This document provides an overview of key concepts in pharmacology, including objectives, definitions of terms like half-life and bioavailability, factors that influence drug absorption and distribution, the processes of drug metabolism and elimination, and various routes of drug administration. It covers basic concepts such as the pharmacokinetic properties of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination that determine a drug's effects. Various factors that influence drug absorption, distribution, and bioavailability are also summarized.
This document discusses pharmacokinetics and the movement of drugs through the body over time. It covers the typical processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination that drugs undergo. It also describes various routes of drug administration including oral, parenteral, inhalation and others. Factors that influence drug absorption like pH, blood flow, surface area and contact time are also examined.
This document discusses various routes of drug administration in pharmacology and toxicology. It describes local routes like topical application for localized drug effects and parenteral routes for systemic drug delivery. The key routes discussed are oral, sublingual, rectal, intravenous and intramuscular injection. Factors determining the appropriate route include drug properties, desired effects, patient condition and accuracy of dosing. The advantages and disadvantages of different routes are also outlined.
INTRODUCTION OF BIOPHARMACEUTICS AND PHARMACOKINETICS SLIDE 2.0.pptxTHARSHINIMURUGAIAH1
- Biopharmaceutics is the study of how a drug's physicochemical properties affect its biological availability and action in the body. Pharmacokinetics is the study of a drug's absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion within the body over time.
- Common routes of drug administration include oral, buccal, rectal, topical, and intravenous. The oral route is the most common due to convenience but has disadvantages like variable absorption. The intravenous route has 100% bioavailability but is more invasive.
- The route of administration impacts the drug's pharmacokinetics by influencing factors like absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion - which determine the drug's onset, duration and intensity of effects.
General principles of pharmacology.pptxINSHAURRAHMAN
This document provides an overview of general principles of pharmacology including pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, routes of drug administration, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. It discusses how the body processes drugs and how drugs act on the body. Key topics covered include the four main stages of pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination), common routes of administration like oral, parenteral, and topical, and factors that influence drug absorption and distribution.
The document discusses principles of drug administration, including the different routes of administration. It describes the five rights of drug administration as well as local and systemic routes. The main local routes are topical and infiltration, while the main systemic routes are enteral (oral, sublingual, rectal) and parenteral (intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, etc.). Factors such as drug properties, desired effects, and patient condition influence route selection.
Pharmacokinetics refers to how the body acts on drugs through absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The goal of drug therapy is to deliver therapeutic yet non-toxic drug levels to target tissues. Drugs can be administered through enteral routes like oral, sublingual, and rectal, or parenteral routes like intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous. Absorption involves the transfer of drugs from the site of administration to the bloodstream through passive diffusion, active transport, or factors like blood flow and surface area. Distribution describes how drugs enter tissues through blood flow and binding to plasma proteins, with only unbound drugs being pharmacologically active. Metabolism renders drugs more polar and ex
This document provides an overview of key concepts in pharmacology, including objectives, definitions of terms like half-life and bioavailability, factors that influence drug absorption and distribution, the processes of drug metabolism and elimination, and various routes of drug administration. It covers basic concepts such as the pharmacokinetic properties of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination that determine a drug's effects. Various factors that influence drug absorption, distribution, and bioavailability are also summarized.
This document discusses pharmacokinetics and the movement of drugs through the body over time. It covers the typical processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination that drugs undergo. It also describes various routes of drug administration including oral, parenteral, inhalation and others. Factors that influence drug absorption like pH, blood flow, surface area and contact time are also examined.
This document discusses various routes of drug administration in pharmacology and toxicology. It describes local routes like topical application for localized drug effects and parenteral routes for systemic drug delivery. The key routes discussed are oral, sublingual, rectal, intravenous and intramuscular injection. Factors determining the appropriate route include drug properties, desired effects, patient condition and accuracy of dosing. The advantages and disadvantages of different routes are also outlined.
INTRODUCTION OF BIOPHARMACEUTICS AND PHARMACOKINETICS SLIDE 2.0.pptxTHARSHINIMURUGAIAH1
- Biopharmaceutics is the study of how a drug's physicochemical properties affect its biological availability and action in the body. Pharmacokinetics is the study of a drug's absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion within the body over time.
- Common routes of drug administration include oral, buccal, rectal, topical, and intravenous. The oral route is the most common due to convenience but has disadvantages like variable absorption. The intravenous route has 100% bioavailability but is more invasive.
- The route of administration impacts the drug's pharmacokinetics by influencing factors like absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion - which determine the drug's onset, duration and intensity of effects.
General principles of pharmacology.pptxINSHAURRAHMAN
This document provides an overview of general principles of pharmacology including pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, routes of drug administration, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. It discusses how the body processes drugs and how drugs act on the body. Key topics covered include the four main stages of pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination), common routes of administration like oral, parenteral, and topical, and factors that influence drug absorption and distribution.
The document discusses principles of drug administration, including the different routes of administration. It describes the five rights of drug administration as well as local and systemic routes. The main local routes are topical and infiltration, while the main systemic routes are enteral (oral, sublingual, rectal) and parenteral (intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, etc.). Factors such as drug properties, desired effects, and patient condition influence route selection.
Pharmacokinetics refers to how the body acts on drugs through absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The goal of drug therapy is to deliver therapeutic yet non-toxic drug levels to target tissues. Drugs can be administered through enteral routes like oral, sublingual, and rectal, or parenteral routes like intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous. Absorption involves the transfer of drugs from the site of administration to the bloodstream through passive diffusion, active transport, or factors like blood flow and surface area. Distribution describes how drugs enter tissues through blood flow and binding to plasma proteins, with only unbound drugs being pharmacologically active. Metabolism renders drugs more polar and ex
1) Pharmacokinetics is the study of the movement of drugs in the body, including processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion. It quantitatively analyzes the concentrations of drugs over time in different parts of the body.
2) There are four main phases of pharmacokinetics - absorption, which involves entry of drugs into systemic circulation from the site of administration; distribution throughout the body; metabolism, where drugs are chemically altered; and excretion of drugs and metabolites from the body.
3) Many factors influence pharmacokinetic processes like a drug's physicochemical properties, route of administration, tissue permeability, binding to plasma proteins, organ blood flow and rates. Understanding these principles allows for
This document discusses various routes of drug administration including enteral (oral, sublingual) and parenteral (intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous) routes. It describes advantages and disadvantages of each route such as absorption rate, avoidance of first-pass metabolism, control over dosing, and risk of infection. The major routes covered are oral, sublingual, intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous administration.
This document outlines key concepts in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. It discusses the 4 main processes that determine a drug's concentration over time in the body: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Factors that influence each process are explained, such as how drug properties and route of administration impact absorption rate and extent. Common routes of administration like oral, intravenous, intramuscular are compared in terms of their advantages and disadvantages. The role of tissues, membranes, and drug properties in determining distribution is also covered.
There are many routes of drug administration in the human body, some of these are described briefly.
You can know about different types of route and their factors, Clinical Use, Manifestation..
This document provides definitions and information related to general pharmacology for physiotherapists. It defines key terms like pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and discusses topics like drug sources, routes of administration, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and mechanisms of drug action including drug receptors. The summary covers essential concepts in a concise manner.
The document provides information on general pharmacology concepts. It defines pharmacology as the study of drugs and their interaction with living systems. It describes the key processes involved in pharmacokinetics as absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME). Absorption refers to how the drug enters the bloodstream. Distribution involves the transport of drug molecules within the body. Metabolism is how drugs are broken down and biotransformed by the body. Excretion is the removal of drugs from the body, mainly through the kidneys or bile.
The document provides information on general pharmacology concepts. It defines pharmacology as the study of drugs and their interaction with living systems. It describes the key processes involved in pharmacokinetics as absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME). Absorption refers to how the drug enters the bloodstream. Distribution involves the transport of drug molecules within the body. Metabolism is how drugs are broken down and biotransformed by the body. Excretion is the removal of drugs from the body, mainly through the kidneys or bile.
The document discusses various routes of drug administration. It describes that the route of administration impacts how much of the drug reaches its intended site of action in the body by bypassing or reducing metabolic changes. The key routes discussed are oral, sublingual, buccal, rectal, parenteral including intravenous and intramuscular. Factors like drug properties, site of action, absorption rate, digestive effects, dosage accuracy, and patient condition determine the preferred route. Each route has advantages and disadvantages for drug delivery and specific drugs best suited for that administration path.
This document discusses the key concepts of pharmacokinetics including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of drugs in the body. It provides details on each step: Absorption describes how drugs enter systemic circulation through various routes of administration like oral, sublingual, rectal, and parenteral. Distribution explains how drugs are delivered to tissues via blood flow and binding to plasma proteins. Metabolism discusses the liver's role in biotransforming drugs through Phase 1 and Phase 2 reactions. Elimination reviews the removal of drugs from the body, primarily through the kidneys and other routes like intestines and lungs.
Therapeutic drug monitoring involves measuring drug levels in patients' blood to ensure drug dosages produce therapeutic effects without toxicity. Several health professionals coordinate timing of blood collection, measuring drug levels, and reporting results to physicians for adjusting dosages. Therapeutic drug monitoring is especially important for drugs with a narrow range between therapeutic and toxic levels due to variability in absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion between individuals. Proper collection and handling of blood samples is critical for obtaining accurate drug level measurements.
This document provides an introduction to the field of pharmacology. It defines pharmacology as the study of how drugs interact with living systems, including their effects, absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion. The document outlines the key branches and concepts of pharmacology, including pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, drug sources, nomenclature, administration routes, and factors affecting drug absorption.
Pharmacokinetics refers to how the body acts on drugs through absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Drugs must reach therapeutic yet non-toxic levels at target tissues. Too little drug provides no effect while too much causes toxicity. Drugs move through the body via absorption, distribution to tissues, metabolism, and elimination. Drugs can be administered through various routes including oral, intravenous, intramuscular, and others depending on the drug's properties and desired effects. Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion determine a drug's bioavailability and effects.
Pharmacokinetics refers to how the body acts on drugs through absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Drugs must reach therapeutic yet non-toxic levels at target tissues to be effective. Too little drug provides no effect while too much causes toxicity. Drugs move through absorption into blood, distribution to tissues, metabolism, and elimination from the body. Drugs are administered through various routes including oral, intravenous, intramuscular, and others depending on the drug's properties and desired effects.
Absorption of drugs through non oral routesAzhar iqbal
This document discusses various non-oral routes of drug administration and factors affecting drug absorption through these routes. It describes routes such as buccal/sublingual, rectal, topical, intramuscular, subcutaneous, pulmonary, intranasal, intraocular and vaginal administration. For each route, it provides details on absorption mechanisms, examples of drugs used, advantages and disadvantages. It also compares different routes based on onset of action and absorption mechanism.
This document provides an overview of general principles of pharmacology. It discusses key topics including:
- The definition and study of pharmacology and the types of drug names used.
- The four basic pharmacokinetic processes of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion that determine a drug's concentration at its site of action.
- Factors that influence drug passage across membranes and the different mechanisms of passive and active transport.
- The relationship between dose, plasma drug concentration, and drug response over time.
- How drugs produce their effects through interaction with receptors and the concepts of affinity, efficacy and agonist/antagonist activity.
- Factors influencing drug-drug interactions and the management of adverse drug
Seminar on routes of drug administratin and biotranformationnaseemashraf2
The document provides an overview of routes of drug administration and biotransformation. It defines routes of administration as enteral or parenteral, depending on whether the drug passes through the intestinal tract. Oral administration is the most common route due to convenience, but has limitations including first-pass metabolism in the liver. Other routes discussed include sublingual/buccal, rectal, parenteral (intradermal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous), and emerging routes like transdermal delivery. The document also defines biotransformation as the process by which organisms metabolize compounds not normally part of their metabolism, and outlines drug metabolizing organs, enzymes, and factors affecting metabolism.
Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their interactions with living systems. Drugs can be administered through various routes including oral, parenteral, and topical. The choice of route depends on the drug properties and patient needs. Common routes include oral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, inhalation, and transdermal. Each route has advantages and disadvantages with respect to onset of action, convenience, and safety.
This document discusses pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics is the mechanism of drug action and the relationship between drug concentration and the body's response. Most drugs act by binding to receptors on cells. Pharmacokinetics involves the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs in the body. Drugs can be administered through various routes including oral, intravenous, intramuscular and others. Factors like age, liver and kidney function impact how drugs are processed in the body.
Pharmacokinetics and route of drug administration suneelmaghani
Pharmacokinetics describes what the body does to a drug, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. These processes determine the onset, intensity, and duration of drug action. There are several routes of drug administration that depend on properties of the drug and therapeutic objectives, including oral, parenteral, inhalation, and topical routes. The oral route is convenient but can be affected by stomach acid, while parenteral routes like intravenous provide rapid onset but are irreversible and potentially painful or dangerous. The route chosen impacts the pharmacokinetic profile and therapeutic effects of the drug.
Kosmoderma Academy, a leading institution in the field of dermatology and aesthetics, offers comprehensive courses in cosmetology and trichology. Our specialized courses on PRP (Hair), DR+Growth Factor, GFC, and Qr678 are designed to equip practitioners with advanced skills and knowledge to excel in hair restoration and growth treatments.
1) Pharmacokinetics is the study of the movement of drugs in the body, including processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion. It quantitatively analyzes the concentrations of drugs over time in different parts of the body.
2) There are four main phases of pharmacokinetics - absorption, which involves entry of drugs into systemic circulation from the site of administration; distribution throughout the body; metabolism, where drugs are chemically altered; and excretion of drugs and metabolites from the body.
3) Many factors influence pharmacokinetic processes like a drug's physicochemical properties, route of administration, tissue permeability, binding to plasma proteins, organ blood flow and rates. Understanding these principles allows for
This document discusses various routes of drug administration including enteral (oral, sublingual) and parenteral (intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous) routes. It describes advantages and disadvantages of each route such as absorption rate, avoidance of first-pass metabolism, control over dosing, and risk of infection. The major routes covered are oral, sublingual, intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous administration.
This document outlines key concepts in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. It discusses the 4 main processes that determine a drug's concentration over time in the body: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Factors that influence each process are explained, such as how drug properties and route of administration impact absorption rate and extent. Common routes of administration like oral, intravenous, intramuscular are compared in terms of their advantages and disadvantages. The role of tissues, membranes, and drug properties in determining distribution is also covered.
There are many routes of drug administration in the human body, some of these are described briefly.
You can know about different types of route and their factors, Clinical Use, Manifestation..
This document provides definitions and information related to general pharmacology for physiotherapists. It defines key terms like pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and discusses topics like drug sources, routes of administration, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and mechanisms of drug action including drug receptors. The summary covers essential concepts in a concise manner.
The document provides information on general pharmacology concepts. It defines pharmacology as the study of drugs and their interaction with living systems. It describes the key processes involved in pharmacokinetics as absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME). Absorption refers to how the drug enters the bloodstream. Distribution involves the transport of drug molecules within the body. Metabolism is how drugs are broken down and biotransformed by the body. Excretion is the removal of drugs from the body, mainly through the kidneys or bile.
The document provides information on general pharmacology concepts. It defines pharmacology as the study of drugs and their interaction with living systems. It describes the key processes involved in pharmacokinetics as absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME). Absorption refers to how the drug enters the bloodstream. Distribution involves the transport of drug molecules within the body. Metabolism is how drugs are broken down and biotransformed by the body. Excretion is the removal of drugs from the body, mainly through the kidneys or bile.
The document discusses various routes of drug administration. It describes that the route of administration impacts how much of the drug reaches its intended site of action in the body by bypassing or reducing metabolic changes. The key routes discussed are oral, sublingual, buccal, rectal, parenteral including intravenous and intramuscular. Factors like drug properties, site of action, absorption rate, digestive effects, dosage accuracy, and patient condition determine the preferred route. Each route has advantages and disadvantages for drug delivery and specific drugs best suited for that administration path.
This document discusses the key concepts of pharmacokinetics including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of drugs in the body. It provides details on each step: Absorption describes how drugs enter systemic circulation through various routes of administration like oral, sublingual, rectal, and parenteral. Distribution explains how drugs are delivered to tissues via blood flow and binding to plasma proteins. Metabolism discusses the liver's role in biotransforming drugs through Phase 1 and Phase 2 reactions. Elimination reviews the removal of drugs from the body, primarily through the kidneys and other routes like intestines and lungs.
Therapeutic drug monitoring involves measuring drug levels in patients' blood to ensure drug dosages produce therapeutic effects without toxicity. Several health professionals coordinate timing of blood collection, measuring drug levels, and reporting results to physicians for adjusting dosages. Therapeutic drug monitoring is especially important for drugs with a narrow range between therapeutic and toxic levels due to variability in absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion between individuals. Proper collection and handling of blood samples is critical for obtaining accurate drug level measurements.
This document provides an introduction to the field of pharmacology. It defines pharmacology as the study of how drugs interact with living systems, including their effects, absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion. The document outlines the key branches and concepts of pharmacology, including pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, drug sources, nomenclature, administration routes, and factors affecting drug absorption.
Pharmacokinetics refers to how the body acts on drugs through absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Drugs must reach therapeutic yet non-toxic levels at target tissues. Too little drug provides no effect while too much causes toxicity. Drugs move through the body via absorption, distribution to tissues, metabolism, and elimination. Drugs can be administered through various routes including oral, intravenous, intramuscular, and others depending on the drug's properties and desired effects. Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion determine a drug's bioavailability and effects.
Pharmacokinetics refers to how the body acts on drugs through absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Drugs must reach therapeutic yet non-toxic levels at target tissues to be effective. Too little drug provides no effect while too much causes toxicity. Drugs move through absorption into blood, distribution to tissues, metabolism, and elimination from the body. Drugs are administered through various routes including oral, intravenous, intramuscular, and others depending on the drug's properties and desired effects.
Absorption of drugs through non oral routesAzhar iqbal
This document discusses various non-oral routes of drug administration and factors affecting drug absorption through these routes. It describes routes such as buccal/sublingual, rectal, topical, intramuscular, subcutaneous, pulmonary, intranasal, intraocular and vaginal administration. For each route, it provides details on absorption mechanisms, examples of drugs used, advantages and disadvantages. It also compares different routes based on onset of action and absorption mechanism.
This document provides an overview of general principles of pharmacology. It discusses key topics including:
- The definition and study of pharmacology and the types of drug names used.
- The four basic pharmacokinetic processes of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion that determine a drug's concentration at its site of action.
- Factors that influence drug passage across membranes and the different mechanisms of passive and active transport.
- The relationship between dose, plasma drug concentration, and drug response over time.
- How drugs produce their effects through interaction with receptors and the concepts of affinity, efficacy and agonist/antagonist activity.
- Factors influencing drug-drug interactions and the management of adverse drug
Seminar on routes of drug administratin and biotranformationnaseemashraf2
The document provides an overview of routes of drug administration and biotransformation. It defines routes of administration as enteral or parenteral, depending on whether the drug passes through the intestinal tract. Oral administration is the most common route due to convenience, but has limitations including first-pass metabolism in the liver. Other routes discussed include sublingual/buccal, rectal, parenteral (intradermal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous), and emerging routes like transdermal delivery. The document also defines biotransformation as the process by which organisms metabolize compounds not normally part of their metabolism, and outlines drug metabolizing organs, enzymes, and factors affecting metabolism.
Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their interactions with living systems. Drugs can be administered through various routes including oral, parenteral, and topical. The choice of route depends on the drug properties and patient needs. Common routes include oral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, inhalation, and transdermal. Each route has advantages and disadvantages with respect to onset of action, convenience, and safety.
This document discusses pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics is the mechanism of drug action and the relationship between drug concentration and the body's response. Most drugs act by binding to receptors on cells. Pharmacokinetics involves the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs in the body. Drugs can be administered through various routes including oral, intravenous, intramuscular and others. Factors like age, liver and kidney function impact how drugs are processed in the body.
Pharmacokinetics and route of drug administration suneelmaghani
Pharmacokinetics describes what the body does to a drug, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. These processes determine the onset, intensity, and duration of drug action. There are several routes of drug administration that depend on properties of the drug and therapeutic objectives, including oral, parenteral, inhalation, and topical routes. The oral route is convenient but can be affected by stomach acid, while parenteral routes like intravenous provide rapid onset but are irreversible and potentially painful or dangerous. The route chosen impacts the pharmacokinetic profile and therapeutic effects of the drug.
Kosmoderma Academy, a leading institution in the field of dermatology and aesthetics, offers comprehensive courses in cosmetology and trichology. Our specialized courses on PRP (Hair), DR+Growth Factor, GFC, and Qr678 are designed to equip practitioners with advanced skills and knowledge to excel in hair restoration and growth treatments.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
10 Benefits an EPCR Software should Bring to EMS Organizations Traumasoft LLC
The benefits of an ePCR solution should extend to the whole EMS organization, not just certain groups of people or certain departments. It should provide more than just a form for entering and a database for storing information. It should also include a workflow of how information is communicated, used and stored across the entire organization.
Know the difference between Endodontics and Orthodontics.Gokuldas Hospital
Your smile is beautiful.
Let’s be honest. Maintaining that beautiful smile is not an easy task. It is more than brushing and flossing. Sometimes, you might encounter dental issues that need special dental care. These issues can range anywhere from misalignment of the jaw to pain in the root of teeth.
Nano-gold for Cancer Therapy chemistry investigatory projectSIVAVINAYAKPK
chemistry investigatory project
The development of nanogold-based cancer therapy could revolutionize oncology by providing a more targeted, less invasive treatment option. This project contributes to the growing body of research aimed at harnessing nanotechnology for medical applications, paving the way for future clinical trials and potential commercial applications.
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, prompting the need for innovative treatment methods. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches, including the use of gold nanoparticles (nanogold) for targeted cancer therapy. Nanogold particles possess unique physical and chemical properties that make them suitable for drug delivery, imaging, and photothermal therapy.
How to Control Your Asthma Tips by gokuldas hospital.Gokuldas Hospital
Respiratory issues like asthma are the most sensitive issue that is affecting millions worldwide. It hampers the daily activities leaving the body tired and breathless.
The key to a good grip on asthma is proper knowledge and management strategies. Understanding the patient-specific symptoms and carving out an effective treatment likewise is the best way to keep asthma under control.
5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT or Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that serves a range of roles in the human body. It is sometimes referred to as the happy chemical since it promotes overall well-being and happiness.
It is mostly found in the brain, intestines, and blood platelets.
5-HT is utilised to transport messages between nerve cells, is known to be involved in smooth muscle contraction, and adds to overall well-being and pleasure, among other benefits. 5-HT regulates the body's sleep-wake cycles and internal clock by acting as a precursor to melatonin.
It is hypothesised to regulate hunger, emotions, motor, cognitive, and autonomic processes.
NAVIGATING THE HORIZONS OF TIME LAPSE EMBRYO MONITORING.pdfRahul Sen
Time-lapse embryo monitoring is an advanced imaging technique used in IVF to continuously observe embryo development. It captures high-resolution images at regular intervals, allowing embryologists to select the most viable embryos for transfer based on detailed growth patterns. This technology enhances embryo selection, potentially increasing pregnancy success rates.
2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture students will able be to:
1.Understanding the basic concepts of pharmacology and its role in the healthcare field
2.Understanding the relationship between drugs, receptors, and biological systems
3.Knowledge of the various routes of drug administration and their advantages and
disadvantages
4.Understanding of the factors affecting drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
elimination
5.Knowledge of the pharmacokinetic parameters and their clinical relevance
6.Understanding of the basic concepts of dose-response relationships and
pharmacodynamics
7.Knowledge of the mechanisms of drug action and the concept of selectivity
3. BASIC TERMS:
▪HALF LIFE:
“The half-life of a drug refers to the time it takes for the concentration of the drug in the
body to decrease by half.”
▪DRUG POTENCY
“Drug potency refers to the amount of a drug required to produce a therapeutic effect.”
▪DRUG EFFICACY:
“Drug efficacy refers to the ability of a drug to produce the desired therapeutic effect in a
patient.”
4. CONTI…
TOXICITY:
“Drug toxicity refers to the harmful effects that a drug can have on the body, particularly
when taken in excessive amounts or when the drug is not used as intended”.
BIOAVAILABILITY:
“Bioavailability refers to the amount of a drug or other substance that enters the systemic
circulation and is able to have an active effect after administration.”
THERAPEUTIC INDEX:
“The therapeutic index is a measure of the safety of a drug and is defined as the ratio of
the dose that produces therapeutic effects to the dose that produces toxic effects.”
7. CONTI…
Four pharmacokinetic properties determine the onset, intensity,
and the duration of drug action:
1. Absorption: First Absorption from the site of administration permits
entry of the drug (either directly or indirectly) into plasma.
2. Distribution: Second, the drug may then reversibly leave the
bloodstream and distribute into the interstitial and intracellular fluids.
3. Metabolism: Third, the drug may be biotransformed by metabolism by
the liver or other tissues.
4. Elimination: Finally, the drug and its metabolites are eliminated from the
body in urine, bile, or feces.
9. ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
1. ENTERAL:
o Administering a drug by mouth.
◦ Safest and most common, convenient, and economical method of
drug administration.
◦ May be swallowed orally.
◦ May be placed under the tongue (sublingual), or between the
gums and cheek (buccal).
10. CONTI…
❑ORAL:
Advantages:
◦ easily self-administered.
◦ toxicities and overdose of oral drugs may be overcome with antidotes.
Disadvantages.
◦ the pathways involved in oral drug absorption are the most complicated.
◦ the low gastric pH inactivates some drugs.
11. CONTI….
Oral drugs maybe available as:
a. Enteric-coated preparations:
An enteric coating is a chemical envelope that protects
the drug from stomach acid, delivering it instead to the less
acidic intestine, where the coating dissolves and releases the
drug.
EXAMPLES:
◦ “omeprazole” (acid unstable)
◦ “Aspirin” (Stomach irritant)
12. CONTI…
b. Extended-release preparations:
▪ Extended-release medications have special coatings or
ingredients that control the drug release, thereby allowing for
slower absorption and a prolonged duration of action.
▪For example, the half-life of oral morphine is 2 to 4 hours,
requires 6 deliveries, with controlled-released we only need
2 doses.
13. CONTI…
❑Sublingual/buccal:
▪Placement under the tongue allows a drug to diffuse into the capillary
network and enter the systemic circulation directly.
▪The buccal route (between the cheek and gum) is similar to the
sublingual route.
Advantages:
• Ease of administration.
•Rapid absorption.
•Bypass of the harsh gastrointestinal (GI) environment.
•Avoidance of firstpass metabolism.
14. CONTI…
❑RECTAL:
▪The biotransformation of drugs by the liver is minimized with rectal
administration
▪This route is also useful if the drug induces vomiting when given orally,
if the patient is already vomiting, or if the patient is unconscious.
15. PARENTERAL ROUTE
▪Introduces drugs directly into the systemic circulation.
▪Used for drugs that are poorly absorbed from the GI tract
(heparin).
▪used if a patient is unable to take oral medications (unconscious
patients)
▪Used in circumstances that require a rapid onset of action.
▪Have highest bioavailability.
16. CONTI…
The three major parenteral routes are
❑ intravascular (intravenous or intra-arterial)
❑ intramuscular
❑ subcutaneous
17. INTRAVENOUS (IV)
▪most common parenteral route.
Advantages
▪useful for drugs that are not absorbed orally.
▪permits a rapid effect and a maximum degree of control over the
amount of drug delivered.
▪Disadvantages:
▪May cause infections through contamination at the site of
injection.
▪Unlike drugs given orally, that are injected cannot be recalled by
strategies such as binding to activated charcoal.
▪rate of infusion must be carefully controlled.
18. Intramuscular (IM)
▪can be in aqueous solutions, which are absorbed rapidly,
▪or in specialized depot preparations, which are absorbed slowly.
▪Examples of sustained-release drugs are haloperidol and depot
medroxyprogesterone.
19. Subcutaneous (SC)
▪ SC injection provides absorption via simple diffusion
▪It is slower than the IV route.
▪SC injection minimizes the risks of hemolysis or thrombosis
associated with IV injection may provide constant, slow, and
sustained effects.
▪ This route should not be used with drugs that cause tissue
irritation, because severe pain and necrosis may occur.
▪ Drugs commonly administered via the subcutaneous route
include insulin and heparin.
20. OTHER ROUTES
▪INHALATION:
▪provides rapid delivery of a drug across the large surface area
of the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and
pulmonary epithelium.
▪Drug effects are almost as rapid as those with IV bolus.
▪Drugs that are gases (for example, some anesthetics) and
those that can be dispersed in an aerosol are administered via
inhalation.
▪EXAMPLE:
▪bronchodilators, such as albuterol,
21. CONTI….
NASAL INHALATION:
▪administration of drugs directly into the nose.
▪Examples of agents include nasal decongestants, such as
oxymetazoline.
INTRATHECAL:
▪Enters drugs into subarachnoid space.
▪When local, rapid effects are needed, it is necessary to
introduce drugs directly into the cerebrospinal fluid.
▪For example, intrathecal amphotericin B is used in treating
cryptococcal meningitis.
22. ❑TOPICAL:
▪used when a local effect of the drug is desired.
▪For example, clotrimazole is a cream applied directly to the
skin for the treatment of fungal infections.
❑TRANSDERMAL:
▪Application of drugs to the skin
▪Usually via a transdermal patch. Ex: nicotine transdermal
patches.
23. ABSORPTION OF DRUGS
▪Absorption is the transfer of a drug from the site of administration to the
bloodstream.
▪The rate and extent of absorption depend on the:
▪ Environment where the drug is absorbed.
▪ Chemical characteristics of the drug.
▪ And the route of administration (which influences bioavailability).
24.
25. B. FACTORS INFLUENCING ABSORPTION
1. Effect of pH on drug absorption:
▪A drug passes through membranes more readily if it is uncharged.
▪Effective concentration of the permeable form of each drug is determined
by the the charged and uncharged forms of drugs.
2. Blood flow to the absorption site:
▪ The intestines receive much more blood flow than the stomach, so
absorption from the intestine is favored over the stomach.
3. Total surface area available for absorption:
▪ With a surface rich in brush borders containing microvilli, the intestine has
a surface area about 1000-fold that of the stomach, making absorption
more efficient.
26. CONTI…
4. Contact time at the absorption surface:
▪ If a drug moves through the GI tract very quickly, as can happen with
severe diarrhea, it is not well absorbed.
▪Conversely, anything that delays the transport of the drug from the stomach
to the intestine delays the rate of absorption of the drug.
5. Expression of P-glycoprotein:
▪ P-glycoprotein is a transmembrane transporter protein responsible for
transporting various molecules, including drugs, across cell membranes.
▪It is involved in transportation of drugs from tissues to blood.
27. C. BIOAVAILABILITY
“Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which an administered drug
reaches the systemic circulation.”
Determining bioavailability is important for calculating drug dosages for
nonintravenous routes of administration.
Determination of bioavailability:
▪ Bioavailability of a drug given orally is the ratio of the plasma
concentration of drug following oral administration to the plasma
concentration of drug following IV administration
28. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE BIOAVAILABILITY:
a. First-pass hepatic metabolism:
▪When a drug is absorbed from the GI tract, it enters the portal circulation
before entering the systemic circulation.
▪If the drug is rapidly metabolized in the liver or gut wall during this initial
passage, the amount of unchanged drug entering the systemic circulation is
decreased. This is referred to as first-pass metabolism.
b. Solubility of the drug:
▪ Very hydrophilic drugs are poorly absorbed
▪Paradoxically, drugs that are extremely lipophilic are also poorly absorbed.
▪ For a drug to be readily absorbed, it must be largely lipophilic, yet have
some solubility in aqueous solutions.
▪This is one reason why many drugs are either weak acids or weak bases.
29. CONTI…
c. Chemical instability:
▪ Some drugs, such as penicillin G, are unstable in the pH of the gastric
contents.
▪Others, such as insulin, are destroyed in the GI tract by degradative
enzymes.
d. Nature of the drug formulation:
▪ Drug absorption may be altered by factors unrelated to the chemistry of
the drug.
▪ For example, particle size, salt form, crystal, enteric coatings, and the
presence of excipients (such as binders) can influence the ease of
dissolution and, therefore, alter the rate of absorption.
30. D. BIOEQUIVALENCE
▪Two drug formulations are bioequivalent if they show comparable
bioavailability and similar times to achieve peak blood concentrations.
E. THERAPEUTIC
EQUIVALENCE:
▪Two drug formulations are therapeutically equivalent if they are
pharmaceutically equivalent (that is, they have the same dosage form,
contain the same active ingredient, and use the same route of
administration) with similar clinical and safety profiles
31. DRUG DISTRIBUTION
“Drug distribution is the process by which a drug reversibly leaves
the bloodstream and enters the interstitium (extracellular fluid) and
the tissues.”
▪The distribution of a drug from the plasma to the interstitium depends on:
▪ Cardiac output and local blood flow.
▪ Capillary permeability.
▪ The tissue volume.
▪ The degree of binding of the drug to plasma and tissue proteins.
▪ And the relative lipophilicity of the drug.
32. CONTI..
A. Blood flow:
▪ The rate of blood flow to the tissue capillaries varies widely. For instance,
blood flow to the “vessel-rich organs” (brain, liver, and kidney) is greater
than that to the skeletal muscles.
B. Capillary permeability:
▪ Capillary permeability is determined by capillary structure and by the
chemical nature of the drug.
▪Capillary structure varies in terms of the fraction of the basement
membrane exposed by slit junctions between endothelial cells.
33. CONTI…
C. Binding to plasma proteins:
▪ Albumin is the major drug-binding protein and may act as a drug reservoir.
▪ This maintains the free drug concentration as a constant fraction of the
total drug in the plasma.
D. Binding to tissue proteins:
▪Many drugs accumulate in tissues, leading to higher concentrations in
tissues than in the extracellular fluid and blood.
34. CONTI…
▪Tissue reservoirs may serve as a major source of drug’s
prolong actions or cause local drug toxicity.
D. Lipophilicity:
▪Lipophilic drugs readily move across most biologic membranes.
35. DRUG CLEARANCE THROUGH
METABOLISM
▪Once a drug enters the body, the process of elimination begins.
▪ The three major routes of elimination are hepatic metabolism, biliary
elimination, and urinary elimination.
▪ Together, these elimination processes decrease the plasma concentration
exponentially.
B. Reactions of drug metabolism:
▪The kidney cannot efficiently eliminate lipophilic drugs that readily cross cell
membranes and are reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubules.
▪ Therefore, lipid-soluble agents are first metabolized into more polar
(hydrophilic) substances in the liver.
37. ELEMINATION
A. Renal elimination of a drug
1. Glomerular filtration:
▪Free drug (not bound to albumin) flows through the capillary
slits into the Bowman space as part of the glomerular filtrate
2. Proximal tubular secretion:
▪ Drugs that were not transferred into the glomerular filtrate
leave the glomeruli through efferent arterioles.
▪ Secretion primarily occurs in the proximal tubules by two
energy-requiring active transport systems: one for anions and
one for cations.
38. CONTI…
3. Distal tubular reabsorption:
▪ As a drug moves toward the distal convoluted tubule, its
concentration increases and exceeds that of the perivascular
space.
▪ As a general rule, weak acids can be eliminated by
alkalinization of the urine.
▪Whereas elimination of weak bases may be increased by
acidification of the urine.
▪ This process is called “ion trapping.”
39. DRUGS ELIMINATION BY OTHER
ROUTES
▪Drugs that are not absorbed after oral administration or drugs that are
secreted directly into the intestines or into bile are eliminated in the feces.
▪The lungs are primarily involved in the elimination of anesthetic gases (for
example, isoflurane).
▪ Elimination of drugs in breast milk may expose the breast-feeding infant
to medications and/or metabolites being taken by the mother and is a
potential source of undesirable side effects to the infant.
▪ Excretion of most drugs into sweat, saliva, tears, hair, and skin occurs only
to a small extent.
40. REFERENCES:
❑Whalen K. Feild C. & Radhakrishnan R. (2019). Lippincott illustrated reviews :
pharmacology (Seventh). Wolters Kluwer.