1. There are several types of pipes commonly used for transporting liquids and gases, including cast iron, PVC, HDPE, polypropylene, PVDF, and ECTFE. Each type has different properties, temperature and pressure ratings suitable for various applications. 2. Storage tanks come in many shapes and sizes to hold liquids, gases, or materials used for short or long-term heat/cold storage. Tanks are chosen based on the stored substance's flash point and may have fixed roofs, floating roofs, or no roof. Common materials include steel, concrete, plastic, and polyethylene. 3. Steel tanks are a reliable choice for long-term liquid storage across many industries due

1. Muhammad Arsalan
FD -026
SE FOOD ENGINEERING
Fluid Mechanics
A pipe is a tubular sectionor hollowcylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-section, used mainly to convey
substances which canflowliquids andgases (fluids), slurries, powders and masses of small solids. In common usage the
words pipe and tube are usuallyinterchangeable, but inindustryand engineering, the terms are uniquelydefined. Depending
on the applicable standardto whichit is manufactured, pipe is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant
outside diameter (OD) anda schedule that defines the thickness. Tube is most often specifiedbythe OD andwall thickness, but
may be specified by any two of OD, inside diameter (ID), and wall thickness.
The most commonpipes usedtodayare copper, PVC, or ABS. However, whendealing witholder homes, you might encounter a
number of other piping materials. For example, homes built before 1960 used galvanized steel or cast iron DWV
(drain/waste/vent) pipe systems. Here’s a quick look at types of pipes commonly used,
1. Cast iron: Commonlyused before 1960 for the vertical drain, vent stacks, andsometimes the horizontal drain lines. Cast
iron is durable, but can rust over time. Cast iron pipe is a pipe which has had historic use as a pressure pipe for
transmissionof water, gas andsewage, andas a water drainage pipe during the 19th and 20th centuries. It comprises
predominantlya graycast iron tube andwas frequentlyused uncoated, although later coatings and linings reduced
corrosionandimprove hydraulics. Cast iron pipe was supersededby ductile iron pipe, whichis a direct development, with
most existing manufacturing plants transitioningto the new materialduring the 1970s and1980s. Little cast iron pipe is
currently manufactured.
Temp and pressure specification,
Pipe dimension (inches) Temperature (˚F) Pressure (psi)
1”-12” -25 to 150 200
151 to 200 198 to 190
201 to 246 189 to 178
246 to 300 178 to 160
14” -24” 50 to 150 150
150 to 250 145 to 120
251 to 300 120 to 110
2. PVC: Plastic pipe comes as either ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene)or PVC(polyvinyl-chloride). PVC is the third-most
widelyproducedsynthetic plastic polymer, after polyethylene and polypropylene. PVCcomes intwo basic forms:rigid and
flexible. The Mechanical propertiesinclude its melting point upto 100 – 260 ˚C while its specific heat of combustion is
17.95 MJ/Kg, the specific heat is 0.9 KJ/ (Kg.k). The size pressure rating is as,
Size (inches) Max Operating Pressure (psi)
½ 358
¾ 289
1 270
2 166
2 ½ 182
3 158
10 84
12 79
3. High-Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE or PE Pipe): It is made fromethylene, whichcanbe derived fromeither crude oilor
natural gas. PE pipe is extremelystrong, durable, flexible, corrosionfree and chemical resistant. These features make it
perfect for a varietyof undergroundconditions andhelpit last upto 100 years. The smooth walls allow for less friction,

2. which increase flow throughthe same diameter as that of other pipes. Wheninstalled, the pipe is joinedbya heat fusion
process, whichprevents leakage. Byusing PE pipe, municipalities save a vast amount ofwater and reduce repair rates. This
translates intoa significant cost savings for the life of the pipe. PE pipe cancarrypotable water, wastewater, chemicals,
hazardous wastes andcompressed gases. PE is the preferred pipingmaterial for natural gasdistributionbecause there is
no tolerance for leaks andnoworries about corrosion. Polyethylene - PE - is popular andcommonlyusedmaterialinwater
pipes. It is usual to use the PE 50, PEHor PE-HD (polyethylene high density) quality.PE pipes are produced in different
pressure grades - PN grades - indicating the pressure in bars the pipe cansupport withwater at 20 oC. The pressure grades
available according to European standards are
 PN 2.5 - max pressure 2.5 bar
 PN 4 - max pressure 4 bar
 PN 6 - max pressure 6 bar
 PN 10 - max pressure 10 bar
 PN 16 - max pressure 16 bar
4. Polypropylene (PP): These piping systems are widelyused inindustrial processing. Light in weight yet with high impact
strengthandreliable heat fusionwelding, PPalsooffers goodabrasion resistance and is a good thermal and electrical
insulator. PPis suitable for working use at temperaturesup to 90ºC, andwith standshort term use at a maximum 110ºC.
Chemical resistance is excellent:PPis resistant to aqueous solutions ofacids, alkalisandsalts, and to a large number of
organic solvents. The Proline polypropylene piping system is made of a high molecular weight resin of copolymer or
homopolymer polypropylene materials. It is 9 times lighter thaniron and 36% lighter than hardPVC. Proline combines high
chemicalresistance with toughness andstrength at operatingtemperatures higher thanPVC. Its upper temperature limit is
195° F (90° C). Proline is available in150 psi (SDR11) or 45 psi (SDR33) standardwithan option for 90 psi (SDR 17.3). All
pipe andfittings are grayincolor. Standard sizes of Proline are 1/2" (20mm)to 20" (500mm), but can be special ordered
up to 54" (1400mm).
5. Polyvinlidene Fluoride (PVDF):This is a unique thermoplastic with propertieswhichallow it to be usedfor veryaggressive
or highlyspecialized applications. Althoughexpensive compared to other thermoplastics, PVDF offers an economically
attractive alternative to many"exotic" materialsand/or inprocesslines where limited working life of other materials
necessitates frequent replacement. PVDF has excellent chemical andphysical properties, even at low temperatures, and
has considerable resistance to abrasion. It is resistant to most of the inorganic acids and bases, and to aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons, organic acids, alcohols andhalogenatedsolvents. It is also non-toxic and can be used for high
purityapplications. Safe workingtemperatures range from -40ºCto +120ºC, with short term use possible at temperatures
well above this level. Size Range: 20 - d315 mm (½" - 12"), Pressure Rating: d20 - d110 mm, d160 - d315 mm, Operating
Temperature: -20°C - 140°C (-4°F - 284°F).
Fields of Application:
 Pharmaceutical Grade DI Water
 Chemical applications within the Chemical Processing Industry (CPI)
 Acid Distribution
 UPW and HUPW (Hot) Ultrapure Water return loops in microelectronics
 Life Science applications for sanitization with ozone, steam, or hot water
6. ECTFE (Ethylene ChloroTriFluoroEthylene): This piping materialwas designedto provide excellent chemical resistance in
heavydutycorrosion applications. It is a partiallyfluorinated polymer (a fluoropolymer), semi-crystalline and can be
processed inthe melt. Chemicallyit is a copolymer of ethylene andchlorotrifluoroethylene . ECTFE has a wide continuous
usage temperature range between typically –76 °C and +150 °C (–105F to +300F). It has good impact resistance and
a Young's modulus inthe range of1700 MPa allowing for self standingitems andpressure piping systems. ECTFE offers
high impact strengtheven incryogenic applications. ECTFE shows goodfire resistance witha limiting oxygenindex of 52%.
Temperature ˚C Operating Period (years) Operating Pressure (bar)
20 1 11.5

3. 5 10.5
60 1 6.5
5 6.3
Temperature ˚C Operating Period (years) Operating Pressure (bar)
90 1 3.0
5 2.8
Storage tanks are containers that holdliquids, compressedgases (gastank)or mediums used for the short- or long-
term storage of heat or cold. Storage tanks are available inmanyshapes:vertical and horizontal cylindrical;open top
and closedtop;flat bottom, cone bottom, slope bottom anddish bottom. Large tanks tend to be vertical cylindrical,
or to have roundedcorners transition from vertical side wall to bottom profile, to easier withstand hydraulic
hydrostaticallyinducedpressure of contained liquid. Most container tanks for handling liquids during transportation
are designed to handle varying degrees of pressure.
Tanks for a particular fluid are chosen according to the flash-point of that substance. Generally in refineries and
especially for liquid fuels, there are fixed roof tanks, and floating roof tanks.
Fixed roof tanks are meant for liquids with veryhighflashpoints, (e.g. fuel oil, water, bitumenetc.) Cone roofs, dome
roofs andumbrella roofs are usual. These are insulatedto prevent the cloggingof certainmaterials, whereinthe heat
is provided bysteam coilswithin the tanks. Dome roof tanks are meant for tanks having slightly higher storage
pressure than that of atmosphere (e.g. slop oil).
Floating roof tanks are broadly divided into external floating roof FR tank and internal floating roof IFR.
IFR tanks are used for liquids with low flash-points. These tanks are nothingbut cone rooftanks with a floating roof
inside which travels upanddown alongwith the liquid level. Thisfloatingroof traps the vapor from low flash-point
fuels. Floatingroofs are supportedwithlegs or cables onwhich theyrest. FR tanks do not have a fixedroof and has a
floatingroofonly. Medium flashpoint liquids suchas naphtha, kerosene, diesel, crude oil etc. are stored in these
tanks.
While steel and concrete remain one of the most popular choices for tanks, glass-reinforced plastic, thermoplastic
and polyethylene tanks are increasinginpopularity. Theyoffer lower build costs and greater chemical resistance,
especially for storage of specialty chemicals.
1. Steel Tanks: Steel Storage Tanks are a reliable choice for long termstorage ofalmost anyliquidranging from fuel to
potable water. Whether we needsomething robust for transportation, long term for water or robust enough to
withstand belowgroundstorage, these tanks canprovide you withthe highresistance designnecessaryfor long term
storage.
The Steel CorrugatedTank is analternative inwater storage, specializing inbulk storage. Often used in bulk water
storage, these tanks are shippedinpieces to provide quickand easy setup in your location. Typical applications
include rainwater harvesting, irrigation water storage, fish farming, and residential drinking water storage.
Steel Water Storage Tanks:These above ground potable water tanks are made fromhighstrengthmaterials to safely
store your drinking water. All tanks are lined with a water compatible liner for safe potable water storage.
Fire protectiontanks are commonlyusedto store water for large facilitiesor businesses where water is limited. Many
customers have chosenanundergroundstorage tank for rainwater collection. Tanks can be connected to pipes and
filters for reuse or stored for sprinkler supply.

4. Volume (Gal) Inner Tank Diameter Inner tank Length Total Length
Cylindrical Tank
300 3 ft 2 in 5 ft 6 ft
1000 4 ft 10 ft 9 in 11 ft 4 in
10000 8 ft 26 ft 8 in 27 ft 3in
Rectangular Tank
500 3 ft 3 ft 8 ft 6 in
1000 4 ft 8 in 3 ft 10 ft 3 in
10000 10 ft 10 in 5 ft 5 in 23 ft 5 in
2. Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP): It is a composite materialor fiber-reinforced polymer made of a plastic reinforced by
fine fibers made of glass. Like carbonfiber reinforcedplastic, the composite materialis commonly referred to by the
name ofits reinforcingfibers. A typical storage tank made of GRPor FRPhas aninlet, an outlet, a vent, anaccessport,
a drain, andan overflow nozzle. However, there are other featuresthat canbe included inthe tank. Ladders on the
outside allowfor easyaccess to the roof for loading. The vessel must be designed to withstandthe load of someone
standing onthese ladders, and evenwithstanda person standing on the roof. Sloped bottoms allow for easier
draining. Level gauges allow someone to accuratelyread the liquidlevel inthe tank. The vessel must be resistant to
the corrosive nature of the fluidit contains. Typically, these vesselshave a secondarycontainment structure, in case
the vessel bursts.
Typical FRPtemperature limits are almost entirelybased onthe resin. The thermoplastic resin will suffer from creep
at elevated temperaturesandultimatelyfail. However, newchemistryhas producedresins that claim to be able to
achieve even higher temperatures, whichexpand this fieldimmensely. The typical maximumis 110 degrees Celsius.
Capacity (gal) Diameter Height
110 bbl or 4620 gal 8 ft 12 ft 6 in
500 bbl or 21000 gal 14 ft 18 ft
1000 bbl or 42000 gal 15 ft 7 in 30 ft
1500 bbl or 63000 gal 21 ft 6 in 45 ft
3. Concrete Tank : Due to reactivitythese tanks are usedmostlyfor water. Under suitable circumstances, ground level
storage tanks maybe usedto deliver water to users by gravity flow. Storage tanks are a very important part of a
water system because theyensure that adequate quantities ofwater are available to meet demand. Storage tanks
also help in preserving water quality.
The capacityof the storage tankis important for the efficient operationof a water supplysystem. The tankshould be
large enoughto store sufficient water to meet bothaverage and peak dailydemands. Whendesigninga storage tank
keep inmindthat demandfor water varies during the year. Inthe hotter months, people use more water than in
cooler months and on certain religious or cultural occasions water use may increase.
Reinforcedconcrete is usedin manyareas. Its advantagesare that it provides a verysturdywatertight structure that
will last manyyears, andit usesless concrete thanmass concrete structures which reduces construction costs. A
disadvantage ofusing a reinforced structure is that steel, lumber for forms and skilled labor and supervision are
needed to build the tank. Neither the materials nor the expertise may be affordable or available.

5. A fitting is usedin pipe plumbing systems to connect straight pipe or tubing sections, to adapt to different sizes or
shapes, and for other purposes, such as regulating or measuring fluid flow. The term plumbing is generally used to
describe conveyance of water, gas, or liquid waste i n ordinary domestic or commercial environments,
whereaspiping is often used to describe high-performance conveyance of fluids in specialized applications. The
term tubing is sometimesusedfor lighter-weight piping, especiallytypes that are flexible enough to be supplied in
coiled form.
The material withwhich a pipe is manufacturedoftenforms as the basis for choosing any pipe. Materials that are
used for manufacturing pipes include:
 Carbon Steel (CS)
 Stainless Steel (SS)
 Malleable iron (malleable iron)
 Non-Metallic (ABS, GRE, PVC, HDPE, tempered glass, etc.
Types of fitting include:
 Elbow
An elbow is a pipe fittinginstalled betweentwo lengths of pipe or tubing to allow a change of direction,
usually a 90° or 45° angle, though 22.5° elbows are also made. The ends may be machined for butt
welding, threaded(usuallyfemale), or socketed, etc. Whenthe two ends differ in size, the fitting is called
a reducing elbow or reducer elbow.
 Coupling
A couplingconnects twopipes to eachother. If the size of the pipe is not the same, the fitting maybe called
a reducing coupling orreducer, or an adapter. By convention, the term "expander" is not generallyusedfor
a coupler that increases pipe size; instead the term "reducer" is used.
 Union
A union is similar to a coupling, except it is designedto allowquick andconvenient disconnection of pipes
for maintenance or fixture replacement. While a couplingwouldrequire either solvent welding, soldering or
being ableto rotate withall the pipes adjacent as witha threaded coupling, a union provides a simple
transition, allowing easyconnection or disconnection at anyfuture time. A standardunionpipe is made in
three parts consistingof a nut, a female end, anda maleend. When the female andmale ends are joined,
the nuts then provide the necessarypressure to seal the joint. Since the mating ends of the union are
interchangeable, changing of a valve or other device can be achieved with a minimum loss of time.
 Reducer
A reducer allows for a change inpipe size to meet hydraulic flowrequirements of the system, or to adapt to
existingpipingof a different size. Reducers are usually concentric but eccentric reducers are used when
required to maintain the same top- or bottom-of-pipe level.
 Tee
A tee is the most commonpipe fitting. It is available withallfemale threadsockets, all solvent weldsockets,
or with opposedsolvent weldsockets anda side outlet withfemale threads. It is usedto either combine or

6. split a fluid flow. It is a type of pipe fitting which is T-shaped havingtwo outlets, at 90° to the connection to
the mainline. It is a short piece of pipe with a lateral outlet. A tee is used for connecting pipes of different
diameters or for changing the directionof pipe runs. Theyare made ofvarious materials and available in
various sizes andfinishes. Theyare extensivelyusedin pipeline networks to transport two-phase fluid
mixtures.
 Cross
Cross fittings are also called4-wayfittings. Ifa branchline passes completely through a tee, the fitting
becomes a cross. A cross has one inlet andthree outlets, or vice versa. They often have solvent welded
socket ends or female threaded ends.
 Cap
A type of pipe fitting, usuallyliquid or gas tight, whichcovers the end of a pipe. A cap is used like plug,
except that the pipe capscrews or attaches onthe male threadof a pipe. A cap may have a solvent weld
socket endor a female threaded endandthe other end closed off. Inplumbing systems that use threads,
the cap has female threads. Industrial caps canbe round, square, rectangular, U-shaped, I-shaped and may
have a round hand grip or a flat hand grip.
 Nipple
A short stub of pipe usually threaded steel, brass, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) or copper;
occasionallyjust bare copper. A nipple is definedas beinga short stubof pipe which has external male pipe
threads at each end, for connectingtwo other fittings. Nipplesare commonlyusedfor plumbing and hoses,
and second as valves for funnels and pipes.
 Valves
Valves are equipment designedto stopor regulate flow ofanyfluid(liquid, gas, condensate, stem, slurry,
etc.) in its path. Valves are categorizeddepending ontheir applications like isolation, throttling, and non-
return. Valves can be categorized into the following basic types:
1. Ball valve, for on/off control without pressure drop, andideal for quick shut-off, since a 90° turn offers
complete shut-off angle, compared to multiple turns required on most manual valves.
2. A butterfly valve is a valve whichcanbe usedfor isolating or regulating flow. The closing mechanism takes
the form of a disk. Operationis similar to that of a ball valve, which allows for quick shut off. Butterflyvalves
are generallyfavored because theyare lower incost to other valve designs as well as being lighter in
weight, meaningless support is required. The disc is positionedin the center of the pipe, passing through
the disc is a rod connectedto anactuator onthe outside ofthe valve. Rotatingthe actuator turns the disc
either parallel or perpendicular to the flow. The butterflyvalve in size 2”-12” are rated to 250psi and from
14” are rated to 200psi. The effective temp range is -40 ˚F to 392 F˚.
3. A check valve, a valve that normallyallows fluid(liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction.
Check valves are two-port valves, meaning theyhave two openings in the body, one for fluid to enter and
the other for fluidto leave. Check valves are oftenpart of common household items. Although they are
available ina wide range of sizes and costs, check valves generallyare verysmall, simple, or inexpensive.
Check valves work automatically and most are not controlled by a person or any external control;
accordingly, most donot have anyvalve handle or stem. The bodies(external shells) of most check valves
are made of plastic or metal.

7. 4. A gate valve, also knownas a sluice valve, is a valve that opens bylifting a roundor rectangular gate/wedge
out of the pathof the fluid. The distinct feature of a gate valve is the sealing surfaces betweenthe gate and
seats are planar, sogate valves are often used when a straight-line flow offluidandminimum restriction is
desired. The gate faces canforma wedge shape or theycanbe parallel. Gate valves are primarily used to
permit or prevent the flow of liquids, but typical gate valves shouldn't be used for regulating flow, unless
theyare specificallydesigned for that purpose. This construction is adopted for valves for high pressure
service, typically in excess of 2250 psi (15 MPa).
5. A pinch valve is a full bore or fullyportedtype of control valve which uses a pinching effect to obstruct fluid
flow. There are a fewtypes ofpinch valves basedupona pplication. Pinch valves used for fluids usually
employa device that directlycontacts process tubing. Forcing the tubing together will create a seal that is
equivalent to the tubing's permeability. Pinchvalves are typicallyused in applications where th e media
needs to be completelyisolated from anyinternal valve parts or entrapments. Theyare commonly applied
to medicalinstruments, clinical or chemical analyzers, anda wide range of laboratory equipment. Pinch
valve design hasthree maincomponents: the sleeve, the body and the actuator (manual, pneumatic,
hydraulic andelectric). The constructionandmaterials of these components can be tailored to suit your
process conditions. 1) Size range: standard range from 25 mm to 1.000 mm. 2) Temperatures: -50°C to
+160°C.3) Operating pressures: vacuum to 100 bar.
6. A piston valve is a device used to control the motion of a fluid along a tube or pipe by means of
the linear motion of a pistonwithin a chamber or cylinder. Examples ofpistonvalves are the valves used in
manyinstruments, the valves usedin cannons, the valves usedinmanystationary steam engines andsteam
locomotives.
7. Spool valve or Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic machinery as
well andpneumatic machinery. Theyallowfluid flow intodifferent paths from one or more sources. They
usuallyconsist ofa spool inside a cylinder whichis mechanicallyor electricallycontrolled. The movement of
the spool restricts or permits the flow, thus it controls the fluid flow.
8. A safety valve is a valve whichhas the function of increasing the safetyof a thermal-hydraulics plant. An
example ofsafetyvalve couldbe a pressure safety valve (PSV), i.e. a pressure relief valve (PRV) which
automaticallyreleases a substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system, when the pressure or
temperature exceeds preset limits. Safetyvalves were first used on steam boilers during the Industrial
Revolution. Early boilers operating without them were prone to accidental explosion.
Material used in fitting designing is defined bellow,
 Carbon steel is an alloyconsisting ofiron and carbon. Several other elements are allowed in carbon steel,
with low maximum percentages. These elements are manganese, with a 1.65% maximum, silicon, with a
0.60% maximum, and copper, with a 0.60% maximum.
 In metallurgy, stainless steel, alsoknown as inox steel or inox from French "inoxydable", is a steel alloywith
a minimumof 10.5% chromium content bymass. Stainlesssteel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with
water as ordinarysteel does. However, it is not fullystain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity, or poor air-
circulationenvironments. There are different gradesand surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the
environment the alloymust endure. Stainlesssteelis used where boththe propertiesof steeland corrosion
resistance are required.
 Malleable iron is cast as white iron. Through anannealingheat treatment, the brittle structure as first cast
is transformed into the malleable form.
The pressure temp rating of this material is
Temperature ˚C Pressure psi
-29 to 66 300
93 265
121 225
149 185
177 150
 Non metallic Material
 Chlorinatedpolyvinylchloride (CPVC) CPVCis widelyusedinwater and sanitary systems for hot and cold
water distribution. It is a thermoplastic produced by polymerization of vinyl chloride, with additional
chlorination. CPVCpipingis manufactured by extrusion methods in sizes of diameter 0.25 inch (0.635

8. centimeters)to 12 inch(30.5 centimeters). It is designed to withstandcontinuous operatingpressure of 600
kPa at a temperature of 95 ˚C. Pipe and fittings are readily cut and joined by solvent welding
 Unplasticizedpolyvinylchloride PVC, whenusedwitha solvent cement jointing system, is comparable in
bulk to galvanizedsteel or iron for drinking-water piping, but much lighter. It does not suffer the same
corrosionproblems internallyor externallyas does galvanized steel. However, it is susceptible to physical
damage if exposed above groundandit becomesbrittle whenexposedto ultraviolet light. The pipe is light
to handle, but it is too bulkyfor aestheticallyacceptable internal use in domestic b uildings. It is used
extensively around the world for drainage applications.
 Polyethylene (PE) pipesandfittings of numerous types anddesigns have beenavailable for over fortyyears.
The market requirements today have been refined to three general group ings, as follows:
 High-densityPE is available ina post-manufacturedstress-relievedstate or as extruded product
with no treatment. It is used mainlyfor drainage applications where it can withstand higher
temperature discharges than PVC.
 Medium-densityPE is more flexible than the high-density pipe. It has a slightly thinner wall
thicknessandis capable of withstanding higher internal pressure. It is the preferred material for
long-distance drinking-water piping.
 Low-densityPE is suitable for the irrigation industry, where operating pressures are verylow and a
high degree of flexibility and low cost is required. Low-density PE pipe and fittings are not
acceptable for use for connection to the water mains in many countries because of the low
pressure rating of the material and its high leakage rate.