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- 3. BIODIVERSITY What does “Diversity”mean? Diversity = Variety • Its contraction of biological diversity • Biological diversity was used around 1980 & used for number of species in given area. • Biodiversity is an umbrella term cover wide range of topics like species, habitat loss, use, value & management of biological resources; urgent need for conservation action.
- 4. • Biodiversity isthe variety of life on Earth and the essential interdependence of all living things • Scientists have identified more than 2 million species. Tens of millions -- remain unknown • The tremendous variety of life on Earth is made possible by complex interactions among all living things including microscopic species like algae and mites.
- 5. INTRODUCTION • Biodiversity isoften used to describe all the species living in a particular area. • If we consider this area at its largest scale- the entire world- then the biodiversity Can be summarized as “ life on earth”. • It was coined by Edward O Wilson, as an ecological concept to include all living organisms Of a given system, from monera to trees.
- 6. • It refersto the variety and variability among living organisms and ecological complexes in which they occur. • Biodiversity is the variation of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth. • Biodiversity refers to variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur.
- 7. Species and taxonomy •Each species is classified within a hierarchy reflecting the evolutionary diversification of life. • Two related species might be in the same genus; two related genera in the same family, etc.
- 8. Concept of diversity •Studied at three hierarchical levels 1. Genetic diversity 2. Species diversity 3. Ecosystem diversity • More attention given to species diversity • Species diversity : number of organism found in particular area and how they vary from place to place. • Genetic diversity: variety of building blocks found in an individual in a species. • Ecosystem diversity: distinctive assemblage of species that live together in an area and interact with their physical environment in unique ways.
- 9. •Sometimes, landscape diversity is usedon broad scale •Landscape diversity refers to placement and size of various ecosystems across land surface and linkage between them.
- 11. Components of Biodiversity EcosystemDiversity • It relates to variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in the biosphere. • It is considered as complex level of diversity. Species Diversity • It is most common level of diversity • comprises of number of different species at a place. Genetic Diversity • Total genetic information contained in the genes of individuals of plants, animals and microorganisms. • It is comparatively less obvious level of diversity.
- 12. • Variety ofliving things, number of kinds • Ecological diversity – different habitats, niches, species interactions • Species diversity – different kinds of organisms, relationships among species • Genetic diversity – different genes & combinations of genes within populations
- 13. Measuring biodiversity • Atsimplest level, diversity defined as number of species present in an community, a measure termed as species richness. • Mathematical indices of biodiversity have been developed to represent species biodiversity at different geographical scale. 1. Alpha diversity 2. Beta diversity 3. Gamma diversity
- 14. • We arestill profoundly ignorant of the number of species that live on our planet. • Roughly 1.75 million species have been formally described by science. • But many more exist: Estimates range from 3 million to 100 million. • Why are we still so unsure of the number of species on Earth? – Some areas remain little explored (hydrothermal vents, rainforest canopies, tropical soils). – Many species are tiny and inconspicuous (microbes, roundworms, protists, fungi…). – Some species are very similar in appearance (many taxa, even trees, birds, whales).
- 15. Alpha diversity • Numberof species in a single community. • Used to compare number of species in different ecosystem. • Refer to species richness Beta diversity • Degree to which species composition changes along an environmental gradient Gamma diversity • Species turnover rate with distance between sites of similar habitat or expanding geographical areas. • Applicable on larger geographical areas • Defined as the rate at which additional species are encountered as geographical replacement are made for a given habitat type in different localities
- 16. Distribution of biodiversity •Species are not evenly spread among different groups. – Insects comprise more than half of all species in world. – Beetles comprise fully 40% of all insects. – Mammals are outnumbered by spiders and their relatives 16 to 1. • Size of each organism is scaled to its number of species. • Mammals are located in front of the insect’s mandibles. • Some groups that have more species may have gone through an adaptive radiation. • This is when an ancestral species give rise to many species that fill different niches, adapting to them by natural selection. Darwin’s Galápagos finches, Hawaiian honeycreepers, Asteraceae—daises and relatives
- 17. Distribution of biodiversity •Another pattern in the uneven distribution of biodiversity is the latitudinal gradient: species richness increases toward the equator. 30–100 bird species in large area of the Arctic 500–700 bird species in small area of the tropics
- 18. Biogeographical Classification ofIndia • India lying at the junction of Tropical, Eurasian and Indo Malayan Biogeographical realms is among the twelve “ MEGA BIODIVERSITY” countries in the world. • Other countries are : Mexico, Columbia, Madagascar, Peru, Brazil, Equator, Zaire, China, Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia. • On geographical basis, India has 3 well defined regions: Trans- Himalayan mountains including north-eastern hill ranges. Indo-Gangetic Plain The Peninsula
- 20. The Value ofBiodiversity • Intrinsic/inherent value • Extrinsic/utilitarian/ instrumental value Source: Burmbaugh © AMNH-CBC
- 21. Intrinsic/inherent value • Thevalue of something independent of its value to anyone or anything else • A philosophical concept Source: Frey © AMNH-CBC
- 22. Benefits of biodiversity Preservingbiodiversity preserves ecosystem services, and directly provides things of pragmatic value to us. • Food, fuel, and fiber • Shelter and building materials • Air and water purification • Waste decomposition • Climate stabilization and moderation • Nutrient cycling • Soil fertility • Pollination • Pest control • Genetic resources
- 23. Direct Use Value(Goods) Indirect UseValue (Services) Non-Use Values Food, medicine, building material, fiber, fuel Atmospheric and climate regulation, pollination, nutrient recycling Potential (or Option) Value Future value either as a good or service Cultural, Spiritual and Aesthetic Existence Value Value of knowing something exists Bequest Value Value of knowing that something will be there for future generations Categorizing Values
- 24. Categorizing Values Consumptive andProductive uses: • FOOD: Grain, vegetables, fruits, nuts, tea, coffe, tobacco, liquor oil from plants resources. • meat, egg, milk etc. • OTHERS: Medicine, fuel, timber, household accessories, fodder, fibre, fertilizer, wool, leather, paint, wax, rubber, silk etc.
- 25. Direct Use Value:Goods • Food • Building Materials • Fuel • Paper Products • Fiber (clothing, textiles) • Industrial products (waxes, rubber, oils) • Medicine Source: © AMNH-CBC
- 26. Plants were consumeddirectly from wild. In due course of time, the wild species became the fountain for agriculture which began sometime years ago. Just three crops- wheat, rice and maize account for about 60% of the calories. Global fish production exceeds that of cattle, sheep, poultry and even eggs. It is the largest source of either wild or domestic animal protein in the world. Wild species have provided many of our medicines. In traditional medical practice like Ayurveda, plants or their extracts are directly consumed or applied as medicine.
- 27. Food • Today, mostpeople rely on approximately 20 types of plants, and only 3 to 4 are staple crops. • Diversity is critical for developing new strains and breeds, i.e. that suit a particular environment or are resistant to pests or disease and as a source of new crops Source: © AMNH-CBC
- 28. Source: © AMNH-CBC Building materials, Paperproducts & Fuel
- 29. Fiber Source: USDA Photob Ken Hammond Source: USDA Cotton Program
- 30. Industrial Products Originating plantor animal Product / end use Cork oak (Quercus suber) Cork PARE RUBBER TREE (HEVEA BRA SILIENSIS) Rubber Lac insect (Laccifer spp.) Shellac CARNAUBA PALM (COPERNICIA CERIFERA) CARNAUBA WAX Wax plant (Euphorbia antisyphilitica Candelilla wax Jojoba plant (Simmondsia chinensis) Jojoba oil Cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus) Carmine dye
- 31. Medicine • About 80%of the people in developing countries use plants as a primary source of medicine. • 57% of the 150 most-prescribed drugs have their origins in biodiversity Source: © AMNH-CBC
- 32. Drug Source Use Barbaloin,aloe-emodin Aloe (Aloe spp.) Antibacterial, skin conditions, purgative Atropine Belladonna (Atopa belladonna) Relaxant, sedative Codeine Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) Painkiller Colchicine Autumn crocus (Colchium autumnale) Anticancer agent Digitoxin Common foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) Cardiac stimulant Ephedrine, psuedo-ephidrine Joint fir ( Ephedra sinica) Asthma, emphysema, bronchiodilator, hay fever L-Dopa Velvet bean (Mucuna deeringiana) Parkinson’s disease Menthol Mint (Menta spcs.) Nasal congestion Morphine Opium poopy (Papaver somniferum) Painkiller Quinine Yellow cinchona (Cinchona ledgeiana) Malaria Reserpine Indian snake root ( Datura metel) Sedative Taxol Pacific yew ( Taxus brevifoloa) Anticancer Vinblastine, vincristine Posy periwinkle ( Leukemia
- 33. Indirect Use Values:Services • Regulating global processes, such as atmosphere and climate • Soil and water conservation • Nutrient cycling • Pollination and seed dispersal • Control of agricultural pests • Genetic library • Inspiration and information • Scientific and educational • Tourism and recreation • Cultural, spiritual, and aesthetic • Community Resilience • Strategic Source: © AMNH-CBC
- 34. Non- Consumptive uses •Carbon-fixing through photosynthesis, which provide support system for species. • Pollination, gene flow etc. • maintaining water cycles, recharging ground water, protecting watersheds etc. • Soil formation and protection from erosion. • Maintaining essential nutrient cycles like carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. • Absorbing and decomposing pollutants, decomposing organic waste, pesticides air & water pollutants. • Regulating climate at both macro and micro levels.
- 35. Global Processes: Atmospheric Regulation •Photosynthetic biodiversity created an oxygenated atmosphere, and also has the potential to moderate the rising amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide linked to global climate change Source: Frey © AMNH-CBC
- 36. Global Processes: ClimateRegulation • Forests and other vegetation modify climate: by affecting sun reflectance, water vapor release, wind patterns and moisture loss. Forests help maintain a humid environment, for example, half of all rainfall in Amazon basin is produced locally from forest-atmosphere cycle Source: Bain © AMNH-CBC
- 37. • Filters excessnutrients and traps sediments that would otherwise impact neighboring marine and aquatic areas Other services: • Minimizes damage from waves and floods • Serves as a nursery for juvenile commercial fish • Provides habitat for many birds, fish, and shellfish Source: Ersts © AMNH-CBC Soil and Water Conservation Example: Coastal wetlands and mangroves
- 38. Nutrient Cycling • Biodiversityis critical to nutrient cycling and soil renewal • Decomposers such as algae, fungi, and bacteria Source: Snyder © AMNH-CBC
- 39. Pollination and SeedDispersal • Many flowering plants depend on animals for pollination to produce food. • 30% of human crops depend on free services of pollinators; replacement value estimated billions of dollars/year in US alone Source: Spector© AMNH-CBC
- 40. GLOBAL LEVEL Conservatives estimatesof the existing biodiversity is ten million species, but if estimates for insects are correct then it would be around 30 million species, we have till now enlisted about 1.4 million species. It includes about 98% birds, 95% reptiles and amphibians, 90% fish and about 85% higher plants known to exist on this world.
- 41. Forms of lifeKnown species Estimated species Insects and other arthropods 874,161 30 millions species Higher plants 248,400 275,000 to 400,000 Invertebrates 116,873 Many no of species Lower plants 73,900 Not available Microorganisms 36,600 Not available Fish 10,056 21,000 assuming 10% undiscovered Birds 9,040 Known species account for 98% of all birds Reptiles and Amphibians 8,962 Same Mammals 4,000 Same Total 1,390,992 10 millions species
- 42. National and Locallevel • India has over 108,276 species of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals already identified and described. • Out of these, 84% species constitute fungi, flowering plants and insects. • In terms of the number of species, the insects alone constitute nearly half of the biodiversity. • These species occur on land, fresh and marine waters, or occur as symbionts in mutualistic or parasitic state with other organisms.
- 44. Biodiversity loss andspecies extinction • Extinction = last member of a species dies and the species vanishes forever from Earth • Extirpation = disappearance of a particular population, but not the entire species globally These are natural processes. • On average one species goes extinct naturally every 500–1,000 years—this is the backgroundrate of extinction. • 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct.
- 45. Mass extinctions • Earthhas experienced five mass extinction events in which over half its species were wiped out suddenly.
- 46. Today’s mass extinction •Currently Earth is undergoing its sixth mass extinction—because of us. • Humans have increased the extinction rate by a factor of 1,000. • 1,100 species are known to have gone extinct in the past 400 years. • The Red List, from the IUCN, lists species that today are facing high risks of extinction.
- 47. Today’s mass extinction •Species of large mammals and birds plummeted with the arrival of humans, independently, on each of three continents—suggesting that human hunting was the cause.
- 48. Causes of speciesextinction • Primary causes spell “HIPPO”: – •Habitat alteration – •Invasive species – •Pollution – •Population growth – •Overexploitation
- 49. “HIPPO”: Habitat alteration •The greatest cause of extinction today • Accounts for 85% of population declines of birds and mammals • Habitat change hurts most organisms because they are adapted to an existing habitat. • Alteration due to: – Forest clearing – Urban development – Agriculture – Global climate change etc….
- 50. “HIPPO”: Invasive species •Accidental or intentional introduction of exotic species to new areas • Most do not establish or expand, but some do—likely because they are “released” from limitations imposed by their native predators, parasites, and competitors. • In today’s globalizing world, – invasive species have become perhaps the second- worst threat to native biota.
- 51. “HIPPO”: Invasive species Examples: •Mosquito fish • Zebra mussel • Kudzu • Asian long-horned beetle • Rosy wolfsnail • Cane toad • Bullfrog • Gypsy moth • European starling • Indian mongoose • Caulerpa algae • Cheatgrass • Brown tree snake
- 52. “HIPPO”: Pollution • Airand water pollution; agricultural runoff, industrial chemicals, etc. • Pollution does serious and widespread harm, but is not as threatening as the other elements of HIPPO.
- 53. “HIPPO”: Population growth •Human population growth exacerbates every other environmental problem. • Magnifies effects of the other elements of HIPPO: • More people means more habitat change, more invasive species, more pollution, more overexploitation. • Along with increased resource consumption, it is the ultimate reason behind proximate threats to biodiversity.
- 54. “HIPPO”: Overexploitation Two meanings: •Overharvesting of species from the wild • (too much hunting, fishing…) • Overconsumption of resources • (too much timber cutting, fossil fuel use…) Usually overexploitation is not the sole cause of extinction, but it often contributes in tandem with other causes.
- 55. Causes of speciesextinction • In most cases, extinctions occur because of a combination of factors. • e.g., current global amphibian declines are thought due to a complex combination of: • Chemical contamination • Disease transmission • Habitat loss • Ozone depletion and UV penetrance • Climate change • Synergistic interaction of these factors
- 57. India as aMega- Diversity Nation • India has a very rich diversity of wild plants and animals, and is considered to be one of the mega-diversity country. • Its share of global biodiversity is about 8.6% of wild plants and animals. • Estimate of microorganisms is not available. • Both plants and animal species are under threat of extinction due to modification, degradation and loss of their habitat. • Estimates show that around 50 species are extincted every day. • If continued, in the next 20-30 years 25% biodiversity will be lost.
- 58. India’s World rankingNo of species Mammals 8th 350 Birds 8th 1200 Reptiles 5th 453 Amphibia 15th 182 Angiosperms 15-20th 14,500
- 60. • The earth’sbiodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions. There are over a thousand major ecoregions in the world. • Of these, 200 are said to be the richest, rarest and most distinctive natural areas. • It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of global plant life, probably occur in only 18 ‘hot spots’ in the world. • Countries which have a relatively large proportion of these hot spots of diversity are referred to as ‘megadiversity nations’. Hot Spots Of Biodiversity
- 61. • Cape region,upland western Amazonia, Madagascar, Philippines, Australia, central Chile, Srilanka,western Ghats, Malaysia, Colombian Choco. Hot spots lie India: Western Ghats, North East India , Himalayas and Andaman and nicobar islands
- 62. •Australia •The Congo •Madagascar •South Africa •China •India •Indonesia •Malaysia •PapuaNew Guinea •Philippines •Brazil •Colombia •Ecuador •Mexico •Peru •United States •Venezuela
- 63. • Australia ishome to between 600,000 and 700,000 species, many of which are endemic, that is they are found nowhere else in the world. These include, for example, 84% of our plant species, 83% of mammals, and 45% of birds. • Australia's biodiversity - the plants, animals, micro-organisms and their ecosystems - is threatened from the impacts of human activities. Since European settlement, more than 50 species of Australian animals and over 60 species of Australian plants are known to have become extinct.
- 64. Cause for lossof species • Modification, degradation and loss of habitat due to colonization and clearance of forests. • Over exploitation, mainly for commercial purposes. • Accidental or deliberate introduction of exotic species which threat flora and fauna directly. • Pollution • Increase in global temperature
- 65. ENDANGERED AND ENDEMICSPECIES OF INDIA To appreciate the endemic and endangered species of India it is important to understand the wide variety of plant and animal species that are found in the country. Of the well-known species, there are several which are endangered by human activity. The endangered species in the country are categorised as Vulnerable, Rare, Indeterminate and Threatened.
- 66. Common Plant species Teak Sal Mango Neem Ficus sp Tamarind Babul Jackfriut Coraltree Amla Coconut Bamboo Lotus Orchids Pine
- 67. Common Animal species Sambhar Blackbug Chinkara Nilgai Swamp deer Barkingdeer Asiatic lion Leopard Tiger
- 69. Conservation of Biodiversity Ex-Situ Conservation Botanicalgardens Field gene banks Seed banks In-vitro
- 70. In-Situ Conservation Biosphere Reserves Nationalpark and sanctuaries Tiger reserves
- 71. Levels of actionfor conservation Support actions already underway at local, regional and national levels. Global env facility, world bank, united nations env programme. Convention on biological diversity, more than 100 nations met during earth summit To establish financial support for biodiversity.
- 72. Conservation biology • Scientificdiscipline devoted to understanding the factors, forces, and processes that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biological diversity within and among ecosystems. • Applied and goal-oriented: Conservation biologists intend to prevent extinction. • This discipline arose in recent decades as biologists grew alarmed at the degradation of natural systems they had spent their lives studying.
- 73. Equilibrium theory ofisland biogeography • Explains how species diversity patterns arise on islands, as a result of: – • Immigration – • Extinction – • Island size – • Distance from the mainland • The theory originally developed as basic science for oceanic islands. • Then it was found to apply to islands of habitat (fragments) within terrestrial systems, for conservation biology.
- 74. Species-area curves • Theprediction of an increase in species with increased area of an island is borne out by data from nature. • Here, species richness on islands of the Caribbean.
- 75. Testing island biogeographytheory • The theory was first tested experimentally on small mangrove islands in the Florida Keys. • All arthropods were extinguished from them with a pesticide, and then the researchers observed as species returned to the islands. Equilibrium numbers matched their predictions, supporting the theory. From The Science behind the Stories
- 76. Island biogeography theoryin conservation • The theory’s applicability to conservation became clear when a researcher documented historical declines in mammals in national parks. The extinctions matched predictions of the theory if the parks were thought of as islands. From The Science behind the Stories
- 77. Fragmentation • “Islands” ofinterest to conservation biologists include forest fragments. • Forest fragmentation occurs as continuous forest habitat gets broken up gradually. • This leads to local extirpations of forest species, as fragments become too small to support them, and too distant to allow immigration.
- 78. Conservation approaches: Umbrella species •When habitat is preserved to meet the needs of an “umbrella species,” it helps preserve habitat for many other species. (Thus, primary species serve as an “umbrella” for others.) – Large species with large home ranges (like tigers and other top predators) are good umbrella species. – So are charismatic ones that win public affection, like the panda.
- 79. Conservation approaches: Endangered species Tryingto preserve single species threatened with extinction is the goal of endangered species laws, although they often also achieve umbrella conservation. U.S. Endangered Species Act, 1973: – Restricts actions that would destroy endangered species or their habitats – Forbids trade in products from species – Prevents extinction, stabilizes and recovers populations
- 80. Conservation approaches: Endangered species TheESA has had notable successes: • Bald eagle • Peregrine falcon • 40% of all declining populations held stable However, there is much popular resentment against the ESA: • Many citizens believe it will restrict their freedom if endangered species are found on their land. • Canada therefore stressed cooperation with landowners and provincial governments in its recent Species at Risk Act.
- 81. Conservation approaches: Captive breeding •Many endangered species are being bred in zoos, to boost populations and reintroduce them into the wild. • This has worked so far for the California condor (in photo, condor hand puppet feeds chick so it imprints on birds, not humans). • But this is worthless if there is not adequate habitat left in the wild.
- 82. Conservation approaches: Cloning •A newly suggested approach is to use molecular techniques to clone endangered or even extinct species, raise them in zoos, and reintroduce them to the wild. • Even if this succeeds technically, though, it will be worthless if there is not adequate habitat and protection left for them in the wild.
- 83. Conservation approaches: International treaties •Various treaties have helped conserve biota. • A major one is CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, prepared in 1973. • It bans international trade and transport of body parts of endangered organisms.
- 84. Conservation approaches: International treaties •The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), from the Rio Conference in 1992, aims to: – Conserve biodiversity – Use it sustainably – Ensure fair distribution of its benefits • The CBD has been signed by 188 nations, but not by the United States.
- 85. Central Case: Savingthe Siberian Tiger • Several types of tigers used to roam throughout Asia. • Some types are extinct; the Siberian tiger is endangered. • Conservation biologists have worked hard to save the tiger by educating people, preserving its habitat, and breeding them in zoos. Their efforts are now paying off.
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