Pharmacognosy is the objective study of crude drugs of animal, vegetable and mineral origin, treated scientifically. Pharmacognosy is the study of medicine derived from natural sources that include plants, animals, and microorganisms, and the scope of the field depends on knowledge about the safety, purity, and efficacy of complex multicompound products. Herbal pharmacognosy is the application of this science specifically to traditional herbal medicine sources.

1. PLANT DRUG CULTIVATION
BY-DURGASHREE.M.D
M.PHARM, PHARMACOGNOSY
KLE COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, BENGALURU
1

2. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE IMPORTANCE OF
PHARMACOGNOSY IN HERBAL DRUG INDUSTRY
• Pharmacognosy is the objective study of crude drugs of animal,
vegetable and mineral origin, treated scientifically.[1]
• Pharmacognosy is the study of medicine derived from natural sources
that include plants, animals, and microorganisms, and the scope of the
field depends on knowledge about the safety, purity, and efficacy of
complex multicompound products.
• Herbal pharmacognosy is the application of this science specifically to
traditional herbal medicine sources. [12]
2

3. • Pharmacognosy involves the identification, physicochemical
characterization, cultivation, extraction, preparation, quality control,
and biological assessment of drugs.
• A plant leaf, flower, root, animal or plant extract may be used to
isolate the bioactive chemical.
• Pharmacognosy is used by pharmaceutical companies to screen,
characterize and produce new drugs for the treatment of human
disease.
3

4. • Recently, many scientists are now recognizing that indigenous
knowledge about the medicinal virtue of many plants should never be
lost, as it offers great insight into the development of new drugs.
• For example, artemisinin from the Artemisia annua or ginghaosu
tree, is recognized as an ancient Chinese drug for malaria.[2]
4

5.  A natural product is a chemical substance produced by living organisms
such as plants, mushrooms, animals, and microorganisms.
5

6. • In other words, pharmacognosy is described as systematic science
of morphological, chemical, and biological properties along with
history, cultivation, collection, extraction, isolation, bioassaying,
quality control, and preparation of crude drugs of natural origin.
6

7.  Not only plants, but also other organisms
including marine animals, ants, frogs, worms, etc
as well as microorganisms produce very
important drug candidate molecules.
 The precursor of acyclovir, the potent antiviral
drug, was firstly discovered in a marine sponge
and then developed into an antiviral drug.
 Apicidin isolated from the
microorganism Fusarium pallidoroseum (Costa
Rica) has been reported to be a fungal metabolite
with potent broad spectrum antiprotozoal
activity.
Fusarium pallidoroseum
7

8. • Natural compounds could be good models for
developing novel drug molecules.
 Modelling or modifying is an important
action for drug industry.
 Because in some cases, natural products exert
little or even no activity themselves, but by
modification and using chemical or
biological methods, potent drugs can be
produced.
 A good example for this case could be
baccatin III isolated from Taxusbaccata (yew
tree), which is modified into taxol, a potent
anticancer drug. [3]
Taxus baccata (yew tree)
8

9. INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
 ICAR is an autonomous body responsible
for coordinating agricultural education
and research in India.
 It comes under the department of the
Agricultural Research and Education,
Ministry of Agricultural and Farmers
Welfare, Government of India.
 Headquarters is in New Delhi.[4]
9

10. ICAR developments in agriculture in India through its research and technology
development(Roles)-
10
Increase the production of
 Food grains by 4 times,
Horticultural crops by 6 times,
Fish by 9 times (marine 5 times and inland 17
times),
Milk 6 times and
Eggs 27 times since 1950-51,
Thus making a visible impact on the national food
and nutritional security.

11. 11

12. 12
Mandate of ICAR (Functions)
1. To plan, undertake, aid, promote and coordinate
education, research and its applications.
2. To act as a clearing house of research and
general information.
3. To provide, undertake and promote consultancy
services in the fields.
4. To look into the problems relating to broader
areas of rural development.
5. To do other things considered necessary to
attain the objectives of the Society.[5]

13. CURRENT GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), as.
defined by FAO, are a “collection of
principles to apply for on-farm production and
post- production processes, resulting in safe
and healthy food and non-food agriculture
products, while taking into account economic,
social and environmental sustainability”.[6]
13

14. 14
 General guidelines on good agricultural practices for medicinal
plants.
-It describes general principles and provides technical details for
the cultivation of medicinal plants.
- It also describes quality control measures, where applicable.
• It involves-
 Identification / Authentication
 Seed and other propagation material

15. 15

16. Identification/authentication of cultivated
medicinal plants.
1. Selection of medicinal plants-
The species should be the same as that
specified in the national pharmacopoeia or
recommended by other authoritative national
documents.
In the case of newly introduced medicinal
plants, the species should be identified and
documented as the source material used or
described in traditional medicine of the
original country.
16

17. 2.Botanical identity-
The botanical identity – scientific name (genus, species,
subspecies/variety, author, and family) – of each medicinal plant under
cultivation should be verified and recorded.
If available, the local and English common names should also be
recorded.
Other relevant information, such as the cultivar name, ecotype,
chemotype or phenotype, may also be provided, as appropriate.
17

18. 3.Specimens-
In the case of the first registration, if doubt exists
as to the identity- of a botanical species, (as per
WHO guidelines)- 8 specimen should be
submitted to a regional or national herbarium for
identification.
 Where possible, a genetic pattern should be
compared to that of an authentic specimen.
 Documentation of the botanical identity should
be included in the registration file.
18

19. Seeds and other propagation materials –
1. Seeds and other propagation materials
Should be specified
Suppliers should provide all necessary
information- identity, quality and
performance of their products.
Should be of the appropriate quality and
be as free as possible from contamination
and diseases in order to promote healthy
plant growth.
19

20. 20
https://youtu.be/Ru96iXsWpyg

21. Sustainable Agriculture: Sustainable agriculture consists
of environment friendly methods of farming that allow the production of
crops or livestock without damage to human or natural systems. ...
Elements of sustainable agriculture can include permaculture,
agroforestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation.
1. .
21

22. 22
1. Rotating crops and embracing diversity.
Planting a variety of crops can have many benefits,
• including healthier soil and
• improved pest control.
Crop diversity practices include intercropping (growing a mix of crops
in the same area) and complex multi-year crop rotations

23. 2.Planting cover crops.
Cover crops, like clover or hairy
vetch, are planted during off-
season times when soils might
otherwise be left bare.
• These crops protect and build
soil health by preventing erosion,
• Replenishing soil nutrients, and
• Keeping weeds in check,
• Reducing the need for
herbicides.
23

24. 3.Reducing or eliminating
tillage.
• Traditional plowing (tillage)
prepares fields for planting
and prevents weed problems
• But can cause a lot of soil loss.
• No-till or reduced till methods,
which involve-
 inserting seeds directly into
undisturbed soil,
 can reduce erosion and
improve soil health. 24

25. 4.Applying integrated pest management (IPM).
A range of methods, including mechanical and biological controls, can be
applied systematically to keep pest populations under control while
minimizing use of chemical pesticides.
25

26. 5.Integrating livestock and crops.
• Industrial agriculture tends to keep
plant and animal production
separate,
• With animals living far from the
areas where their feed is produced,
and Crops growing far away from
abundant manure fertilizers.
• A growing body of evidence shows
that a -smart integration of crop
and animal production can be a
recipe for more efficient, profitable
farms.
26

27. 6.Adopting agroforestry practices.
By mixing trees or shrubs into their operations, farmers can provide
shade and shelter to protect plants, animals, and water resources,
while also potentially offering additional income.
27

28. 7.Managing whole systems and landscapes.
Sustainable farms treat uncultivated or less intensively cultivated areas,
such as riparian buffers or prairie strips, as integral to the farm—
-valued for their role in controlling erosion, reducing nutrient runoff, and
supporting pollinators and other biodiversity.[7]
28

29. 29
CURRENT GOOD CULTIVATION PRACTICES
 Cultivation may be defined as ”the production of crops (medicinal plants) using
prepared land by tending them either by unskilled or skilled people”.
 The cultivation ensures quality and purity of the plants of medicinally importance.
It gives higher yield of crude drugs.

30. 30
1. Site Selection
• Medicinal plant materials derived from the same species can show significant
differences in quality when cultivated at different sites, owing to the influence
of soil, climate and other factors.
2. Ecological Environment
• The cultivation of medicinal plants may affect the ecological balance and, in
particular, the genetic diversity of the flora and fauna in surrounding habitats.
3.Social Impact
• The social impact of cultivation on local communities should be examined to
ensure that negative impacts on local livelihood are avoided.
4.Climate
• Climatic conditions, for example, length of day, rainfall (water supply) and field
temperature, significantly influence the physical, chemical and biological
qualities of medicinal plants.

31. 31
5.Soil
• The soil should contain appropriate amounts of nutrients, organic matter and
other elements to ensure optimal medicinal plant growth and quality.
6.Irigation and Drainage
• Irrigation and drainage should be controlled and carried out in accordance with
the needs of the individual medicinal plant species during its various stages of
growth.
7.Plant Maintenance and Protection
• The growth and development characteristics of individual medicinal plants, as
well as the plant part destined for medicinal use, should guide field management
practices.
• The timely application of measures such as topping, bud nipping, pruning and
shading may be used to control the growth and development of the plant,
thereby improving the quality and quantity of the medicinal Plant.

32. 32
8.Harvest
• Medicinal plants should be harvested during the optimal season or time period to
ensure the production of medicinal plant materials and finished herbal products of
the best possible quality.
• It is well known that the concentration of biologically active constituents varies
with the stage of plant growth and development.
9.Personnel
• All personnel (including field workers) involved in the propagation, cultivation,
harvest and post-harvest processing stages of medicinal plant production should
maintain appropriate personal hygiene and should have received training
regarding their hygiene responsibilities.
• Growers and producers should have adequate knowledge of the medicinal plant
concerned. [8]

33. 33
Modern Farming Methods in India
1. Hydroponics: The process involves growing healthy plants without
the inclusion of solid medium using nutrients including water
solution which is mineral-rich.
2. Aeroponics System: Aeroponics is the process where plants are
grown in the air or mist environment without the use of soil.
3. Aquaponics: Aquaponics is a closed-loop system that relies majorly
on the symbiotic relationship between aquaculture and agriculture for
fertilization.
4. Monoculture: This method is the raising of a single crop in a specific
area of farming. [9]

34. 34
HYDROPONIC SYSTEM
• Hydroponics is an emerging soil free agriculture, wherein plants are
grown in nutrient solutions without soil.
• In this technique flowers, herbs, and vegetables are sown in growing
media which is supplied with nutrients, oxygen, and water. [14]
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• No Soil.
• Optimal Use of Location.
• Complete Control Over Climate.
• Saves Water.
• Optimal Use of Nutrients.
• pH control.
• Faster Growth Rate.
• Zero Weed.
• Expensive to set up. Compared to a
traditional garden, a hydroponics
system is more expensive to acquire
and build.
• Vulnerable to power outages.
• Requires constant monitoring and
maintenance.
• Waterborne diseases.
• Problems affect plants quicker.
[15]

35. 35

36. 36
https://youtu.be/wBcnUUkdavE
[16]

37. 37
Example:
• CV Prakash, a pioneer of hydroponic farming in India who taught over 12,000
growers, has found a way to help Indian farmers grow world-class turmeric and
make a splash in the international market with his Mission Turmeric 2021.
• At the CV Hydro training center under Prakash’s premier horticulture
upskilling institution Aggragannya Skills, his crops generated curcumin content
of 5.91%—nearly double of the standard 3% found in the Salem variety—and
the highest yield was an astounding up to 8.17 kg from a single growbag..
[17]

38. 38
AEROPONIC SYSTEM
• Aeroponic systems are a specialized version of hydroponics where the roots
of the plant extend only in air and the roots are directly sprayed with a
nutrient water mix (the recipe).
• In aeroponics, oxygen is surrounding the roots at all times. Surplus oxygen
accelerates nutrient absorption at the root surface. [18]
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Fast growth
• Fewer material
needed
• Easy maintenance
• Less space used
• Highly dependent on
Technology
• Research and
understanding is
needed
• Costly [22]

39. 39
AQUAPONIC SYSTEM
• Aquaponics is a food production
system that couples aquaculture with
hydroponics whereby the nutrient-rich
aquaculture water is fed to
hydroponically-grown plants, where
nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia
into nitrates. [19]
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Environmental Friendly
• Don’t rely on artificial
fertilizers
• Saves water
• High level of Nutrients
utilization
• Affordability
• Limited crops can be grown
• Setup cost
• Depends on Electricity
• Requires professional knowledge
• Negligence
[20]

40. 40
https://youtu.be/0-MJRB18T_o
[21]

41. ORGANIC FARMING
• It is the agricultural system, in which
organic origin fertilizers such as
green manure, compost manure, bone
meal, etc..
• Techniques such as crop rotation and
companion planting are used.
• Because of rapid change in farming
practices, this is originated in 20th
century. [23]
41
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhOrIUlrnPo

42. 42
• Fewer pesticides
• Reduces soil erosion
• Decreases nitrate leaching into groundwater and surface water
• Recycles animal wastes back into the farm
• Encourage biodiversity [24]
Benefits of organic farming
Condition required for organic farming
• All seeds and plant material should be certified organic.
• Species and varieties cultivated should be adapted to the soil
and climatic conditions
• Be resistant to pests and diseases.
• In the choice of varieties genetic diversity should be taken into
consideration. [27]

43. 43

44. 44

45. 45

46. 46
https://www.holganix.com/blog/4-key-soil-types-
advantages-and-disadvantages [26]
Soil
• Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land.
• It consists of inorganic particles and organic matter.
• Soil provides the structural support to plants used in agriculture
and is also their source of water and nutrients.
• Soils vary greatly in their chemical and physical properties. [25]

47. 47
https://youtu.be/2olJ5zR4IGQ [28]

48. 48
https://youtu.be/8ugaL6wsXME [29]

49. 49
https://youtu.be/KOh2T7JNBdw [31]

50. 50
https://www.thebetterindia.com/204609/organic-
farming-methods-technique-results-bihar-village-
model-revolution-sustainable/
How a Remote Bihar Village Ushered in an Organic Farming Revolution in Just 4 Yrs
Example :

51. 51
CURRENT GOOD COLLECTION PRACTICE
• Collection practices will ensure the longterm survival of wild
population and their habitats.
• Management plans for collection should provide a
-framework for setting sustainable harvest levels and
-describe appropriate collection practices

52. 52
1. Permission to collect:
 Documents from government authorities and landowners must be
obtained prior to collecting any plants.
 Sufficient time for the processing and issuance of these permits must be
allocated at the planning stage.
 National legislation, such as national “red” lists, should be consulted
and respected.
 Medicinal plant materials intended for export from the country of
collection-
-Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) permit(s) (for export and import),
-CITES certificates (for re-export), and
-other permits must be obtained, when required.

53. 53
2. Technical planning:
• Before initiation, graphical distribution of medicinal plant should be
determined.
• Essential information like taxonomy, distribution, phenology,
ethnobotany, etc.. should be obtained.
• Photography and other illustration of targeted plant and herbarium
specimens, are useful instruments for untrained workers.
• Botanical key will be useful aids to relate species.
• Collection team should be aware of collecting techniques, transport,
equipment, etc…
• Training should be conducted regularly.
• Responsibilities of people should be clearly mentioned in written
document.

54. 54
3. Selection of Medicinal Plants:
• Species should be same as in authoritative national document.
• If no authorized document then should follow the other country
document.
• If newly introduced medicinal plant then it should be recorded.
• Collectors and producers should prepare botanical specimen for
authentication.
• The identified specimen should be preserved and who has done the
authentication their name should be recorded.

55. 55
4.Personnel :
• Local experts should have practical education and training.
• Practical experience in field is important for the workers.
• Performance of workers should be documented.
• Personnel should get adequate botanical training to recognize their
common name.
• Local experts should give knowledge to local and non-local
communities.
• Collectors should get instruction to conserve plant species and social
benefits.
• All personnel should protect themselves from toxic and dermatitis
causing plants, poisonous animal and insect.
• Appropriate clothing , gloves should be worn during collection.

56. 56
Cultivation and Collection of Aloe Vera
Aloe Vera is the most popular plant in Indian
used to treat many conditions.
Aloe Vera is a plant that consists of many
minerals, vitamins and other active elements
that provides numerous health benefits.
Every leaf of aloe vera contains three layers
 It has an inner gel that comprises 99% of water,
and other parts formed of vitamins, sterols,
glucomannans, amino acids, and lipids.
The middle part made of latex, which has a
yellow sap comprises anthraquinones and
glycosides.
outer layer has 15 to 20 cells

57. 57
1. Climatic condition for Aloe Vera
 Aloe Vera comes under a warm tropical crop
 It can grow in different climate conditions.
 It easily cultivated in dry regions, low rainfall areas and in warm,
humid conditions.
 Aloe vera plant is sensitive in severe cold conditions.
 This plant is best to grow in low rainfall areas, and aloe vera can’t
be grown in cold areas.
2. Soil required for Aloe Vera cultivation
 Aloe Vera can be produced on various kinds of soils.
 It is best to produce where the pH range of soil is upto 8.5.
 This plant is suitable to grow in black cotton soils.
 Aloe Vera is best to produce in the soil that is salty in nature

58. 58
3. Cultivation of Aloe Vera
 Aloe Vera -Liliaceae family.
It is a perennial plant and has 1½ – 2½
ft in height.
 The leaves of aloe vera are thick, long,
and juicy.
The process of growing aloe vera is called
“Phyllotaxy.”
 The inner substance of leaves is jelly
with a bad odor and bitter taste.
Length ranges from 25-30 cm of leaf
Breadth ranges from 3-5 cm.
For aloe vera cultivation many different
types of implements are used such
as tractors, cultivators, harrows, diggers,
and many more.

59. 59
4. Plant Nutrient Application
 Applied about 8-10 tonnes FYM/ha (farmyard
manure/hectare) before the land preparation.
 35 kg N (nitrogen), 70 kg P 20 5, Potassium
Humate Shiny Flax (K20 10 %) per hectare
added before the last plowing.
 35-40 kg N applied in September-October
month and
 If organic matter is high in the soil, then
reduced N drops.
 350-400 kg Neem Cake/ ha applied for
controlling termites.

60. 60
5. Aloe Vera Plant protection
 Aloe vera plants needed special care because the juice is directly taken from the leaves
and used as medicine.
 All the leaves are affected by various insects and pests.
 For protection, the plant needs clean cultivation, regularly based irrigation, and
application of organic manure.
 The use of organic sources is another tip for plant protection.

61. 6. Harvest of Aloe Vera
• Start harvesting after 7-8 months of planting.
• Use a knife for harvesting.
• Proper care reduces the loss of juice from cutting the portion.
• October-November is the best month for harvesting.
61

62. 62
Benefits of Aloe Vera
1.Mainly aloe vera is beneficial for skincare. This medical plant is perfect for
all types of skins.
2.For acne, aloe is the best and profitable choice.
3.It has antioxidants and anti-bacterial properties.
4.Aloe vera reduced body weight.
5.It reduced hair fall.
6.It is perfect for sunburns.
7.The medical plant is profitable for heartburn, lower blood sugar, and
wound healing.
8.It reduced side effects and health risks. [35]

63. 63
https://youtu.be/-mr7ZAX8yGk [36]

64. 64
CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
 The vegetation of the world is destroyed at an alarming rate.
 Combined with exploitation, many medicinal plants in grave risk of
genetic erosion and even extinction.
 Conservation is to ensure that the populations of species of plants
and animals continue to grow and evolve in the wild - in their natural
habitats.
 Such in situ conservation-nature reserves and national parks
(collectively termed "Protected Areas").
 Ideally all medicinal plant species- conserved as evolving populations
in nature.
 However, these species should also be conserved ex situ (i.e., outside
their habitat) as well.
 The advantage that it is usually easier to supply plant material . [10]

65. 65
Conservation
• It is defined as- “the management of human use of the biodiversity so
that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present
generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations of future generations”.
• Strategies & Priorities:
a. Maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support
systems.
b. Preservation of species and genetic diversity.
c. Sustainable use of species and ecosystems.

66. 66
 Strategies for conservation of medicinal plants
 The conservation of the wild medicinal plants or any other such
threatened species can be tackled by scientific techniques.
 There are basically three scientific techniques of conservation of
genetic diversity of these plants.
1) Legislation
2) In-situ conservation
3) Ex-situ conservation

67. 67
1. Legislation:
• There are no separate policies or regulations for conserving
medicinal plants growing in forests in India.
• There conservation is covered under existing laws pertaining to
forestry.
• Laws formulated by government of India, protects the wild
herbal flora.
a. Forest Act, 1927
b. Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and Wildlife (Protection)
Amendment Act 1991
c. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
d. Environment Protection Act, 1986
e. National forest policy, 1988
f. National biodiversity act, 2002

68. 2. In-situ conservation
• Conservation of a given species in its natural habitat or in the area
where it grows naturally is known as in-situ conservation.
• It is only in nature that plant diversity at the genetic, species and
eco-system level can be conserved on long-term basis
• It is necessary to conserve in distinct, representative biogeographic
zones inter and intra-specific genetic variation.
68

69. 69
 The in situ conservation methods are highlighted below:
1. Biosphere Reserves: The Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Government of India, had identified 14 biosphere reserves based on
survey data and 7 of them have already been made operational by now.
2. National Parks: Out of a total of 91 National Parks in the country, 2 have
been established in Himachal Pradesh, that is, Pin Valley National Park
and Great Himalayan Park in the districts of Lahaul-Spiti and Kulu,
respectively.
3. On-Farm Conservation: On-Farm Conservation involves the maintenance
of traditional crop cultivars (land races) or farming systems by farmers
within the traditional agricultural system.
4. Home Gardens: Home Garden conservation is very similar to on-farm
conservation , however scale is much smaller.
5. Zero energy input-based concept of parafrost conservation in the
Himalayan region which remains covered with snow.

70. 70
1. Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
2. Gulf of Mannar Biosphere
Reserve
3. Sunderban Biosphere Reserve
4. Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
5. Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
6. Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
7. Simlipal Biosphere Reserve
8. Great Nicobar Biosphere
Reserve
9. Agasthyamala Biosphere
Reserve
10.Achanakmar-Amarkantak
Biosphere Reserve
11.Kanchenjunga National Park [33]

71. 71

72. 3. Ex-Situ Conservation
• Conservation of medicinal plants can be accomplished by the ex-situ
i.e. outside natural habitat
• By cultivating and maintaining plants in botanic gardens, parks,
other suitable sites,
• It is a long term preservation of plant propagules in
• Gene banks
• In Plant tissue culture repositories and
• By cryopreservation.
72

73. 1.Field gene bank (field repository/clonal
repository)-
• Gene Bank: Storage in the form of seed (Base
collection at -20°C; Active collection at +4°C to
l0°C).
• The three national gene bank in India for ex
situ conservation of medicinal and aromatic
plants.
A. National Bureau of Plants Genetic
Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, under
ICAR.
B. Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow
C. Tropical Botanical Gardens Research
Institute, (TBGRI), Palode,
Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala).
73

74. 2. Seed gene bank-
• Germplasm conservation in Seed Gene Bank is more
economical.
• The NBPGR, New Delhi,
houses National Gene Bank (NGB) which is primarily
responsible for conservation long-term seed storage for
posterity.
• These are referred to as "Base Collection" stored in
modules maintained at -20°C.
• The seeds are dried to attain 4-6 per cent moisture
content and hermetically sealed in moisture proof
aluminium foil packets.
• These stored seeds remain viable for 50 to 100 years.
• The seeds in gene bank are stored preferably as per the
gene bank standards recommended by FAO/IPGRI.
74

75. 3. National active germplasm sites-
• There are presently 40 NAGS, which are
based at ICAR institutes, (crop-based
institutes for a specific crop or a group of
crops) and SAUs.
• These are integral part of national plant
biodiversity conservation network.
• These active/working collections are stored in
modules maintained at +4°C and 35-40 per
cent relative humidity (RH).
• Under these temperatures, seeds are expected
to remain viable for 15 to 50 years.
• For medium term storage, seed moisture
content is brought down to 8 to 10 per cent.
75

76. 76
4.Cryopreservation (in liquid nitrogen at-
165°C to-196°C)-
• Cryopreservation or freeze preservation
under liquid nitrogen.
a. Seed Preservation
b. Pollen Preservation
c. Exchange of germplasm
• In recent years, cryo-preservation
techniques have been developed for pollen
in a large number of species
• cryo-bank of pollen has been established for
fruit-tree species in several countries. [11]

77. TOP 8 BOTANICAL
GARDEN IN INDIA
77
https://www.ugaoo.com/knowledge-center/top-8-
botanical-gardens-of-india/ [34]

78. CONSERVATION OF SANDALWOOD
• Santalum album L. (East Indian sandalwood or sandal), a small
evergreen hemiparasitic tree renowned for its fragrant heartwood.
• The southern Indian states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu together
account for more than 90% of the natural population of S. album in
India.
• India’s sandalwood production dropped from 4000 Mg heartwood per
year in the 1950s to a mere 500 Mg in 2007.
• The global annual demand of about 5000 to 6000 Mg wood and
around 100 to 120 Mg oil.
78

79. 79
Average sandalwood production and price trends in the southern Indian states
of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Reporting period: 1964–‘65 to 1975–‘76, 1978–
‘79 to 1985–‘86, 1995–‘96 to1997–‘98, 1999–‘00 to 2000–‘01, and 2005–‘06 to
2008–‘09).

80. 80
Karnataka, being the hub of sandal production in India
Karnataka Forest Act (KFA), 1963.
Section 84 of KFA proclaimed that all sandal trees growing in any land
including private lands to be the exclusive property of the state
government (Government of Karnataka, 1963).
Landowners had no right to the tree but were responsible for its
preservation.
Only the government had the right to sell or trade the wood.
On extraction of the tree, the landowner was paid a bonus (75% of net
value i.e., actual value less cost of extraction, transport, and cleaning)
Landowners are vulnerable to severe punishments even for minor offenses
related to the sandal trees grown on their land.

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