্স্থা ব সারব্।
6. িন লক
John Locke
িন্মঃ ১৬৩২ সারল
মৃতুযঃ ১৭০৪ সারল
১৭শ শতরকর দাশ ণ
বনক
(আিুবনক দশ ণ
ন)
িন লসকর মতবাদ
িন লক সামাজিক চুজক্তর বব্কারশর প্ররে ব্রসর বব্পরীরত অব্স্থান
বনরয়রেন, যবদও বতবন মরন কররতন রািননবতক সমাি গিরনর পূরব্ ণ
মানুে ব্াস করত প্রক
ৃ বতর রারিয। তরব্ তার মরত প্রাক
ৃ বতক রারষ্ট্র
শাবন্ত ও যুজক্তর স াব্স্থান বেল, এব্ং মানুরেরা বনরন্তর বব্ব্ারদ বলপ্ত
বেল না ব্রং স্বাভাবব্ক ব্ুজি দ্বারাই পবরচাবলত ত। এিা প্রাক-
সামাজিক নয় ব্রং প্রাক-রািননবতক। এিা আইনশূনযও বেলনা কারর্
মানুে প্রাক
ৃ বতক আইরনর অিীরন ব্াস করত, হযখারন সকরল স্বািীন
ও সমান, স্বািীন রলও তারা হস্বচ্ছাচারী বেল না। বকন্তু নানা কাররর্
প্রক
ৃ বতর রারিয স্বাভাবব্ক আদশ ণহথরক মানুরের বব্চুযবত ঘিরল সমান
অবিকার হভাগ কররত ব্জিত য়। ফরল ব্যজক্তগত স্বাবিনতা ও
অবিকার রক্ষার িনয তারা সুসং ত সমাি গিরনর প্ররয়ািনীয়তা
উপলবি করর। যবদও প্ররতযরক স্বািীন স্ববনভণর ও সামান, তব্ু ব্যজক্তরা
বনরিরদর স্বারথ ণ
ই হসচ্ছায় সব্ ণ
সম্মতভারব্ একটি চুজক্তরত আরস।
লক ঐবত াবসক ঘিনা ব সারব্ই চুজক্তরক হদখরত প্রয়াসী বেরলন। তার
মরত: যবদও নবথপরত্র এমন চুজক্তর বদস পাওয়া যায় না তব্ু নবথরত
হনই এমন অরনক ঘিনাই ব্ািব্। এ চুজক্তরক এরূপ একিা ঘিনা ব্রল
মরন করা হযরত পারর।
7. ি
ঁ -িাক রুসসা
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
িন্মঃ ১৭১২ সারল
মৃতুযঃ ১৭৭৮ সারল
ফ্রারে
১৮শ শতরকর দাশ ণ
বনক
(আিুবনক দশ ণ
ন)
রুসসার মতবাদ
িঁ -িাক রুরসা ১৭৬২ বিিারে প্রকাবশত তার দুয হকাঁত্রা হসাবসয়াল (ফরাসী:Du
contrat social) িরে এ বব্েরয় বব্িাবরত আরলাচনা করররেন। রুরসার মতব্াদ
প্রাক
ৃ বতক সাময িারনার উপর বনভণরশীল, হযখারন মানুে মাত্রই সমান,
স্বয়ংসম্পূর্ ণএব্ং তৃ প্ত। মানবব্ক জ্ঞারনর উন্নবত এব্ং ব্যজক্তগত সম্পবির উদ্ভরব্র
ফরল শ্ররমর হশ্রর্ীবব্ভজক্ত সুবচত য় এব্ং মানব্ িাবতর প্রাক
ৃ বতক সুখকর অব্স্থা
পবরব্বতণত রয় িনী-দবরদ্র বব্ভািন সৃটিকরর, পবরর্বতরত রাষ্ট্রী সমাি
অতযাব্শযক রয় যায়।
রুরশা ব্রলন,
সমাি গিরনর এমন একিা আদশ ণথাকরত রব্ যারত সমািভুক্ত সকল ব্যজক্তর
িীব্ন ও সম্পদ সমারব্ত শজক্তর সা ারযয বনরাপদ ও সুরবক্ষত থাকরব্ এব্ং
প্ররতযরক পরস্পররর সারথ ঐকযব্ি ওয়ায় আপন আরদশই পালন কররব্ ও
আরগর মতই স্বািীন থাকরব্।
এর ফরল সামাজিক চুজক্ত বব্কবশত য়। এ চুজক্ত হকরনা বনরঙ্ক
ু শ শাসক ততবর
করর না। প্ররতযক ব্যজক্ত তার সমি অবিকাররক সামাজিক চুজক্তর দ্বারা সমটির
বনকি সমুদয়ভারব্ সমপ ণ
র্ করর। মানুে বব্শৃঙ্খলা হথরক মুজক্তর িনয চুজক্তর
মািযরম রাষ্ট্র সৃটি করর আব্ার সকল নাগবরক একিা সাব্ ণ
রভৌম কািারমার সমান
অবিকারী ব সারব্ রারষ্ট্রর বনরাপিার অিীরন তা পুনরায় লাভ করর। প্ররতযরক
বনরিরদররক সমপ ণ
ন কররব্ অথচ ব্যজক্তগত ভারব্ কাররা কারে নত রব্ না।
ক্ষমতা এখারন ব্যজক্তবব্রশরের নয় পরস্পররর।