PPT_N5 Educational Psychology.pp business studies

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SOCIALISATION
Socialisation refers to the process whereby the individual learns to conform
to the moral standards, role expectations and standards of acceptable
behaviour currently acceptable in his society.
Module 1: Social and moral theories and
personality development

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development
(continued)
EXTERNAL FACTORS (AGENT OF SOCIALISATION)
The child’s behaviour is directly and indirectly guided by the various
socialisation agents, e.g. people, organisations and the mass media, through
the transmission of their values, norms and traditions to the child. Direct
influence is exercised particularly by the parents and the family, but as the
child gets older, his peers and the ECD centre play an increasingly important
role. The mass media, particularly television, also exert a strong influence.

(continued)
DAY-CARE CENTRES (ECD CENTRE) AND PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOL
The pre-primary school, or ECD centre, is one of the most important
socialisation agent. In the pre-primary school particularly, the child learns:
• Which skills and attitudes are acceptable in society, and
• What his cultural heritage entails.
The pre-schooler learns what is expected of him as a member of a grade and
even as a citizen. The pre-primary teacher comments on the child’s conduct,
praises what is acceptable and criticises whatever is unacceptable.

(continued)
THE ROLE OF BOOKS
Children’s books play an important role in the process of sex role
socialisation and influence children’s views of themselves as male or female.
Books help to define the following:
• Acceptable and unacceptable behaviour for females and males;
• The different options that are available in society; and
• To which sex are these options available.

(continued)
INTERNAL FACTORS
Temperament refers to:
• A typical style of emotional response;
• Sensitivity to emotional arousal;
• How quickly and strong emotions are aroused; and
• The quality of their normal mood.

(continued)
PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ERIKSON
Psychosocial development is how a person’s mind, emotions and maturity
level develop throughout the course of your lifetime. Different people will
develop at a different rate depending on biological processes and
environmental interactions. Erikson identifies eight psycho-social
development phases that cover the entire life cycle. Each development
phase is characterised by a developmental crisis caused by the interaction
between epigenetic development and social influences.

(continued)
ERIKSON’S STAGES
1. Baby: 0-2 years: Trust versus Distrust (Synthesis: hope).
2. Infant: 2-3 years: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Synthesis:
willpower).
3. 3-6 years: Initiative versus Guilt: (Synthesis: purpose).

(continued)
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1: Pre-conventional morality (5-9 years)
• Concern about the self.
• The child decides what is wrong on the basis of his punishment.
• Therefore, the child obeys rules in order to avoid punishment.
• Right and wrong behaviour depends on the type of punishment
• involved.

(continued)
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Stage 2: Naïve hedonistic and instrumental orientation (9-15 years)
• The child follows rules when it is in his immediate interest. Therefore, the
basic motive is the satisfaction of his/her own needs and to receive
rewards and pleasant results.
• What is good, is what brings results.
• Right is also what is fair, what is an equal exchange, a deal and pleasant
results.

(continued)
TEMPERAMENT THEORY OF HIPPOCRATES
The four temperaments of Hippocrates:
• Earth;
• Air;
• Fire; and
• Water.

(continued)
PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL THEORY OF FREUD
Sigmund Freud established his own school of thought, namely, psycho
analysis. Freud classified the sources of conflict within the individual and
divide it into three structures, namely, the id, ego and superego.

(continued)
PERSONALITY EVALUATION
Ask yourself the following questions when you want to do an personality
assessment:
• How would you try and assess someone’s personality?
• What factors might influence the validity of such a test?
• What use might society make of personality tests?

(continued)
FORMAL METHODS
Psychoanalytical tests/psychotherapy
This is a method of relieving emotional distress through helping people to talk
about their problems and express their feelings. Psychotherapists come to
know their patients very well, as intimate knowledge is shared. It can be
done through projective tests, or direct observation.

(continued)
INFORMAL METHODS
Informal methods of personality evaluation are:
• Questionnaires;
• Surveys; and
• Interviews.

CONCEPTS
Language includes every means of communication in which thoughts and
feelings are symbolised so as to convey meaning. It includes different forms
of communication, such as writing, speaking, sign language, facial
expression, gestures, etc.
Speech is a form of language in which articulated (spoken) sounds or words
are used to convey meaning. Because it is the most effective form of
communication, it is the most important and are most widely used.
Module 2: The development of communication
skills

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued)
STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Stages of language development
Age Nature of development
3-6 months Cooing
6-10 months Babbling
16-18 months One word
18-24 months Two-word strings
2 to 3 years Sentences of three words or more
5 to 11 years Complex sentences with steadily increasing vocabulary
11+ years Abstract meaning of words grasped; more use of adjectives and adverbs; grammar
becomes refined

BABY AND TODDLER
The basic skills of receptive language comprehension are:
• Possess auditory perception of speech sounds and sound in general.
• Understand words, concrete or abstract.
• Understand the syntactic structure of sentences.
• Have the ability to carry out verbal instructions.
• Eventually have the ability to listen critically and make judgements.

BABY AND TODDLER
Expressive language comprehension: This is what the child says or later
writes.
The basic skills involved here are that they must:
• Gain meaningful experience and be able to retain the meaning of words.
• Be able to produce the various speech sounds.
• Develop correct grammatical and syntactic patterns in his language.
• Develop an adequate verbal vocabulary.

PRE-LINGUISTIC SPEECH (0 - 1 YEAR)
New-born babies have no control over the sounds they make, but nature
provides four types of communication for them:
• Crying;
• Gestures;
• Babbling; and
• Cooing.

LINGUISTIC SPEECH (10 - 18 MONTHS)
• At about the age of one year, he begins to say meaningful words with the
specific aim to communicate.
• By the age of about 14 months, the toddler starts using words in the right
context. By the age of 15 months, he understands much more.
• By the age of 18-24 months, the child progresses to two-word sentences
called. His language is self-centred and he uses it mostly to express his
own desires.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE
A variety of factors influence the acquisition and development of language:
• Environment;
• Education;
• Socio-economic status;
• Role model;
• Experience;
• Physical factors;
• Psychological readiness;
• Intelligence;
• Motivation; and
• Gender.

ENVIRONMENT
A child learns the language that is spoken in his environment, i.e. the
language of his parents, family, neighbourhood, region and people. He is
familiar with the regional speech (dialect) and accents, the language used in
the neighbourhood and the typical expressions and turn to the phrases of his
family.

EDUCATION
Some educators are more prescriptive and explain less than others when
they communicate with children. If the educator is too prescriptive, the child
has little opportunity to show initiative and this has an inhibiting influence on
his creativity. The child from a democratic family tends to be talking sooner
than the child from an autocratic family.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS
Middle socio-economic class parents tend to help and support their children
more, which leads to a better and meanings of communication. Mothers from
a low socio-economic class communicate with their children in a more
prescriptive and commanding manner. As a result, the child from a lower
socio-economic class is less creative and shows less initiative, they speak
later, show poorer language development, especially concerning vocabulary.

ROLE MODEL
The educator’s example, in respect of pronunciation, must be worth
following. The better the model, the better the child’s speech will be. It is the
adult’s responsibility to accompany and guide the child in his acquisition of
language. The adult should provide ample opportunities for language
stimulation, e.g. talking to the child, pronouncing the words clearly and
slowly, reading stories, etc.

EXPERIENCE
Experience is one of the most important factors in the acquisition of language
and speech. Note that not only are vocabulary and language as media of
communication issues here, but also notably the way in which the child’s
thinking is actualised. The environment plays a determining role because,
through language, the child can know and experience whatever he comes
into contact with. If the child is not given the opportunity to practise his
speech, he loses out in the use thereof.

PHYSICAL FACTORS
Jacobson asserted that there is a link between the motor grasping movement
and the pre-linguistic beginning of language, namely cooing sounds. The
child’s physical condition plays an important part in his acquisition of speech.
A child in poor health and who has inadequate nutrition is usually hardly
motivated to learn to talk.

PSYCHOLOGICAL READINESS
The child’s total psychological readiness must be so that he is able to meet
the demands involved in the acquisition of a language system. Mental
readiness to speak comes somewhat later than motor readiness. That is why,
during the pre-speech stage, the baby can babble sounds that approximate
words and can even say isolated words in parrot fashion.

INTELLIGENCE
The intelligent child usually begins talking at an earlier age than the less
intelligent child. However, one cannot generalise because there are
numerous other factors that also play a role in the acquisition of language.
Be careful not to draw conclusions about a child’s IQ on the basis of the age
at which he begins to talk.

MOTIVATION
Some parents do not provide adequate motivation. If the young child
discovers that he can get what he wants without asking for it, and if
substitutes for speech, such as crying and gestures, serve his purpose, his
incentive to learn to speak is weakened. Young children must be encouraged
to talk and opportunities must be created for conversation and the exchange
of ideas. It is important that the child should know that he is being listened to.

GENDER
Most agree that pre-school girls develop faster than pre-school boys in their
acquisition of language. A possible explanation for this is the more rapid
physiological maturation of girls – particularly in the left brain, which plays an
important role in language development.

FAMILY FACTORS
• Family size: Children from a small family who get a lot of parental
attention, usually begin talking sooner than those from a big family.
• Birth order: The eldest or the late-born child begins talking sooner than the
other children in the family.
• Multiple births: Twins, triplets, etc. tend to learn to talk later than other
children, because they associate mainly with one another and learn to
understand their own jargons.

PERSONALITY
The well-adjusted child begins talking sooner, and he talks more than the
child who experiences personality and adjustment problems. The child’s
speech is often regarded as an indication of his mental health. Regardless of
IQ, a shy, withdrawn child will speak less than one who is more extroverted.
A bright but impulsive child is far more likely to make grammatical mistakes
and use incorrect pronunciations than a less bright child who is calm,
deliberate and precise in his speech.

STUTTERING AND STAMMERING
Stuttering is characterised by blocking repetition, stretching of sounds, words
or phrases. Since stuttering seems to increase when the child is undergoing
stress, it is wise to find out if something is currently making life harder for
him. Tension-relieving activities can be provided at the ECD centre to help
the child over the difficult situation.

BILINGUALISM
Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages. It involves not only speaking
and writing, but also the ability to understand what others are attempting to
communicate both orally and in writing. Truly bilingual children are as much
at home in a foreign language as in the mother tongue. They are able to
speak, read and write both languages with equal facility.

ADVICE TO PARENTS AND EDUCATORS
It is important that the needs of children whose first language is not English
are understood and met in the child-care setting. Do not label children who
speak little or no English as having language problems or language delay.
Their lack of competence is in English, not language. A bilingual or
multilingual child will thrive in an atmosphere where language diversity is
valued. Speaking more than one language is a positive attribute and should
be regarded as such.

INADEQUATE LANGUAGE SKILLS
When a child speaks correctly or nearly correctly, but on a level below that of
the norm for his age, he has a quantitative speech lag. His vocabulary, for
example, is smaller than that of other children his age, and his pronunciation
is on a more infantile level. This condition is generally called delayed speech.

AUTISM
Autism is an emotional handicap. A child with autism cannot communicate
normally because he uses repetition and has a wrong conception of
language. A child’s symptoms could be very mild, severe, or somewhere in
the middle.

APHASIA
Aphasia is a condition caused by brain dysfunctions which result in poor
comprehension or language use. Aphasia occurs after some parts of the
brain responsible for language are damaged. In most cases, this damage
involves the left side of the brain. This results in impairment in language
production or understanding and can affect both written and spoken
language.

PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS
Possible causes for articulation or pronunciation problems:
1. Deprivation, e.g. as result of a poor role model.
2. Physical problems, such as teething, cleft palate, organic shortcomings, a
hearing defect, poor muscle co-ordination of the tongue, and, cerebral palsy.
3. Low intelligence.

INSUFFICIENT VOCABULARY
• The child’s family often encourages the creation of a separate vocabulary,
e.g. walkies instead of walk.
• The child substitutes words he cannot find or pronounce by repeating
words such as stuff, things or wha-sha-ma-call-it.
• A word with more than one meaning can confuse the child, e.g. the soldier
stands guard the soldier is a guard.

ELECTIVE MUTISM
The term “elective mutism” describes the behaviour of children who are silent
among all but a small circle of intimates. These children show no organic
basis for this type of mutism and comprehend what is said, yet the behaviour
persists over many years.

SELF-IMAGE DEVELOPMENT
The self-concept is the person’s view or image of himself. In the adult, the
self-concept is a complex and organised idea of the person as a whole and it
includes cognitive, emotional and evaluative aspects. This means that the
person not only has knowledge of his traits, but also feelings about, and
evaluations of, himself and his traits.
Module 3: The educator and the child: The
development of life skills

Module 3: The educator and the child: The development of life skills
(continued)
IDENTITY FORMATION OF THE ADOLESCENT
Adolescent identity formation centres around the question: “Who am I?”
This is the period in which the greatest measure of identity development
takes place, as a result of:
• Physical maturation;
• Sexual changes;
• Cognitive changes; and
• Social changes.

(continued)
LEADERSHIP
Because of the prestige associated with leadership, all children at some time
or other want to be leaders. They are encouraged in this desire by their
parents. Not only do many parents believe that being a leader is a sure sign
that their children have made superior social adjustments, but they also
derive vicarious satisfaction from their children’s status in the group. Few
children, however, achieve the status of leaders, and most are followers in
the group.

(continued)
STRESS
According to Singer, stress can be defined as the physiological (of the body)
and psychological (of the mind) retains people exhibit in response to
environmental events called stressors.

(continued)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FAMILIES
Nuclear family: The traditional nuclear family consists of a husband, a wife,
and their unmarried children, all of whom live as a unit, apart from relatives,
neighbours and friends.
The polygamous family: In this family a man is spouse and father to two or
more nuclear families.
Single parents: This family comprises of one parent and one or more
children.

(continued)
THE CHILD AS PART OF A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
In South Africa, with it heterogeneous population, many language and
cultural differences are observed. Children who come from differing cultural
or linguistic backgrounds are often environmentally deprived simply because
of their “being different” from the dominant culture. Culturally and
linguistically different children are very often exposed to other factors that
contribute towards environmental deprivation, such as poverty, poor health
conditions and unstable home circumstances.

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