This document discusses how food consumption patterns can contribute to climate change through greenhouse gas emissions. It finds that:
1) Agriculture is a major contributor to methane and nitrous oxide emissions, which have a greater global warming potential than carbon dioxide.
2) Food production emits greenhouse gases through on-farm activities like fertilizer and manure management as well as transportation, processing, and retail.
3) Animal products generally have higher emissions than plant foods, especially beef due to methane from enteric fermentation. Poultry and eggs have lower emissions.
4) Shifting diets toward more plant-based foods and foods from animals with low enteric fermentation could help mitigate climate change.
Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Cassava Waste Water and Abdominal Cow Dung under Ch...IJCMESJOURNAL
Anaerobic co-digestion of cassava waste water (CWW) and abdominal cow dung (ACD)in different proportions was studied in five treatments under changing meteorological conditions. The five treatment cases T1: 100% CWW; T2: 100% ACD; T3: 90%CWW +10%ACD; T4:70%CWW+30%ACD; T5: 50%CWW+50%ACD were digested under anaerobic conditions in model batch, metallic bio digesters of same working volume (32.0 liters) for 30 days retention period. Results indicated that T2 system flamed on the 20th day, T5 on the 20th day while T1, T4 and T3 systems didn’t flame. T1 had cumulative gas yield of 12.7 liters; T2 had 28.85 liters; T3 had 12.5 liters,T4 had 11.1 liters while T5 had cumulative gas yield of 15.8 liters per 24kg mass of slurry. T2had 91.20% methane; while T5 produced 92.999% methane. Daily biogas yields were modeled as functions of meteorological parameters. Results indicated that many parameters showed good correlations with ambient temperature.
This document discusses improving the bioenergy conversion efficiency of food waste through pretreatment, co-digestion, and reactor type selection. Food waste has great potential for methane production through anaerobic digestion but currently suffers from low conversion efficiency due to its long hydraulic retention time, low organic loading rate, and low conversion rate. Pretreatment technologies like enzymatic pretreatment and co-digestion with other wastes can help accelerate hydrolysis of organic solids and enhance methane production. Using a third generation anaerobic reactor along with enzymatic pretreatment and co-digestion of food waste with landfill leachate may allow over 90% of organic matter in food waste to be recovered as bioenergy with an organic loading rate greater
This review article summarizes approaches for managing food waste through anaerobic digestion to produce energy and recycle nutrients. Anaerobic digestion is a multi-step process where microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen and produce methane gas and digestate. Food waste is a suitable substrate for anaerobic digestion due to its biodegradable composition. The article reviews studies on producing methane from food waste via anaerobic digestion and discusses the microbial populations involved in the digestion process and factors that affect efficiency.
Willett, W., et al., Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet, 2019. 393(10170): p. 447-492
Biogas Production Enhancement from Mixed Animal Wastes at Mesophilic Anaerobi...IJERA Editor
In this work, the effect of mixing ratio of cattle dung (CD) and poultry droppings (PD) on biogas generation was
determined. Mixtures of various CD: PD ratios (100% : 0%; 50% : 50%; 60% : 40%; 80% : 20% and 0% :
100%) were prepared, analyzed and then aerobically digested for a period of 40 days. For each mixture,
fermentation was carried out in a 20 L capacity digester. Results showed that biogas was obtained from the
digestion of CD and PD alone, showing the biogas from CD was several times larger than that from PD.
Furthermore, the resulted biogas yields from mixtures were found a function of the CD : PD ratio, the yield from
the ratio 80 : 20 was the maximum. Biogas yields from the prepared mixtures were found and arranged from
larger to lower in the form of (CD : PD) ratios as follow: 80% : 20%; 100% : 0.0%; 60% : 40%; 0.0% :
100%;50% : 50%. Addition of CD to PD enhances the PD production of biogas, while addition of a small
portion of PD to CD gave the maximum yield, a result not determined in literature. In other hand, larger
additions of PD to CD reduced the biogas yield. The effect of pH was also determined and found better around
7.0. These results are in agreement with research work in literature.
Integration of sewage sludge digestion with advanced biofuel synthesiszhenhua82
The document describes integrating anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge with advanced biofuel production. Sewage sludge was treated with anaerobic digestion under two conditions: 1) low pH control and 2) chemical inhibition of methanogens. Both treatments resulted in accumulation of acetic acid. Acetic acid from digestion was then used as a carbon source for a fungus (Mortierella isabellina) and engineered Escherichia coli to produce fatty acids. The engineered E. coli strain had higher fatty acid yield and produced both medium and long chain fatty acids, while the fungus mainly produced long chain fatty acids. The study demonstrated a potential process to combine anaerobic digestion with microbial cultivation to simultaneously treat sewage
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Cassava Waste Water and Abdominal Cow Dung under Ch...IJCMESJOURNAL
Anaerobic co-digestion of cassava waste water (CWW) and abdominal cow dung (ACD)in different proportions was studied in five treatments under changing meteorological conditions. The five treatment cases T1: 100% CWW; T2: 100% ACD; T3: 90%CWW +10%ACD; T4:70%CWW+30%ACD; T5: 50%CWW+50%ACD were digested under anaerobic conditions in model batch, metallic bio digesters of same working volume (32.0 liters) for 30 days retention period. Results indicated that T2 system flamed on the 20th day, T5 on the 20th day while T1, T4 and T3 systems didn’t flame. T1 had cumulative gas yield of 12.7 liters; T2 had 28.85 liters; T3 had 12.5 liters,T4 had 11.1 liters while T5 had cumulative gas yield of 15.8 liters per 24kg mass of slurry. T2had 91.20% methane; while T5 produced 92.999% methane. Daily biogas yields were modeled as functions of meteorological parameters. Results indicated that many parameters showed good correlations with ambient temperature.
This document discusses improving the bioenergy conversion efficiency of food waste through pretreatment, co-digestion, and reactor type selection. Food waste has great potential for methane production through anaerobic digestion but currently suffers from low conversion efficiency due to its long hydraulic retention time, low organic loading rate, and low conversion rate. Pretreatment technologies like enzymatic pretreatment and co-digestion with other wastes can help accelerate hydrolysis of organic solids and enhance methane production. Using a third generation anaerobic reactor along with enzymatic pretreatment and co-digestion of food waste with landfill leachate may allow over 90% of organic matter in food waste to be recovered as bioenergy with an organic loading rate greater
This review article summarizes approaches for managing food waste through anaerobic digestion to produce energy and recycle nutrients. Anaerobic digestion is a multi-step process where microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen and produce methane gas and digestate. Food waste is a suitable substrate for anaerobic digestion due to its biodegradable composition. The article reviews studies on producing methane from food waste via anaerobic digestion and discusses the microbial populations involved in the digestion process and factors that affect efficiency.
Willett, W., et al., Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet, 2019. 393(10170): p. 447-492
Biogas Production Enhancement from Mixed Animal Wastes at Mesophilic Anaerobi...IJERA Editor
In this work, the effect of mixing ratio of cattle dung (CD) and poultry droppings (PD) on biogas generation was
determined. Mixtures of various CD: PD ratios (100% : 0%; 50% : 50%; 60% : 40%; 80% : 20% and 0% :
100%) were prepared, analyzed and then aerobically digested for a period of 40 days. For each mixture,
fermentation was carried out in a 20 L capacity digester. Results showed that biogas was obtained from the
digestion of CD and PD alone, showing the biogas from CD was several times larger than that from PD.
Furthermore, the resulted biogas yields from mixtures were found a function of the CD : PD ratio, the yield from
the ratio 80 : 20 was the maximum. Biogas yields from the prepared mixtures were found and arranged from
larger to lower in the form of (CD : PD) ratios as follow: 80% : 20%; 100% : 0.0%; 60% : 40%; 0.0% :
100%;50% : 50%. Addition of CD to PD enhances the PD production of biogas, while addition of a small
portion of PD to CD gave the maximum yield, a result not determined in literature. In other hand, larger
additions of PD to CD reduced the biogas yield. The effect of pH was also determined and found better around
7.0. These results are in agreement with research work in literature.
Integration of sewage sludge digestion with advanced biofuel synthesiszhenhua82
The document describes integrating anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge with advanced biofuel production. Sewage sludge was treated with anaerobic digestion under two conditions: 1) low pH control and 2) chemical inhibition of methanogens. Both treatments resulted in accumulation of acetic acid. Acetic acid from digestion was then used as a carbon source for a fungus (Mortierella isabellina) and engineered Escherichia coli to produce fatty acids. The engineered E. coli strain had higher fatty acid yield and produced both medium and long chain fatty acids, while the fungus mainly produced long chain fatty acids. The study demonstrated a potential process to combine anaerobic digestion with microbial cultivation to simultaneously treat sewage
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
The Key Final Results draws from and summarizes the methodology and key basin-wide results generated by the USAID Mekong ARCC Climate Change Impact and Adaptation Study for the Lower Mekong Basin and updates the Key Initial Results document prepared in March 2013. This publication employs maps, charts, and graphics to provide a snapshot view of how projected climate changes in the Lower Mekong Basin would impact key livelihood sectors. Visit the website for more information: http://mekongarcc.net/resource/key-final-results.
Complete information on the USAID Mekong ARCC Climate Study can be found in the full report and summary report (http://bit.ly/1dczzRP).
Effects of climate change and deforestation on potential of carbon sequestrat...World Agroforestry (ICRAF)
Presentation by Mulugeta Mokria, Dr Aster Gebrekirstos, Dr Ermias Aynekakulu and Prof Dr Achim Brauning based on a study to investigate the current extent of forest degradation due to climate change in Ethiopia. The study also quantified the effects of tree dieback on aboveground carbon stock and the carbon sequestration potential. \
This document describes a project to design an energy-producing waste treatment system using anaerobic co-digestion of organic wastes from the University of Arkansas Swine and Poultry Units coupled with algae cultivation. A prototype was constructed and tested to generate data for designing a full-scale system. The full-scale system was designed to treat all biological wastes from the units while producing net energy and retaining nutrients that could be used as fertilizer.
Co hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass for microbial lipid accumulationzhenhua82
The herbaceous perennial energy crops miscanthus, giant reed, and switchgrass, along with the annual crop residue corn stover, were evaluated for their bioconversion potential. A co-hydrolysis process, which applied dilute acid pretreatment, directly followed by enzymatic saccharification without detoxification and liquidsolid separation between these two steps was implemented to convert lignocellulose into monomeric sugars (glucose and xylose). A factorial experiment in a randomized block design was employed to optimize the co-hydrolysis process. Under the optimal reaction conditions, corn stover exhibited the greatest total sugar yield (glucose+xylose) at 0.545gg1 dry biomass at 83.3% of the theoretical yield, followed by switch grass (0.44gg1 dry biomass, 65.8% of theoretical yield), giant reed (0.355gg1 dry biomass, 64.7% of theoretical yield), and miscanthus (0.349gg1 dry biomass, 58.1% of theoretical yield). The influence of combined severity factor on the susceptibility of pretreated substrates to enzymatic hydrolysis was clearly discernible, showing that co-hydrolysis is a technically feasible approach to release sugars from lignocellulosic biomass. The oleaginous fungus Mortierella isabellina was selected and applied to the co-hydrolysate mediums to accumulate fungal lipids due to its capability of utilizing both C5 and C6 sugars. Fungal cultivations grown on the co-hydrolysates exhibited comparable cell mass and lipid production to the synthetic medium with pure glucose and xylose. These results elucidated that combining fungal fermentation and co-hydrolysis to accumulate lipids could have the potential to enhance the utilization efficiency of lignocellulosic biomass for advanced biofuels production.
Comparative evaluation of qualitative and quantitative biogas production pote...Alexander Decker
The document summarizes a study that evaluated biogas production from oil palm fronds alone and co-digested with cow dung. When oil palm fronds were digested alone, biogas production was slower with a total yield of 116L over 27 days. Co-digesting the fronds with cow dung at a 1:1 ratio optimized biogas production, yielding 187.4L over the same period. Key factors influencing higher production from co-digestion included improved nutrient balance and microbial activity from the cow dung. The study demonstrates that co-digesting available agricultural and animal wastes can provide an environmentally-friendly energy source.
Organic farming has the potential to increase soil carbon levels compared to conventional farming through practices like incorporating fertility-building grass-clover leys and using livestock manures. However, the exact amount of carbon sequestration from organic management remains uncertain due to disparities in assessment methods and farming systems. While organic management often results in higher or slower declining soil carbon levels, the differences compared to conventional are only statistically significant in a few studies. More research is still needed to better define organic and conventional systems and determine their contributions to soil carbon stocks and flows.
The document summarizes a presentation on archaea methanogens and their role in mitigating climate change in agriculture. It discusses:
1) Methanogens are the only microorganisms that produce methane, an important greenhouse gas. They play a key role in the carbon cycle by preventing buildup of organic matter.
2) Major sources of agricultural methane emissions are from manure, rice cultivation, and vinasse waste from ethanol production. Mitigation strategies aim to reduce methane production or increase oxidation.
3) Studies are needed to better understand methanogens and factors affecting them to implement mitigation strategies, especially for long-term agricultural practices in Brazil.
ROLE OF AGROFORESTRY IN MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGEGANDLA MANTHESH
This document discusses the role of agroforestry in mitigating climate change. It begins by defining climate change and its causes, then outlines some of the impacts on agriculture like reduced crop yields. It notes that deforestation and land use changes contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. The document then discusses strategies for carbon sequestration, identifying agroforestry as a key approach. Various agroforestry models are presented, and a case study shows higher carbon storage in a silvopastoral system compared to natural grassland. The conclusion is that agroforestry can significantly help mitigate climate change by storing carbon while providing other benefits.
C ecology & conservation syllabus statementscartlidge
The document discusses various topics relating to ecology and conservation, including species and communities, ecosystems, impacts of humans, conservation of biodiversity, population ecology, and nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. It provides essential ideas, understandings, applications, and skills for each topic. For example, for species and communities the essential idea is that community structure emerges from ecosystem properties, and understandings include how limiting factors affect species distribution and the unique role each species plays.
This document is a thesis project examining innovative biological phosphate and anaerobic digestion technology for waste treatment, energy generation, and phosphorus recovery. It includes an abstract, introduction covering topics like sewage, current bioremediation methods, anaerobic digestion processes, low temperature anaerobic digestion, bioreactor configurations, and the global phosphorus crisis. It also outlines the materials and methods, expected results sections, and planned discussion. The introduction provides background on anaerobic digestion and examines its application to low-temperature wastewater treatment.
PhD research presentation at the workshop of the Climate Food and Farming Network, Dec. 2-4 at Aarhus University, Foulum. The Climate Food and Farming Network is an initiative of Copenhagen U., Aarhus U., and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security.
This document summarizes a study on the effects of elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) levels on sugarcane crops. Sugarcane plants were grown in open-top chambers with CO2 concentrations of 350 ppm (ambient) and 700 ppm (elevated). Exposure to elevated CO2 increased sugarcane fresh weight and fresh juice yield by 24% in both years of the study. The yield increase was due to the plants growing larger with respect to diameter. The study concludes that elevated CO2 benefits C4 plants like sugarcane and increasing atmospheric CO2 levels could support sugarcane as a major cash crop.
Soil Carbon & its Sequestration for Better Soil HealthBiswajitPramanick4
Carbon sequestration is the long- term storage of carbon in oceans, soils, vegetation (especially forests), and geologic formations. Although oceans store most of the Earth's carbon, soils contain approximately 75% of the carbon pool on land — three times more than the amount stored in living plants and animals.
This study evaluated the life cycle assessment of organically grown cotton from cultivation to disposal. Key findings include that field emissions significantly contributed to environmental impact categories like eutrophication and acidification. Fertilizer production was also an important contributor to impacts. Compared to conventional cotton, organic cotton showed potential savings of 46% for global warming potential, 70% for acidification potential, 26% for eutrophication, 91% for blue water consumption, and 62% for non-renewable energy demand. These reductions were largely due to avoiding mineral fertilizers and pesticides in organic systems.
Global Climate Change: Drought Assessment + ImpactsJenkins Macedo
This presentation outlined the purposes, methods, data analyses, results and conclusions of four selected articles in remotely sensed regional and global drought assessments and impacts for global environmental change. This presentation was developed and presented by Richard Maclean, doctoral student in Geography at Clark University and Jenkins Macedo, Master of Science candidate in Envrionmental Science and Policy at Clark University.
This document provides a literature review on factors affecting dissolved oxygen (DO) and oxygen uptake rate (OUR) profiles in activated sludge models. It discusses that the International Water Association's Activated Sludge Model No. 1 (ASM1) is commonly used to model microbial kinetics in wastewater treatment and includes DO and OUR. Parameters in ASM1 are typically based on local influent/effluent quality and operational conditions. Studies analyze DO and OUR profiles in detail to improve oxygen control systems for energy savings and effluent quality. The document also reviews guidelines for wastewater treatment in Malaysia and concludes that ASM1 simulations can provide input for aeration control systems to meet these guidelines.
Soil Organic Carbon stabilization in compost amended soilsExternalEvents
This presentation was presented during the 2 Parallel session on Theme 2, Maintaining and/or increasing SOC stocks for climate change mitigation and adaptation and Land Degradation Neutrality, of the Global Symposium on Soil Organic Carbon that took place in Rome 21-23 March 2017. The presentation was made by Mr. Riccardo Spaccini, from Universitá di Napoli Federico II - Italy, in FAO Hq, Rome
The document summarizes the Working Group III contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report on mitigation of climate change. It describes the extensive work that went into the report, including 235 authors, over 800 reviewers, and close to 10,000 references. The report found that greenhouse gas emissions have grown significantly in recent decades despite reduction efforts. Effective mitigation will require substantial technological and economic changes across all sectors on a global scale, as well as significant international cooperation.
We looked at the data. Here’s a breakdown of some key statistics about the nation’s incoming presidents’ addresses, how long they spoke, how well, and more.
The document discusses how startup entrepreneurs think and operate. It notes that startups like Airbnb and Uber were started due to identifying shortages or problems. It emphasizes that startups focus on providing customer benefit, eliminating waste, and creating value. It also highlights that startups operate with speed, embracing failure fast and pivoting quickly, with transparency and by breaking rules. Startups succeed by moving rapidly, with minimal processes and instead prioritizing speed above all else.
The Key Final Results draws from and summarizes the methodology and key basin-wide results generated by the USAID Mekong ARCC Climate Change Impact and Adaptation Study for the Lower Mekong Basin and updates the Key Initial Results document prepared in March 2013. This publication employs maps, charts, and graphics to provide a snapshot view of how projected climate changes in the Lower Mekong Basin would impact key livelihood sectors. Visit the website for more information: http://mekongarcc.net/resource/key-final-results.
Complete information on the USAID Mekong ARCC Climate Study can be found in the full report and summary report (http://bit.ly/1dczzRP).
Effects of climate change and deforestation on potential of carbon sequestrat...World Agroforestry (ICRAF)
Presentation by Mulugeta Mokria, Dr Aster Gebrekirstos, Dr Ermias Aynekakulu and Prof Dr Achim Brauning based on a study to investigate the current extent of forest degradation due to climate change in Ethiopia. The study also quantified the effects of tree dieback on aboveground carbon stock and the carbon sequestration potential. \
This document describes a project to design an energy-producing waste treatment system using anaerobic co-digestion of organic wastes from the University of Arkansas Swine and Poultry Units coupled with algae cultivation. A prototype was constructed and tested to generate data for designing a full-scale system. The full-scale system was designed to treat all biological wastes from the units while producing net energy and retaining nutrients that could be used as fertilizer.
Co hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass for microbial lipid accumulationzhenhua82
The herbaceous perennial energy crops miscanthus, giant reed, and switchgrass, along with the annual crop residue corn stover, were evaluated for their bioconversion potential. A co-hydrolysis process, which applied dilute acid pretreatment, directly followed by enzymatic saccharification without detoxification and liquidsolid separation between these two steps was implemented to convert lignocellulose into monomeric sugars (glucose and xylose). A factorial experiment in a randomized block design was employed to optimize the co-hydrolysis process. Under the optimal reaction conditions, corn stover exhibited the greatest total sugar yield (glucose+xylose) at 0.545gg1 dry biomass at 83.3% of the theoretical yield, followed by switch grass (0.44gg1 dry biomass, 65.8% of theoretical yield), giant reed (0.355gg1 dry biomass, 64.7% of theoretical yield), and miscanthus (0.349gg1 dry biomass, 58.1% of theoretical yield). The influence of combined severity factor on the susceptibility of pretreated substrates to enzymatic hydrolysis was clearly discernible, showing that co-hydrolysis is a technically feasible approach to release sugars from lignocellulosic biomass. The oleaginous fungus Mortierella isabellina was selected and applied to the co-hydrolysate mediums to accumulate fungal lipids due to its capability of utilizing both C5 and C6 sugars. Fungal cultivations grown on the co-hydrolysates exhibited comparable cell mass and lipid production to the synthetic medium with pure glucose and xylose. These results elucidated that combining fungal fermentation and co-hydrolysis to accumulate lipids could have the potential to enhance the utilization efficiency of lignocellulosic biomass for advanced biofuels production.
Comparative evaluation of qualitative and quantitative biogas production pote...Alexander Decker
The document summarizes a study that evaluated biogas production from oil palm fronds alone and co-digested with cow dung. When oil palm fronds were digested alone, biogas production was slower with a total yield of 116L over 27 days. Co-digesting the fronds with cow dung at a 1:1 ratio optimized biogas production, yielding 187.4L over the same period. Key factors influencing higher production from co-digestion included improved nutrient balance and microbial activity from the cow dung. The study demonstrates that co-digesting available agricultural and animal wastes can provide an environmentally-friendly energy source.
Organic farming has the potential to increase soil carbon levels compared to conventional farming through practices like incorporating fertility-building grass-clover leys and using livestock manures. However, the exact amount of carbon sequestration from organic management remains uncertain due to disparities in assessment methods and farming systems. While organic management often results in higher or slower declining soil carbon levels, the differences compared to conventional are only statistically significant in a few studies. More research is still needed to better define organic and conventional systems and determine their contributions to soil carbon stocks and flows.
The document summarizes a presentation on archaea methanogens and their role in mitigating climate change in agriculture. It discusses:
1) Methanogens are the only microorganisms that produce methane, an important greenhouse gas. They play a key role in the carbon cycle by preventing buildup of organic matter.
2) Major sources of agricultural methane emissions are from manure, rice cultivation, and vinasse waste from ethanol production. Mitigation strategies aim to reduce methane production or increase oxidation.
3) Studies are needed to better understand methanogens and factors affecting them to implement mitigation strategies, especially for long-term agricultural practices in Brazil.
ROLE OF AGROFORESTRY IN MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGEGANDLA MANTHESH
This document discusses the role of agroforestry in mitigating climate change. It begins by defining climate change and its causes, then outlines some of the impacts on agriculture like reduced crop yields. It notes that deforestation and land use changes contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. The document then discusses strategies for carbon sequestration, identifying agroforestry as a key approach. Various agroforestry models are presented, and a case study shows higher carbon storage in a silvopastoral system compared to natural grassland. The conclusion is that agroforestry can significantly help mitigate climate change by storing carbon while providing other benefits.
C ecology & conservation syllabus statementscartlidge
The document discusses various topics relating to ecology and conservation, including species and communities, ecosystems, impacts of humans, conservation of biodiversity, population ecology, and nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. It provides essential ideas, understandings, applications, and skills for each topic. For example, for species and communities the essential idea is that community structure emerges from ecosystem properties, and understandings include how limiting factors affect species distribution and the unique role each species plays.
This document is a thesis project examining innovative biological phosphate and anaerobic digestion technology for waste treatment, energy generation, and phosphorus recovery. It includes an abstract, introduction covering topics like sewage, current bioremediation methods, anaerobic digestion processes, low temperature anaerobic digestion, bioreactor configurations, and the global phosphorus crisis. It also outlines the materials and methods, expected results sections, and planned discussion. The introduction provides background on anaerobic digestion and examines its application to low-temperature wastewater treatment.
PhD research presentation at the workshop of the Climate Food and Farming Network, Dec. 2-4 at Aarhus University, Foulum. The Climate Food and Farming Network is an initiative of Copenhagen U., Aarhus U., and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security.
This document summarizes a study on the effects of elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) levels on sugarcane crops. Sugarcane plants were grown in open-top chambers with CO2 concentrations of 350 ppm (ambient) and 700 ppm (elevated). Exposure to elevated CO2 increased sugarcane fresh weight and fresh juice yield by 24% in both years of the study. The yield increase was due to the plants growing larger with respect to diameter. The study concludes that elevated CO2 benefits C4 plants like sugarcane and increasing atmospheric CO2 levels could support sugarcane as a major cash crop.
Soil Carbon & its Sequestration for Better Soil HealthBiswajitPramanick4
Carbon sequestration is the long- term storage of carbon in oceans, soils, vegetation (especially forests), and geologic formations. Although oceans store most of the Earth's carbon, soils contain approximately 75% of the carbon pool on land — three times more than the amount stored in living plants and animals.
This study evaluated the life cycle assessment of organically grown cotton from cultivation to disposal. Key findings include that field emissions significantly contributed to environmental impact categories like eutrophication and acidification. Fertilizer production was also an important contributor to impacts. Compared to conventional cotton, organic cotton showed potential savings of 46% for global warming potential, 70% for acidification potential, 26% for eutrophication, 91% for blue water consumption, and 62% for non-renewable energy demand. These reductions were largely due to avoiding mineral fertilizers and pesticides in organic systems.
Global Climate Change: Drought Assessment + ImpactsJenkins Macedo
This presentation outlined the purposes, methods, data analyses, results and conclusions of four selected articles in remotely sensed regional and global drought assessments and impacts for global environmental change. This presentation was developed and presented by Richard Maclean, doctoral student in Geography at Clark University and Jenkins Macedo, Master of Science candidate in Envrionmental Science and Policy at Clark University.
This document provides a literature review on factors affecting dissolved oxygen (DO) and oxygen uptake rate (OUR) profiles in activated sludge models. It discusses that the International Water Association's Activated Sludge Model No. 1 (ASM1) is commonly used to model microbial kinetics in wastewater treatment and includes DO and OUR. Parameters in ASM1 are typically based on local influent/effluent quality and operational conditions. Studies analyze DO and OUR profiles in detail to improve oxygen control systems for energy savings and effluent quality. The document also reviews guidelines for wastewater treatment in Malaysia and concludes that ASM1 simulations can provide input for aeration control systems to meet these guidelines.
Soil Organic Carbon stabilization in compost amended soilsExternalEvents
This presentation was presented during the 2 Parallel session on Theme 2, Maintaining and/or increasing SOC stocks for climate change mitigation and adaptation and Land Degradation Neutrality, of the Global Symposium on Soil Organic Carbon that took place in Rome 21-23 March 2017. The presentation was made by Mr. Riccardo Spaccini, from Universitá di Napoli Federico II - Italy, in FAO Hq, Rome
The document summarizes the Working Group III contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report on mitigation of climate change. It describes the extensive work that went into the report, including 235 authors, over 800 reviewers, and close to 10,000 references. The report found that greenhouse gas emissions have grown significantly in recent decades despite reduction efforts. Effective mitigation will require substantial technological and economic changes across all sectors on a global scale, as well as significant international cooperation.
We looked at the data. Here’s a breakdown of some key statistics about the nation’s incoming presidents’ addresses, how long they spoke, how well, and more.
The document discusses how startup entrepreneurs think and operate. It notes that startups like Airbnb and Uber were started due to identifying shortages or problems. It emphasizes that startups focus on providing customer benefit, eliminating waste, and creating value. It also highlights that startups operate with speed, embracing failure fast and pivoting quickly, with transparency and by breaking rules. Startups succeed by moving rapidly, with minimal processes and instead prioritizing speed above all else.
This document discusses how emojis, emoticons, and text speak can be used to teach students. It provides background on the origins of emoticons in 1982 as ways to convey tone and feelings in text communications. It then suggests that with text speak and emojis, students can translate, decode, summarize, play with language, and add emotion to language. A number of websites and apps that can be used for emoji-related activities, lessons, and discussions are also listed.
Study: The Future of VR, AR and Self-Driving CarsLinkedIn
We asked LinkedIn members worldwide about their levels of interest in the latest wave of technology: whether they’re using wearables, and whether they intend to buy self-driving cars and VR headsets as they become available. We asked them too about their attitudes to technology and to the growing role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the devices that they use. The answers were fascinating – and in many cases, surprising.
This SlideShare explores the full results of this study, including detailed market-by-market breakdowns of intention levels for each technology – and how attitudes change with age, location and seniority level. If you’re marketing a tech brand – or planning to use VR and wearables to reach a professional audience – then these are insights you won’t want to miss.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is everywhere, promising self-driving cars, medical breakthroughs, and new ways of working. But how do you separate hype from reality? How can your company apply AI to solve real business problems?
Here’s what AI learnings your business should keep in mind for 2017.
Welcome to the Climate Change Food Station! Here you will learn about the hidden carbon footprints of the foods we eat and how our personal choices can make a difference in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Explain the activity:
Visitors will each choose foods to create a meal from the selections provided. Each food item has a number on the back indicating its carbon footprint in CO2 equivalent points. The goal is to create a meal with the lowest carbon footprint possible. You may make multiple meals as you learn about different options.
3. Allow visitors to choose foods and calculate carbon footprint of their meals. Engage them in discussion about their choices and trade-offs between local vs imported, fresh vs processed, plant vs animal foods.
Greenhouse gas emissions from livestock manure (cattle) in different feeding ...Open Access Research Paper
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO) reported that the livestock sector generates more greenhouse gas emissions with 18% of the total CO2 emissions, 3% higher than the transport sector with 15%. Thus, urgent action is needed to mitigate the emission of greenhouse gasses from livestock. The study used twenty-four (24) heads of cattle (eight natives, eight crossbreeds, and eight Brahman). These test animals were distributed in the four experimental treatments: treatment 1- commercial feeding practices, treatment 2- good agricultural practices, treatment 3- conventional feeding practices, and treatment 4- organic agricultural practices. The result shows that conventional feeding practice had the lowest greenhouse gas emission with an average emission of 1,996.37 L, while good agricultural practice is the highest (3,614, 59 L) and is a significant difference among treatment means (p = >0.05). With regards to the breeds of cattle, crossbreeds had the lowest greenhouse gas emissions (2,030.87 L) while Brahman was the highest (3,312.42 L) with no significant difference (p = >0.05). Moreover, gas chromatography analysis shows methane had the highest percent emission (52-72%), followed by carbon dioxide (16.33-18.33%) and other gasses (11-22%). The findings revealed that feeding practices affect the emission and composition of greenhouse gasses in cattle manure.
Composition and Toxicity of Biogas Produced from DifferentFe.docxmccormicknadine86
Composition and Toxicity of Biogas Produced from Different
Feedstocks in California
Yin Li,† Christopher P. Alaimo,† Minji Kim,† Norman Y. Kado,§ Joshua Peppers,‡ Jian Xue,†
Chao Wan,† Peter G. Green,† Ruihong Zhang,‡ Bryan M. Jenkins,‡ Christoph F. A. Vogel,§
Stefan Wuertz,∥ Thomas M. Young,† and Michael J. Kleeman*,†
†Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, ‡Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, and §Department of
Environmental Toxicology and Center for Health and the Environment, University of California − Davis, Davis, California 95616,
United States
∥Singapore Center for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technical University, Singapore 637551
*S Supporting Information
ABSTRACT: Biogas is a renewable energy source composed
of methane, carbon dioxide, and other trace compounds
produced from anaerobic digestion of organic matter. A
variety of feedstocks can be combined with different digestion
techniques that each yields biogas with different trace
compositions. California is expanding biogas production
systems to help meet greenhouse gas reduction goals. Here,
we report the composition of six California biogas streams
from three different feedstocks (dairy manure, food waste, and
municipal solid waste). The chemical and biological
composition of raw biogas is reported, and the toxicity of
combusted biogas is tested under fresh and photochemically
aged conditions. Results show that municipal waste biogas
contained elevated levels of chemicals associated with volatile chemical products such as aromatic hydrocarbons, siloxanes, and
certain halogenated hydrocarbons. Food waste biogas contained elevated levels of sulfur-containing compounds including
hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, and sulfur dioxide. Biogas produced from dairy manure generally had lower concentrations of
trace chemicals, but the combustion products had slightly higher toxicity response compared to the other feedstocks.
Atmospheric aging performed in a photochemical smog chamber did not strongly change the toxicity (oxidative capacity or
mutagenicity) of biogas combustion exhaust.
1. INTRODUCTION
Biogas is a renewable fuel produced from the anaerobic
digestion of organic feedstocks including municipal waste, farm
waste, food waste, and energy crops. Raw biogas typically
consists of methane (50−75%), carbon dioxide (25−50%),
and smaller amounts of nitrogen (2−8%). Trace levels of
hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, hydrogen, and various volatile
organic compounds are also present in biogas depending on
the feedstock.1 Life cycle assessment studies have shown that
deploying biogas technologies can effectively reduce green-
house gas (GHG) emissions and, therefore, reduce the climate
impact of energy consumption.2−4 Biogas production and
utilization practices also help diversify energy systems while
simultaneously promoting sustainable waste management
practices.1,5 California is promoting biogas utilization by
mandating the low carbon fuels, ...
1) Recent research shows that the production of food, especially meat, contributes more greenhouse gases than transportation or industry.
2) Livestock, particularly cattle, are major contributors to climate change through methane emissions from digestion and manure, as well as greenhouse gases from deforestation to create grazing land and growing feed crops.
3) Shifting diets to include less meat and reducing food waste could significantly decrease greenhouse gas emissions from the food system.
Rising atmospheric CO2, crop quality and human nutritionIrakli Loladze
Rice and wheat provide two out every five calories that humans consume. Like other plants, crop plants convert carbon dioxide (or CO2) from the air into sugars and other carbohydrates. They also take up minerals and other nutrients from the soil.
The increase in CO2 in the atmosphere that has happened since the Industrial Revolution is thought to have increased the production of sugars and other carbohydrates in plants by up to 46%. CO2 levels are expected to rise even further in the coming decades; and higher levels of CO2 are known to lead to lower levels of proteins in plants. But less is known about the effects of CO2 levels on the concentrations of minerals and other nutrients in plants.
Loladze has investigated the effect of rising CO2 levels on the nutrient levels in food plants by analyzing data on 130 varieties of plants: his dataset includes the results of 7761 observations made over the last 30 years, by researchers around the world. Elevated CO2 levels were found to reduce the overall concentration of 25 important minerals—including calcium, potassium, zinc, and iron—in plants by 8% on average. Furthermore, Loladze found that an increased exposure to CO2 also increased the ratio of carbohydrates to minerals in these plants.
This reduction in the nutritional value of plants could have profound impacts on human health: a diet that is deficient in minerals and other nutrients can cause malnutrition, even if a person consumes enough calories. This type of malnutrition is common around the world because many people eat only a limited number of staple crops, and do not eat enough foods that are rich in minerals, such as fruits, vegetables, dairy and meats. Diets that are poor in minerals (in particular, zinc and iron) lead to reduced growth in childhood, to a reduced ability to fight off infections, and to higher rates of maternal and child deaths.
Loladze argues that these changes might contribute to the rise in obesity, as people eat increasingly starchy plant-based foods, and eat more to compensate for the lower mineral levels found in crops. Looking to the future, these findings highlight the importance of breeding food crops to be more nutritious as the world's CO2 levels continue to rise.
eLife digest
DOI: 10.7554/eLife.02245.002
Global warming is caused by human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation, which increase greenhouse gas emissions like carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. This has led to rising global temperatures and severe effects on human health, agriculture, and ecosystems. Some solutions to address global warming include reducing carbon emissions through improving energy efficiency, transitioning to renewable energy, sequestering carbon through forestation and geological storage, and limiting population growth.
The document discusses the context around climate change and potential solutions. It notes that scientists agree carbon emissions are causing global warming, which is having widespread environmental and economic impacts. If unchecked, climate change could result in global GDP losses of 7.22% by 2100 due to issues like extreme weather events. Nations have come together through agreements like the Paris Accords to pursue solutions to limit global warming.
Anthropogenic Contributions to the Atmospheric CO2 Levels and Annual Share of...Premier Publishers
Green house gases are derived from both natural systems and human activities. The emitted gases retained in the atmosphere represent the main cause of global climate change. Rising anthropogenic CO2 emissions are anticipated to drive change to ecosystems. This rise in emissions was largely driven by affluence (consumption per capita) and population growth, aided by changes in production structure of industries, consumption baskets of households and shifts in the consumption vs. investment balance. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions are known to alter hydrological cycles, disrupt marine ecosystems and species lifecycles, and cause global habitat loss. To achieve significant emission savings, there is a need to address the issue of affluence. One of the major initiatives is to actively intervene in non-sustainable lifestyles to achieve emission reductions. The findings of this review are vital for a comprehensive and integrated approach for mitigating climate change and to reduce the impacts of CO2 emissions.
The Carbon Trust was commissioned by Public Health England ( PHE) to help them better understand environmental impacts of the new Eatwell Guide being founded and created .
They wished to obtain a wide ranging but well founded analysis covering complex sets of ingredients. It was considered useful to be able to review the results in light of the current typical UK diet
Sewell z5052418 final research report linking health and sustainable food pro...Christopher Sewell
This document summarizes research on the environmental impacts of the global food supply chain and human diets. It discusses how agricultural practices since the Neolithic Revolution have limited dietary variation and led to adverse health and environmental consequences. The document reviews studies measuring various environmental footprint indicators, such as carbon, water, nitrogen and land, to understand diet impacts. While greenhouse gas emissions are commonly addressed, other impacts like eutrophication and water depletion are also important. Life cycle assessments are identified as the best method to measure impacts across food production and consumption. Linking diets to environmental sustainability and the UN Sustainable Development Goals remains a challenge, as nutrient guidelines do not always align with climate targets. The document advocates considering multiple environmental impacts together
This document discusses converting cow dung into methanol through a two-step process of anaerobic digestion followed by acid treatment. The quantities and qualities of methane gas and methanol produced depend on factors like slurry concentration and temperature. Gas chromatography analysis found the biogas contained 57.23% methane. Refining the biogas enhanced the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, making the organic components more available for the acid reaction. Spectroscopic analysis indicated methanol was formed, with a purity of 92.5%. The process also generates fertilizer from the leftover sludge.
La Convención de las Naciones Unidas de Lucha contra la Desertificación acaba de publicar un informe en el que se señala la importancia de carbono orgánico de los suelos orientado a los decisores políticos y que se presentará en la próxima reunión de la UNFCCC sobre cambio climático que se celebrará en París (COP21).
Characterization of organic compounds from biosolids of Buenos Aires City, Silvana Torri
This study characterized the organic compounds in biosolids from Buenos Aires, Argentina. Different solvents were evaluated for ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and a hexane:acetone mixture provided the highest extractability. The organic compounds identified included fatty acids, n-alkanes, and steroids. Persistent organic pollutants were below detection limits. The recalcitrant organic fraction reported previously is mainly due to stable sterols in the biosolids.
The EF compares human demand on nature with nature’s regenerative capacity.
It is a measure of the demands and the consumption of natural resources by people.
The sizes of ecological footprint vary from country to country and from person to person.
Global warming is a gradual increase in the Earth's temperature caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities like burning fossil fuels. These greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the atmosphere and increase global temperatures over time. While some dispute the impact of human activity on climate change, scientific evidence shows a clear relationship between rising CO2 levels and increased surface and atmospheric temperatures globally over the past 50-100 years. Understanding global warming requires analyzing it from different perspectives, including religious views on humanity's role as stewards of the environment.
Livestock farmers’ perception on generation of cattle waste Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study on livestock farmers' perceptions of cattle waste-based biogas methane generation in Embu West District, Kenya. The study surveyed 156 livestock farmers, most of whom practiced zero-grazing and had multiple cows. Only 14% had installed biogas digesters. The study found that farmers had a positive perception of biogas technology and knowledge of how it works, despite the low adoption rate. Statistical analysis showed no significant relationship between perception and adoption level. However, there was a significant relationship between perception and knowledge. The research concluded that other factors beyond perception, like installation costs, contributed more to the low uptake of biogas technology.
Global warming is caused by human activities like burning fossil fuels that increase greenhouse gas emissions, trapping heat in the atmosphere and increasing Earth's temperatures. This can impact human health by changing disease patterns and severity. While global warming occurs naturally, human activities are accelerating the process and causing problems like more extreme weather, rising sea levels, and ocean acidification that threaten coastal communities and marine life. Addressing global warming requires reducing greenhouse gas emissions through alternatives to fossil fuels and more sustainable practices.
This document summarizes a study that argues the dominant theory of man-made global warming is flawed. It claims that rising carbon dioxide levels are better explained by natural increases in CO2 produced by bacteria living in ocean sediments, rather than human fossil fuel emissions. The study uses numerical modeling of estimated global bacterial mass over time to show bacterial CO2 production precisely matches atmospheric CO2 levels and temperature fluctuations over the past 140 years. It posits natural algal blooms have increased bacteria populations by reducing their predators, and that CO2 levels may peak and decline by mid-century consistent with this natural pattern. The document aims to cast doubt on the consensus view of human-caused climate change.
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Potential Contribution of Food Choices to Climate Change
1. Potential contributions of food consumption patterns to climate
change1–4
´lez
Annika Carlsson-Kanyama and Alejandro D Gonza
ABSTRACT (6), who studied diets from multiple viewpoints of sustainability,
Anthropogenic warming is caused mainly by emissions of green- showed that a Mediterranean diet, which consists mainly of
house gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous plant-origin foods but not excluding a small proportion of meat
oxide, with agriculture as a main contributor for the latter 2 gases. and other animal products, is closer to public health recommen-
Other parts of the food system contribute carbon dioxide emissions dations issued by the World Health Organization (www.who.net)
Downloaded from www.ajcn.org at McGill University Library on November 24, 2009
that emanate from the use of fossil fuels in transportation, processing, and has a lower environmental effect than the current average US
retailing, storage, and preparation. Food items differ substantially diet. Current agricultural policies may be counterproductive for
when GHG emissions are calculated from farm to table. A recent achieving diets that are healthy and environmentally friendly (7).
study of ’20 items sold in Sweden showed a span of 0.4 to 30 kg New agricultural policies are needed that consider a reduction of
CO2 equivalents/kg edible product. For protein-rich food, such as environmental effects as well as a shift toward improved public
legumes, meat, fish, cheese, and eggs, the difference is a factor of 30 health and, in particular, a reduction of noncommunicable chronic
with the lowest emissions per kilogram for legumes, poultry, and diseases.
eggs and the highest for beef, cheese, and pork. Large emissions for This review is organized as follows: first, a short overview of
ruminants are explained mainly by methane emissions from enteric GHGs in food production systems; second, analysis of the total
fermentation. For vegetables and fruits, emissions usually are 2.5 contribution of 22 food items to GHG emissions; and third,
kg CO2 equivalents/kg product, even if there is a high degree of analysis of examples of simple meals to show the effect on GHG
processing and substantial transportation. Products transported by emission that food choices can make. We conclude by empha-
plane are an exception because emissions may be as large as for sizing that research is needed to understand why dietary change is
certain meats. Emissions from foods rich in carbohydrates, such as
not on the climate policy agenda.
potatoes, pasta, and wheat, are ,1.1 kg/kg edible food. We suggest
that changes in the diet toward more plant-based foods, toward meat
from animals with little enteric fermentation, and toward foods GHGs IN FOOD PRODUCTION
processed in an energy-efficient manner offer an interesting and
According to the latest report of Working Group I of the
little explored area for mitigating climate change. Am J Clin
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (8), carbon
Nutr 2009;89(suppl):1704S–9S.
dioxide is the most important anthropogenic GHG. The main
source of human-induced emissions is the use of fossil fuels.
Other gases, however, so-called non–carbon dioxide GHGs, also
INTRODUCTION are important as drivers for climate change. For instance, meth-
ane is second to carbon dioxide when it comes to the overall
Anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) arise
contributions of radiative forcing. Radiative forcing is the
from a large variety of activities. Previous studies (1–3) have
change in the net irradiance in the tropopause due to external
shown that choice of food and diet can influence the energy
requirements for the provision of human nutrition and the as-
sociated GHG emissions. Meals similar in caloric content may 1
From the Division of Industrial Ecology, Royal Institute of Technology,
differ by a factor of 2 to 9 in GHG emissions (1, 2). An analysis Stockholm, Sweden (AC-K), and the Research Institute on Biodiversity and
of the energy inputs required to produce a large number of food Environment (Inibioma-Conicet), Bariloche, Argentina (ADG).
items showed that meals with similar nutritional value had 2
Presented at the symposium, ‘‘Fifth International Congress on Vegetar-
a difference in GHG emissions of up to a factor of 4, depending ian Nutrition,’’ held in Loma Linda, CA, March 4–6, 2008.
3
on the items chosen (3). All of these studies identified certain Supported by the Swedish Research Council Formas as part of the in-
foods as more resource demanding/polluting, including animal formation project, ‘‘Urban households and consumption related resource use:
products and certain vegetable products produced in resource- Developing a tool for environmental menu planning.’’ Important contribu-
´
tions also were made by Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientıficas y
intensive ways. ´
Tecnicas (Conicet), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Current trends in food choices point toward increased envi- 4
Reprints not available. Address correspondence to A Carlsson-Kanyama,
ronmental effects (4, 5). More environmentally friendly diets Division of Industrial Ecology, Royal Institute of Technology, SE 100 44,
need to be identified. When environmental and health aspects of Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail: annika@carlsson-kanyama.se.
diets are considered, there is no apparent contradiction. Duchin First published online April 1, 2009; doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736AA.
1704S Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(suppl):1704S–9S. Printed in USA. Ó 2009 American Society of Nutrition
2. FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERNS AND CLIMATE CHANGE 1705S
drivers such as concentrations of GHGs. Halocarbons are third be differentiated. For example, coal emits 1.6 times more carbon
and nitrous oxide is fourth in contributing to radiative forcing. dioxide per megajoule than natural gas. Emissions of nitrous
Because the radiative properties of GHGs differ substantially, oxide may be calculated if the nitrogen fertilizer or manure use
even small amounts of certain gases may cause significant change during farming is known.
when emitted into the atmosphere. For example, on a molecule- For animal products and rice produced under flooded con-
to-molecule basis, nitrous oxide is ’300 times more efficient than ditions, the calculation of GHG emissions is more complicated.
carbon dioxide. The global increase in methaneand nitrous oxide For animal products, nitrous oxide emissions during manure
in the atmosphere is caused primarily by agriculture (9). Of global storage and emissions of methane must be considered. During
anthropogenic emissions in 2005, agriculture accounted for manure handling, lagoons are the main source of methane,
’60% of nitrous oxide and ’50% of methane (10). The amount whereas in the cultivation of rice, this gas is released when fields
of such emissions from agriculture depends on production tech- are under water. The methane emissions depend on the amounts
niques, natural processes in soils, and animal metabolism. Sub- of organic matter and the length of time anaerobic conditions are
stantial emissions of carbon dioxide also occur during maintained. The decomposition of manure (urine and feces) in
mechanized agriculture because of fossil fuel requirements for liquid form can produce a significant amount of methane. Higher
inputs such as fertilizers and energy requirements during irriga- emissions are shown when animals are kept in large numbers in
tion and other farming practices (11). confined conditions, such as dairy farms, cattle feedlots, and
Regarding non–carbon dioxide GHGs, methane is produced intensive pig farms. Under these conditions, manure usually is
Downloaded from www.ajcn.org at McGill University Library on November 24, 2009
when organic materials decompose in oxygen-deprived con- handled in liquid systems.
ditions, notably from fermentative digestion by ruminant live- Herbivores and most ruminants are another important source
stock, from stored manures, and from rice grown under flooded of methane emissions. In these animals, cellulose and other
conditions (10, 12). Emissions of this gas, therefore, can be tied complex carbohydrates are digested with the aid of micro-
to products such as meat, milk, and rice. Nitrous oxide is gen- organisms. The associated processes are collectively called en-
erated by the microbial transformation of nitrogen in soils and teric fermentation. Methane is produced in this type of microbial
manures and often is enhanced where available nitrogen exceeds digestion. The amount released depends on the type of animal,
plant requirements, especially under wet conditions (10, 12). the quality and quantity of feed, and the characteristics of
Emissions of nitrous oxide, therefore, can be tied to any crop livestock. The main ruminants that produce extensive amounts of
grown under these conditions and to animal products. Emissions methane are cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and deer, but, because
of nitrous oxide also occur when synthetic nitrogen fertilizers of their numbers, only animals under domesticated conditions
are produced. These emissions are worth considering when diets contribute significantly to climate change. The more feed intake,
and food products that use different agricultural practices are the higher the methane emissions. When the efficiency of con-
compared. An assessment of non–carbon dioxide GHG emis- verting feed into food is low, emissions per unit of food are high.
sions in agriculture is valuable not only because of their effect Birds and pigs convert feed more efficiently than cattle and sheep.
on climate change but also because emissions are present even if As a result, methane emissions from enteric fermentation counted
a reduction in fossil fuel emissions occurs, eg, through efficiency per unit of beef can be the largest single contribution to total GHG
improvements or from the increased use of renewable energy emissions (discussed below).
sources. Because methaneand nitrous oxideemitted into the atmosphere
The relative importance of different GHGs, when all are added interact with other gases, eg, aerosols and radiation, a decay or
and weighted, depends on a range of factors (Table 1). An enhancement of their concentration and activity is expected.
analysis of any food item must include the degree of processing, Global Warming Potential (GWP) is shown in Table 1 (GWP is
transportation mode and distances, presence of red meat, amount the relative incidence of each gas as a possible contributor to
of nitrogen fertilizer used, manure application, and storage climate change). By definition, the GWP of carbon dioxide is
method. For vegetable products, energy use often is the domi- equal to one. For example, a GWP of 25 for methane in a 100-y
nant contribution of carbon dioxide emissions, but nitrous oxide period means that all amounts obtained in grams of methane in
emissions related to nitrogen application and fabrication also the inventories should be multiplied by 25 to convert them into
may be significant. For an analysis of vegetable products, kg CO2 equivalents.
emissions of carbon dioxide may be calculated from an energy On the basis of the latest expert panel report on GHG calculations
analysis based on known amounts of carbon dioxide emissions for national inventories from the IPCC, we assessed non–carbon
per megajoule of energy used. Types of energy carriers should dioxide emissions for various cereals, legumes, vegetables, milk,
and meats from different animals. Detailed calculations and the
corresponding uncertainty analysis are reported elsewhere (13).
TABLE 1
(See also Appendix A for an example of how nitrous oxide
Global Warming Potential for gases relevant to agriculture1
emissions are calculated for wheat and soybeans.) For the animal
Greenhouse gases 20 y 100 y 500 y products analyzed, we considered emissions during cultivation of
Nitrous oxide 289 298 153 the feed required for rearing the animals when making these es-
Methane 72 25 7.6 timates. As an example, the results for beef and pork are shown in
1 Table 2. The roles of enteric fermentation and manure manage-
Values were obtained from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (Reference 8, Table 2.14). The Global Warming Potential is an index ment can be observed. Poultry contributes lower non–carbon di-
that measures the radiative forcing of a unit mass of a given well-mixed oxide emissions than do beef and pork, with nitrous oxide
greenhouse gas in the present-day atmosphere integrated over a chosen time emissions of 0.26-kg CO2 equivalent/kg carcass and almost no
horizon, relative to that of carbon dioxide. methane emissions due to dry management of manure. No data
3. 1706S ´
CARLSSON-KANYAMA AND GONZA LEZ
TABLE 2 kg/kg product because of the extensive use of fuel for trawling.
Non–carbon dioxide emissions for producing carcasses of beef and pork Cod is heavily overfished in the Baltic Sea, such that it is on the
Emissions from cattle Emissions from pigs verge of extinction (14). Fuel used to catch the remaining stock
is considerable but cod fishing is still profitable because of heavy
kg CO2 equivalents/ kg CO2 equivalents/ subsidies for fisheries in the European Union.
kg carcass % kg carcass % To compare the values shown in Table 3 with GHG emissions
Nitrous oxide resulting from activities other than eating, we considered the use
Feed 1.25 12 0.38 13 of a motor vehicle. The average carbon dioxide emission per
Manure 1.07 10 0.07 3 kilometer from the current passenger car fleet in the European
Methane Union is 186 g (15). The total GHG emissions shown for beef in
Manure 1.78 17 2.06 75 Table 3 mean that the consumption of 1 kg domestic beef in
Enteric 6.33 61 0.24 9
a household represents automobile use of a distance of ’160 km
Total non–carbon 10.43 — 2.75 —
dioxide emissions
(99 miles).
PLANT AND ANIMAL PROTEIN AND THEIR
were available for enteric fermentation. The IPCC (8) does not CONTRIBUTIONS TO GHG EMISSIONS
report a zero value but states that not enough data on enteric fer-
Downloaded from www.ajcn.org at McGill University Library on November 24, 2009
mentation of poultry are available to make a clear assessment. In Previous studies have shown that producing protein from soy
this case, the percentage from feed was 93%. These examples and other legumes has a very low environmental effect compared
show the diversity of variables and their relative weights influ- with protein production from animal products (16). In this study,
encing non–carbon dioxide GHG emissions during animal pro- we also concluded that it is more ‘‘climate efficient’’ to produce
duction. In addition, the comparison in meats help show the protein from vegetable sources than from animal sources, al-
important role of enteric fermentation in total emissions. though some animal products are fairly climate efficient. When
the results shown in Table 3 are combined with the protein
content per kilogram of each food item, the amount of protein
TOTAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF GHGs TO SPECIFIC FOOD available per amount of GHG emissions is distinct (Figure 1).
ITEMS Beef is the least efficient way to produce protein, less efficient
We also studied the total GHG emissions for 22 food items sold than vegetables that are not recognized for their high protein
in Sweden and created an inventory of carbon dioxide, methane, content, such as green beans or carrots. The most climate-efficient
and nitrous oxide from farm to table and used the GWPs (see way to consume protein is to eat a mixture of cereals, legumes,
Table 1) to estimate total emissions measured in CO2 equiv- and fish caught in a fuel-efficient way (see Figure 1). Un-
alents. Emissions of methane and nitrous oxide were obtained fortunately, the fish stock is under severe threat with many stocks
(explained above), and carbon dioxide emissions were calcu- that are over- or fully exploited (17), leaving environmentally
lated based on an energy analysis (3) and a subsequent calcu- conscious consumers with mainly vegetarian alternatives.
lation of carbon dioxide emissions. Allocation was based on
economic principles, meaning that the allocation of resource use
and emissions was based on the value of the various products EXAMPLES OF MEALS
obtained in a process (eg, flour and husks during milling). In Table 4, 3 possible meals with different GHG emissions
Losses were estimated during all stages in the food system, are described. For simplicity, only main ingredients are in-
including preparation and consumption. The emissions for food cluded. These 3 options for meals with similar nutritional
items ready to be consumed by households in Sweden are shown composition represent a span in GHG emissions of a factor of 11
in Table 3. Emissions during storage and handling at home also between the meal with the lowest and highest emission levels.
were considered. Details on calculation of carbon dioxide The example shows how much influence food choices can have
emissions during the production chain of soybeans are provided on GHG emissions.
in Appendix B.
Fresh vegetables, cereals, and legumes present the lowest
emissions. Meats and fruits transported by air have the highest CONCLUSIONS AND REFLECTIONS
total GHG emissions, whereas eggs, certain fish, and frozen We have studied emissions of the main GHGs in food pro-
vegetables are found in the midrange. Animal products range duction and consumption, namely carbon dioxide, methane, and
from 1.5 to 30 kg of GHG emissions/kg of food, with herring— nitrous oxide. For plant-based foods (with the exception of rice),
a fish caught with little use of fossil fuel—and eggs at the lower emissions of carbon dioxide often are the dominant contribution
end of the animal products. The values of methane and nitrous and with nitrous oxide present in small percentages. For animal-
oxide emissions for beef and pork are not the same as those shown based foods and rice, the non–carbon dioxide gases contribute
in Table 2 because of the difference in functional units: in Table significantly. Plant foods based on vegetables, cereals, and
2, kilograms per carcass and in Table 3 kilograms per prepared legumes present the lowest GHG emissions with the exception of
food item. Foods that commonly have low GHG emissions, such those transported by airplanes. Animal products, including dairy,
as fruits in some circumstances, when they are transported by are associated with higher GHG emissions than plant-based
air, may have emissions as large as some types of meat. Fish products, with the highest emissions occurring in meats from
may or may not present high emissions of carbon dioxide due to ruminants. Fowl meat and eggs are fairly climate-friendly meat
fossil fuel use. As shown in Table 3, cod emissions are close to 9 products.
4. FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERNS AND CLIMATE CHANGE 1707S
TABLE 3
Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions from farm to table for 22 items commonly consumed in Sweden
Emissions1
Commonly consumed foods Carbon dioxide Nitrous oxide Methane Total
kg CO2 equivalents/kg product
Carrots: domestic, fresh 0.38 0.04 0.0 0.42
Potatoes: cooked, domestic 0.40 0.06 0.0 0.45
Honey 0.46 0.0 0.0 0.46
Whole wheat: domestic, cooked 0.54 0.08 0.0 0.63
Apples: fresh, overseas by boat 0.80 0.02 0.0 0.82
Soybeans: cooked, overseas by boat 0.92 0.0 0.0 0.92
Milk: domestic, 4% fat 0.45 0.14 0.45 1.0
Sugar: domestic 1.04 0.03 0.0 1.1
Italian pasta: cooked 0.96 0.12 0.0 1.1
Oranges: fresh, overseas by boat 1.1 0.10 0.0 1.2
Rice: cooked 0.59 0.21 0.52 1.3
Green beans: South Europe, boiled 1.2 0.12 0.0 1.3
Downloaded from www.ajcn.org at McGill University Library on November 24, 2009
Herring: domestic, cooked 1.5 0.0 0.0 1.5
Vegetables: frozen, overseas by boat, boiled 2.2 0.05 0.0 2.3
Eggs: Swedish, cooked 1.7 0.74 0.04 2.5
Rapeseed oil: from Europe 1.5 1.5 0.0 3.0
Chicken: fresh, domestic, cooked 3.1 1.2 0.01 4.3
Cod: domestic, cooked 8.5 0.0 0.0 8.5
Pork: domestic, fresh, cooked 3.9 1.6 3.8 9.3
Cheese: domestic 5.0 1.3 4.5 11
Tropical fruit: fresh, overseas by plane 11 0.23 0.0 11
Beef: domestic, fresh, cooked 6.9 6.6 17 30
1
Values represent kg CO2 equivalents over a 100-y time period.
The analysis shows that changes toward a more plant-based the inclusion of protein extenders from plant origin would be
diet could help substantially in mitigating emissions of GHGs. a practical way to replace red meats. McMichael et al (19)
Unfortunately, this is a largely unexplored area of climate recently proposed a 10% reduction in the current global aver-
policy. Few authors have proposed changes that lower meat age meat consumption of 100 g per person per day as a work-
consumption. Smil (18) suggested that because a large per- ing global target. We agree with these 2 proposals, which could
centage of beef is consumed ground in hamburgers or sausages, be implemented simultaneously. In the long run, however, achieving
FIGURE 1. Protein content per amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted for various types of food.
5. 1708S ´
CARLSSON-KANYAMA AND GONZA LEZ
TABLE 4 2. Engstrom R, Wadeskog A, Finnveden G. Environmental assessment of
¨
Main ingredients in 3 meal options from Sweden with different greenhouse Swedish agriculture. Ecol Econ 2007;60:550–63.
gas (GHG) emissions1 3. Carlsson-Kanyama A, Ekstrom MP, Shanahan H. Food and life cycle
¨
energy inputs: consequences of diet and ways to increase efficiency.
Edible weight GHG emissions Ecol Econ 2003;44:293–307.
´
4. Carlsson-Kanyama A, Linden A-L. Trends in food production and
kg kg CO2 equivalents
consumption: Swedish experiences from environmental and cultural
Meal A impacts. Int J Sustain Dev 2001;4:392–406.
Carrots: domestic, fresh, raw 0.10 0.04 5. Carlsson-Kanyama A. Diet, energy and greenhouse gas emissions. In:
Whole wheat: domestic, cooked 0.10 0.06 Cleveland CJ, ed. Encyclopedia of energy. Amsterdam, Netherlands:
Soybeans: overseas by boat, 0.25 0.23 Elsevier, 2004;809–16.
cooked 6. Duchin F. Sustainable consumption of food: a framework for analyzing
Apples: domestic, fresh, raw 0.10 0.08 scenarios about changes in diets. J Ind Ecol 2005;9:99–114.
Total for meal A 0.55 0.42 7. Hawkes C. Agricultural and food policy for cardiovascular health in
Meal B Latin America. Prev Control 2006;2:137–47.
Green beans: EU, boiled 0.10 0.13 8. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working group I. Climate
Potatoes: cooked 0.30 0.14 change 2007: the physical science basis. Version ISBN 978 0521
70596–7. Available from: http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1-report.html
Pork meat: cooked 0.10 0.94
(cited 7 September 2007).
Orange: overseas by boat 0.10 0.12
9. Environmental Protection Agency USA. Global anthropogenic non-CO2
Total for meal B 0.60 1.3 greenhouse gas emissions: 1990–2020. Available from: http://www.epa.
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Meal C gov/nonco2/econ-inv/downloads/GlobalAnthroEmissionsReport.pdf (cited
Vegetables: frozen, cooked 0.10 0.23 5 September 2007).
Rice: overseas by boat, cooked 0.20 0.26 10. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working group III. Cli-
Beef: domestic, fresh, cooked 0.10 3.0 mate change 2007: mitigation of climate change. Available from: http://
Tropical fruits: by plane, 0.10 1.1 arch.rivm.nl/env/int/ipcc/pages_media/ar4.html (cited 15 April 2008).
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Total for meal C 0.50 4.7 diets and the environment. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:664S–8S.
1
12. 2006 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. In-
All meals have similar nutritional compensation. Each meal has a por- tergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Available from: http://www.i
tion of vegetables, fruits, cereal, and protein-rich food. Energy and protein pcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/index.htm (cited 7 September 2007).
content of meals is similar. ´
13. Carlsson-Kanyama A, Gonzalez AD. Non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions
associated with food production: methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
KTH report Trita-IMA 2007:22. Available from: http://www.ima.kth.se/
eng/respublic/emissions_report_17_set_ACK.pdf (cited 20 March 2008).
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emissions in the atmosphere but also on efficient use of arable press/reports/cod-fishery-baltic-sea.pdf (cited 15 April 2008).
15. European Union. CO2 emissions from new passenger cars: monitoring.
land in a world in which the quest for renewable energy, such Available from: http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28055.htm (cited
as biofuel, is increasing. It is not impossible to imagine a fu- 15 April 2008).
ture world relying on renewable energy and in which the 16. Reijnders L, Soret S. Quantification of the environmental impact of
consumption of certain meats is an exception and reserved for different dietary protein choices. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:664S–8S.
17. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). General sit-
certain festivities and rituals. uation of world fish stocks. Available from: http://www.fao.org/
For the immediate future, we recommend a better synergy newsroom/common/ecg/1000505/en/stocks.pdf (cited 5 June 2008).
between environmental and health education to obtain agreement 18. Smil V. Worldwide transformation of diets, burden of meat production and
for a dietary change for the general public. Duchin (6) and opportunities for novel food proteins. Enzyme Microb Technol 2002;
McMichael et al (19) explained the health benefits that a plant- 30:305–11.
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based diet would have on health and environment, and this duction, energy, climate change, and health. Lancet 2007;370:1253–63.
knowledge could be translated into information campaigns. In 20. Carlsson-Kanyama A, Faist M. Energy use in the food sector: a data
the many actions currently proposed for climate-friendly con- survey. FMS report. Available from: http://www.infra.kth.se/fms/pdf/
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22. Rajaram S, Sabate J. Preface. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(suppl):1541S–2S.
attending many debates and seminars concerning climate change 23. Jacobs DR Jr, Gross MD, Tapsell LC. Food synergy: an operational
effects from food consumption. Further research is needed to concept for understanding nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(suppl):
understand barriers and why changes in diets have not been 1543S–8S.
24. Jacobs DR Jr, Haddad EH, Lanou AJ, Messina MJ. Food, plant food, and
a main issue on the climate agenda until now. (Other articles in vegetarian diets in the US dietary guidelines: conclusions of an expert
this supplement to the Journal include references 22–48.) panel. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(suppl):1549S–52S.
25. Lampe JW. Interindividual differences in response to plant-based
AC-K and ADG shared equal responsibility in creating this article. They diets: implications for cancer risk. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(suppl):
had no conflicts of interest to disclose. 1553S–7S.
26. Simon JA, Chen Y-H, Bent S. The relation of a-linolenic acid to the risk
of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin
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