Organic peanut production relies on managing soil fertility and pests without off-farm inputs. Labor and costs are higher for organic peanuts than conventional. There is high demand for organic peanuts and farmers can receive premium prices. The main challenges are managing weeds, insects, and diseases without many synthetic pesticides.
This document provides organic field crop documentation forms for farmers to record information needed to demonstrate compliance with organic regulations. It includes forms for activities, inputs, seeds and planting stock, compost production, soil and pest monitoring, harvest records, and storage records for on-farm and off-farm storage of organic and conventional crops. The forms are intended to help farmers keep organized records of their practices to showcase they are farming organically as outlined in their organic system plan.
Kaolin clay, the active ingredient in Surround WP, is a non-toxic particle film that acts as a barrier between pests and apple plants. When insects contact trees coated with kaolin clay, the tiny particles agitate and repel the insects. Trials have shown Surround WP provides control of leafrollers and leafhoppers as well as suppression of mites, codling moth, plum curculio, and other pests. In addition to pest control, kaolin clay can provide horticultural benefits like reduced heat stress and improved fruit color. Growers report kaolin clay is most effective when used as part of an integrated pest management system incorporating cultural and chemical methods.
This document provides information on organic small grain production. It discusses that organic farming excludes commercial fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, and growth regulators, relying instead on crop rotations, cover crops, and biological pest control. It also notes that organic producers must be certified and discusses various publications that cover organic certification requirements and production methods. Specific considerations for organic small grain production include managing soil fertility through animal manures and cover crops, using integrated pest management and resistant varieties to handle insects and diseases, employing crop rotations for weed control, and marketing through contracts since the organic market has many small buyers.
This document summarizes strategies for organic field corn production. It discusses using crop rotation including legumes to supply nitrogen, as well as cover crops and green manures. Livestock manures and composts can also provide nutrients. Additional nutrients may come from approved organic fertilizers or mined rock powders. Key pests of field corn like European corn borer are managed through cultural practices like crop rotation and sanitation rather than synthetic pesticides. Organic systems aim to build soil fertility through nutrient cycling and maintaining biological activity in the soil.
This document provides forms and guidance for organic market farmers to document practices, inputs, and activities required to demonstrate compliance with the USDA National Organic Program regulations. It includes forms for recording production activities by field or bed, inputs, seed sources, compost production, pest monitoring, harvest records, and sales. The forms are intended to help farmers organize information needed for organic certification and inspections.
This document provides an overview of organic tree fruit production, including marketing considerations, orchard planning and establishment, and ongoing orchard management. Some key points:
- Marketing is critical to success, and the production system must be designed to meet the needs of intended markets. Premium pricing may be needed to offset typically higher organic production costs.
- Proper site selection is important, considering soil, climate, drainage and other environmental factors that cannot be easily changed. Variety selection should match the site conditions and market opportunities.
- Careful planning includes decisions around crop species, rootstocks, tree spacing and layout to optimize long-term productivity and efficiency within the limitations of the land. Establishing soil fertility and integrated pest management
This document summarizes information on organic herb production in the United States, including:
- The growth in organic farming and sales of organic foods in the US. Around 7,200 producers were certified organic in 2001, with 2.07 million acres under organic cultivation.
- Herb production can provide additional income for small farms, though typical herb farms are small businesses that add value through direct marketing.
- Federal regulations now require certification for organic labels and marketing. The USDA provides oversight of the National Organic Program.
Organic peanut production relies on cultural techniques that maintain soil fertility through crop rotation and composting, rather than off-farm inputs. While labor and management costs are higher for organic peanuts, farmers can find higher demand and premium prices in organic markets. The document discusses organic peanut production methods, varieties suited to different regions, challenges in organic marketing, and potential alternative uses for organic peanuts including forage and biodiesel production.
This document provides organic field crop documentation forms for farmers to record information needed to demonstrate compliance with organic regulations. It includes forms for activities, inputs, seeds and planting stock, compost production, soil and pest monitoring, harvest records, and storage records for on-farm and off-farm storage of organic and conventional crops. The forms are intended to help farmers keep organized records of their practices to showcase they are farming organically as outlined in their organic system plan.
Kaolin clay, the active ingredient in Surround WP, is a non-toxic particle film that acts as a barrier between pests and apple plants. When insects contact trees coated with kaolin clay, the tiny particles agitate and repel the insects. Trials have shown Surround WP provides control of leafrollers and leafhoppers as well as suppression of mites, codling moth, plum curculio, and other pests. In addition to pest control, kaolin clay can provide horticultural benefits like reduced heat stress and improved fruit color. Growers report kaolin clay is most effective when used as part of an integrated pest management system incorporating cultural and chemical methods.
This document provides information on organic small grain production. It discusses that organic farming excludes commercial fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, and growth regulators, relying instead on crop rotations, cover crops, and biological pest control. It also notes that organic producers must be certified and discusses various publications that cover organic certification requirements and production methods. Specific considerations for organic small grain production include managing soil fertility through animal manures and cover crops, using integrated pest management and resistant varieties to handle insects and diseases, employing crop rotations for weed control, and marketing through contracts since the organic market has many small buyers.
This document summarizes strategies for organic field corn production. It discusses using crop rotation including legumes to supply nitrogen, as well as cover crops and green manures. Livestock manures and composts can also provide nutrients. Additional nutrients may come from approved organic fertilizers or mined rock powders. Key pests of field corn like European corn borer are managed through cultural practices like crop rotation and sanitation rather than synthetic pesticides. Organic systems aim to build soil fertility through nutrient cycling and maintaining biological activity in the soil.
This document provides forms and guidance for organic market farmers to document practices, inputs, and activities required to demonstrate compliance with the USDA National Organic Program regulations. It includes forms for recording production activities by field or bed, inputs, seed sources, compost production, pest monitoring, harvest records, and sales. The forms are intended to help farmers organize information needed for organic certification and inspections.
This document provides an overview of organic tree fruit production, including marketing considerations, orchard planning and establishment, and ongoing orchard management. Some key points:
- Marketing is critical to success, and the production system must be designed to meet the needs of intended markets. Premium pricing may be needed to offset typically higher organic production costs.
- Proper site selection is important, considering soil, climate, drainage and other environmental factors that cannot be easily changed. Variety selection should match the site conditions and market opportunities.
- Careful planning includes decisions around crop species, rootstocks, tree spacing and layout to optimize long-term productivity and efficiency within the limitations of the land. Establishing soil fertility and integrated pest management
This document summarizes information on organic herb production in the United States, including:
- The growth in organic farming and sales of organic foods in the US. Around 7,200 producers were certified organic in 2001, with 2.07 million acres under organic cultivation.
- Herb production can provide additional income for small farms, though typical herb farms are small businesses that add value through direct marketing.
- Federal regulations now require certification for organic labels and marketing. The USDA provides oversight of the National Organic Program.
Organic peanut production relies on cultural techniques that maintain soil fertility through crop rotation and composting, rather than off-farm inputs. While labor and management costs are higher for organic peanuts, farmers can find higher demand and premium prices in organic markets. The document discusses organic peanut production methods, varieties suited to different regions, challenges in organic marketing, and potential alternative uses for organic peanuts including forage and biodiesel production.
Aquaponics — Integration of Hydroponics with AquacultureElisaMendelsohn
Aquaponics is a sustainable food production system that integrates aquaculture and hydroponics. In aquaponics, nutrient-rich waste from fish tanks fertilizes hydroponically grown plants. The plants then filter the water, which is recirculated to the fish tanks. Recent innovations have improved aquaponics technology, enabling commercial viability. Aquaponics provides organic fertilizer to plants from fish waste while the plants remove toxins from the water, benefiting both fish and plants in a symbiotic system.
This document discusses how organic farming practices can both protect and fail to protect water quality. When implemented using a "systems approach" that considers biological, chemical and climatic processes in each field, organic practices like building soil organic matter, crop rotations, and conservation practices can increase nutrient retention and decrease runoff and erosion, thus protecting water quality. However, problems can occur if manure is mismanaged, green manures are improperly timed, or manure/compost is poorly stored. The key to effective production and water protection is maintaining high soil organic matter and active soil organisms.
Organic Orchard, Vineyard, and Berry Crop Documentation FormsElisaMendelsohn
This document provides organic orchard, vineyard, and berry crop documentation forms for farmers to record information required to demonstrate compliance with the USDA National Organic Program. The forms include logs for recording activities, inputs, establishment practices, planting stock, fertility monitoring, pest monitoring, and harvest details for each crop block. Instructions are provided on the purpose and use of the forms.
Organic Farm Certification & the National Organic ProgramElisaMendelsohn
Organic farmers seeking to market their products as certified organic must undergo a certification process to assure buyers of the integrity of their organic claims. This involves a third party certification agent evaluating the farm based on the National Organic Program standards. If the farm is found to meet these standards prohibiting synthetic inputs and ensuring separation from conventional operations, the farmer becomes certified and can market products with the USDA organic seal. The certification process provides consistency across certifiers and reassures consumers that certified products are truly organic. It requires documentation from farmers to demonstrate compliance with organic practices and prevent contamination. While certification involves costs and paperwork, it also opens access to premium prices in the organic market.
Pursuing Conservation Tillage Systems for Organic Crop ProductionElisaMendelsohn
This document discusses conservation tillage systems for organic crop production. It describes several tillage methods used in organic farming, including mulch tillage, ridge tillage, killed mulch systems, living mulches, zone tillage, and cover crops. It notes that very little research has been done on no-till and low-till systems under organic conditions. More research is needed to determine which conservation tillage approaches can work without the use of herbicides and commercial fertilizers common in conventional no-till systems. Pursuing conservation tillage aligns with the need for more sustainable technologies in organic farming and broader environmental conservation goals.
This document provides an overview of organic sweet potato production in the United States. It discusses leading production areas, which are primarily in the Southeast and California. It also outlines markets for sweet potatoes, including processing into canned, frozen and baby food products as well as value-added items like chips and flour. Research on organic production is being conducted at universities like North Carolina State.
This document discusses three steps for ensuring compliant use of materials for organic production and handling according to the USDA's National Organic Program. First, operators must understand the relevant NOP regulations regarding allowed and prohibited materials. Second, operators must include all materials in their Organic System Plan and get approval from their certifier. Third, operators must document all material purchases and uses and keep records for at least five years. Following these steps helps ensure materials are used correctly according to organic standards.
DESIGN OF AQUAPONICS SYSTEM OF IRRIGATIONvivatechijri
Aquaponics as a vertical farming technique has undergone various development to make it an
efficient replacement for conventional farming methods. Hydroponics, a soil-less farming method has been
combined with aquaculture (fish farming) to obtain a system with its own ecological balance. The disadvantages
of these systems overcome by symbiotic relationship between them. As a result aquaponics has better production
and growth rate than other farming methods. The aquaponics systems focused on increasing economically and
sustainability of indoor and outdoor fish farming. Aspect like sustainability, development and economically
efficiency improve of farmer health we must reconsider the agriculture sciences, by this we understand that we
must develops technologies friendly for the environment. Combining aquaculture with hydroponics we obtain a
new innovation named aquaponics which respects principles of sustainable agriculture (wastewater bio
filtration by plants) and gives us the possibility to increase economic efficiency with an additional production
(organic vegetables) to produce the nutrient rich food.The various parameters that are to be considered during the design and implementation of an aquaponic
system have been discussed in this paper
This document provides a sustainability checklist for dairy farms to evaluate their operations. It includes sections on farm resources, management, facilities, livestock and forage programs, nutrient management, marketing, and assessments of pastures, soils, and watersheds. The checklist is intended to stimulate critical thinking about how management decisions impact different areas of the farm and identify strengths and areas for improvement. It suggests using the checklist over multiple meetings and focusing on identifying information needs rather than judging practices.
Seed Production and Variety Development for Organic SystemsElisaMendelsohn
The document discusses seed production and variety development for organic systems. It notes that while interest is growing in developing seed varieties specifically for organic production, this area is still in its infancy. Some public universities and seed companies are beginning to breed varieties suited to organic farming through participatory breeding programs and selecting traits that confer natural resistance. However, no commercially available seeds have been bred specifically for organic production yet. The document outlines challenges around increasing the supply of organic seeds and regulatory issues affecting U.S. organic farmers.
This document provides an introduction to organic pasture and rangeland regulations under the US National Organic Program. It defines key terms like pasture and organic, explaining that organic agriculture aims to create biological systems that maintain soil and ecological health without prohibited substances. The document outlines allowed and prohibited materials, requirements for organic integrity through record keeping, and resources for further information on organic livestock and pasture management.
This document provides information on organic sweet corn production, including key aspects such as varieties, soil fertility, weed control, pest management, harvesting, and marketing. Organic sweet corn production differs from conventional methods in its reliance on crop rotations, cover crops, compost and manures for soil fertility and its use of mechanical cultivation and biological controls to manage pests. The document discusses organic certification requirements and considerations for seed varieties, and provides details on production practices and marketing organic sweet corn.
This document discusses considerations for organic apple production in the eastern and western United States. It notes that organic apple production faces significantly more challenges in the east due to higher pest pressures from diseases, insects, and weeds caused by the wetter climate. In the west, organic apple production has fewer pest issues and benefits from larger-scale operations, centralized infrastructure, and more research support. While progress has been made in developing organic management practices, the document concludes that organic apple production will likely remain difficult and less profitable in the eastern US compared to the west due to these inherent climatic differences that influence pest pressures.
This document summarizes research on conservation systems in the Southeastern United States. It discusses objectives to develop conservation systems that improve soil quality, conserve resources, and increase production efficiency. A conservation system combines conservation tillage and cover crops. Research has found that conservation systems can control erosion, improve soil quality, increase water infiltration, and provide economic benefits, though they also involve establishment and management costs. Ongoing research is analyzing the long-term impacts of conservation systems on cotton yields, quality, and profits across the region.
This document provides information on organic sweet corn production, including key aspects such as varieties, soil fertility, weed control, pest management, harvesting, and marketing. Organic sweet corn production differs from conventional methods in its reliance on crop rotations, cover crops, compost and manures for soil fertility and its use of mechanical cultivation and biological controls to manage pests. The document discusses organic certification requirements and considerations for seed selection, fertility management, pest control, and post-harvest handling.
This publication provides guidance on organic potato production practices including fertility and nutrient management, pest management, harvesting, storage, and marketing. It discusses using organic matter and crop rotations to build soil fertility as well as controlling insects, diseases, weeds, and nematodes without synthetic chemicals. Storage and economic issues are also covered. The goal is to grow healthy potato plants from certified organic seed using sustainable methods. Successful organic potato farming requires experimenting with different practices and marketing potatoes through various direct or wholesale channels.
This document provides an overview of organic tree fruit production, including marketing considerations, orchard planning and establishment, and ongoing orchard management. Some key points:
- Marketing is critical to success, and the production system must be designed to meet the needs of intended markets. Premium pricing may be needed to offset typically higher organic production costs.
- Proper site selection is important, considering soil, climate, drainage and other environmental factors that cannot be easily changed. Variety selection should match the site conditions and market opportunities.
- Careful planning includes decisions around crop species, rootstocks, tree spacing and layout to optimize productivity and efficiency over the long term life of the orchard. Establishing soil fertility and integrated pest management programs
Organic tomato production differs from conventional production primarily through soil fertility, weed, insect, and disease management which focus on using organic methods like crop rotations, cover crops, compost and manures instead of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Fresh market tomatoes require about 75 to 100 pounds of nitrogen per acre which can be supplied through legumes and compost, with additional needs met through animal meals, rock phosphate and kelp meal. Yields of 650 to 850 boxes per acre are common, with efficient harvesting, handling and marketing needed due to tomatoes being highly perishable. Variety selection considers disease resistance, suitability to production systems and regional adaptability.
Organic tomato production differs from conventional production primarily through soil fertility, weed, insect, and disease management which focus on using organic methods like crop rotations, cover crops, compost and manures instead of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Fresh market tomatoes require about 75 to 100 pounds of nitrogen per acre which can be supplied through legumes and compost, with additional needs met through animal meals, rock phosphate, and kelp meal. Yields of 650 to 850 boxes per acre are common, with efficient harvesting, handling and marketing needed due to tomatoes being highly perishable. Variety selection considers disease resistance, suitability to production systems, and regional adaptability.
This document summarizes research on organic herb production in the US, including production of annual and perennial herbs. It discusses the growth of the organic industry, certification requirements, and challenges for beginning organic herb producers. It also reviews research projects on organic herb production funded by USDA and outlines federal regulations regarding wild crop harvesting and organic certification.
This document provides an overview of organic cotton production practices including soil fertility, weed management, insect management, and diseases. Specific practices discussed for soil fertility include crop rotation, cover cropping, animal manure additions, and rock powders. Weed management is accomplished through cultivation and cultural practices. Insect management uses trap cropping, strip cropping, border vegetation, and biopesticides. The document also discusses strategies for specific insect pests and diseases, as well as defoliation, marketing, and economics of organic cotton.
Aquaponics — Integration of Hydroponics with AquacultureElisaMendelsohn
Aquaponics is a sustainable food production system that integrates aquaculture and hydroponics. In aquaponics, nutrient-rich waste from fish tanks fertilizes hydroponically grown plants. The plants then filter the water, which is recirculated to the fish tanks. Recent innovations have improved aquaponics technology, enabling commercial viability. Aquaponics provides organic fertilizer to plants from fish waste while the plants remove toxins from the water, benefiting both fish and plants in a symbiotic system.
This document discusses how organic farming practices can both protect and fail to protect water quality. When implemented using a "systems approach" that considers biological, chemical and climatic processes in each field, organic practices like building soil organic matter, crop rotations, and conservation practices can increase nutrient retention and decrease runoff and erosion, thus protecting water quality. However, problems can occur if manure is mismanaged, green manures are improperly timed, or manure/compost is poorly stored. The key to effective production and water protection is maintaining high soil organic matter and active soil organisms.
Organic Orchard, Vineyard, and Berry Crop Documentation FormsElisaMendelsohn
This document provides organic orchard, vineyard, and berry crop documentation forms for farmers to record information required to demonstrate compliance with the USDA National Organic Program. The forms include logs for recording activities, inputs, establishment practices, planting stock, fertility monitoring, pest monitoring, and harvest details for each crop block. Instructions are provided on the purpose and use of the forms.
Organic Farm Certification & the National Organic ProgramElisaMendelsohn
Organic farmers seeking to market their products as certified organic must undergo a certification process to assure buyers of the integrity of their organic claims. This involves a third party certification agent evaluating the farm based on the National Organic Program standards. If the farm is found to meet these standards prohibiting synthetic inputs and ensuring separation from conventional operations, the farmer becomes certified and can market products with the USDA organic seal. The certification process provides consistency across certifiers and reassures consumers that certified products are truly organic. It requires documentation from farmers to demonstrate compliance with organic practices and prevent contamination. While certification involves costs and paperwork, it also opens access to premium prices in the organic market.
Pursuing Conservation Tillage Systems for Organic Crop ProductionElisaMendelsohn
This document discusses conservation tillage systems for organic crop production. It describes several tillage methods used in organic farming, including mulch tillage, ridge tillage, killed mulch systems, living mulches, zone tillage, and cover crops. It notes that very little research has been done on no-till and low-till systems under organic conditions. More research is needed to determine which conservation tillage approaches can work without the use of herbicides and commercial fertilizers common in conventional no-till systems. Pursuing conservation tillage aligns with the need for more sustainable technologies in organic farming and broader environmental conservation goals.
This document provides an overview of organic sweet potato production in the United States. It discusses leading production areas, which are primarily in the Southeast and California. It also outlines markets for sweet potatoes, including processing into canned, frozen and baby food products as well as value-added items like chips and flour. Research on organic production is being conducted at universities like North Carolina State.
This document discusses three steps for ensuring compliant use of materials for organic production and handling according to the USDA's National Organic Program. First, operators must understand the relevant NOP regulations regarding allowed and prohibited materials. Second, operators must include all materials in their Organic System Plan and get approval from their certifier. Third, operators must document all material purchases and uses and keep records for at least five years. Following these steps helps ensure materials are used correctly according to organic standards.
DESIGN OF AQUAPONICS SYSTEM OF IRRIGATIONvivatechijri
Aquaponics as a vertical farming technique has undergone various development to make it an
efficient replacement for conventional farming methods. Hydroponics, a soil-less farming method has been
combined with aquaculture (fish farming) to obtain a system with its own ecological balance. The disadvantages
of these systems overcome by symbiotic relationship between them. As a result aquaponics has better production
and growth rate than other farming methods. The aquaponics systems focused on increasing economically and
sustainability of indoor and outdoor fish farming. Aspect like sustainability, development and economically
efficiency improve of farmer health we must reconsider the agriculture sciences, by this we understand that we
must develops technologies friendly for the environment. Combining aquaculture with hydroponics we obtain a
new innovation named aquaponics which respects principles of sustainable agriculture (wastewater bio
filtration by plants) and gives us the possibility to increase economic efficiency with an additional production
(organic vegetables) to produce the nutrient rich food.The various parameters that are to be considered during the design and implementation of an aquaponic
system have been discussed in this paper
This document provides a sustainability checklist for dairy farms to evaluate their operations. It includes sections on farm resources, management, facilities, livestock and forage programs, nutrient management, marketing, and assessments of pastures, soils, and watersheds. The checklist is intended to stimulate critical thinking about how management decisions impact different areas of the farm and identify strengths and areas for improvement. It suggests using the checklist over multiple meetings and focusing on identifying information needs rather than judging practices.
Seed Production and Variety Development for Organic SystemsElisaMendelsohn
The document discusses seed production and variety development for organic systems. It notes that while interest is growing in developing seed varieties specifically for organic production, this area is still in its infancy. Some public universities and seed companies are beginning to breed varieties suited to organic farming through participatory breeding programs and selecting traits that confer natural resistance. However, no commercially available seeds have been bred specifically for organic production yet. The document outlines challenges around increasing the supply of organic seeds and regulatory issues affecting U.S. organic farmers.
This document provides an introduction to organic pasture and rangeland regulations under the US National Organic Program. It defines key terms like pasture and organic, explaining that organic agriculture aims to create biological systems that maintain soil and ecological health without prohibited substances. The document outlines allowed and prohibited materials, requirements for organic integrity through record keeping, and resources for further information on organic livestock and pasture management.
This document provides information on organic sweet corn production, including key aspects such as varieties, soil fertility, weed control, pest management, harvesting, and marketing. Organic sweet corn production differs from conventional methods in its reliance on crop rotations, cover crops, compost and manures for soil fertility and its use of mechanical cultivation and biological controls to manage pests. The document discusses organic certification requirements and considerations for seed varieties, and provides details on production practices and marketing organic sweet corn.
This document discusses considerations for organic apple production in the eastern and western United States. It notes that organic apple production faces significantly more challenges in the east due to higher pest pressures from diseases, insects, and weeds caused by the wetter climate. In the west, organic apple production has fewer pest issues and benefits from larger-scale operations, centralized infrastructure, and more research support. While progress has been made in developing organic management practices, the document concludes that organic apple production will likely remain difficult and less profitable in the eastern US compared to the west due to these inherent climatic differences that influence pest pressures.
This document summarizes research on conservation systems in the Southeastern United States. It discusses objectives to develop conservation systems that improve soil quality, conserve resources, and increase production efficiency. A conservation system combines conservation tillage and cover crops. Research has found that conservation systems can control erosion, improve soil quality, increase water infiltration, and provide economic benefits, though they also involve establishment and management costs. Ongoing research is analyzing the long-term impacts of conservation systems on cotton yields, quality, and profits across the region.
This document provides information on organic sweet corn production, including key aspects such as varieties, soil fertility, weed control, pest management, harvesting, and marketing. Organic sweet corn production differs from conventional methods in its reliance on crop rotations, cover crops, compost and manures for soil fertility and its use of mechanical cultivation and biological controls to manage pests. The document discusses organic certification requirements and considerations for seed selection, fertility management, pest control, and post-harvest handling.
This publication provides guidance on organic potato production practices including fertility and nutrient management, pest management, harvesting, storage, and marketing. It discusses using organic matter and crop rotations to build soil fertility as well as controlling insects, diseases, weeds, and nematodes without synthetic chemicals. Storage and economic issues are also covered. The goal is to grow healthy potato plants from certified organic seed using sustainable methods. Successful organic potato farming requires experimenting with different practices and marketing potatoes through various direct or wholesale channels.
This document provides an overview of organic tree fruit production, including marketing considerations, orchard planning and establishment, and ongoing orchard management. Some key points:
- Marketing is critical to success, and the production system must be designed to meet the needs of intended markets. Premium pricing may be needed to offset typically higher organic production costs.
- Proper site selection is important, considering soil, climate, drainage and other environmental factors that cannot be easily changed. Variety selection should match the site conditions and market opportunities.
- Careful planning includes decisions around crop species, rootstocks, tree spacing and layout to optimize productivity and efficiency over the long term life of the orchard. Establishing soil fertility and integrated pest management programs
Organic tomato production differs from conventional production primarily through soil fertility, weed, insect, and disease management which focus on using organic methods like crop rotations, cover crops, compost and manures instead of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Fresh market tomatoes require about 75 to 100 pounds of nitrogen per acre which can be supplied through legumes and compost, with additional needs met through animal meals, rock phosphate and kelp meal. Yields of 650 to 850 boxes per acre are common, with efficient harvesting, handling and marketing needed due to tomatoes being highly perishable. Variety selection considers disease resistance, suitability to production systems and regional adaptability.
Organic tomato production differs from conventional production primarily through soil fertility, weed, insect, and disease management which focus on using organic methods like crop rotations, cover crops, compost and manures instead of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Fresh market tomatoes require about 75 to 100 pounds of nitrogen per acre which can be supplied through legumes and compost, with additional needs met through animal meals, rock phosphate, and kelp meal. Yields of 650 to 850 boxes per acre are common, with efficient harvesting, handling and marketing needed due to tomatoes being highly perishable. Variety selection considers disease resistance, suitability to production systems, and regional adaptability.
This document summarizes research on organic herb production in the US, including production of annual and perennial herbs. It discusses the growth of the organic industry, certification requirements, and challenges for beginning organic herb producers. It also reviews research projects on organic herb production funded by USDA and outlines federal regulations regarding wild crop harvesting and organic certification.
This document provides an overview of organic cotton production practices including soil fertility, weed management, insect management, and diseases. Specific practices discussed for soil fertility include crop rotation, cover cropping, animal manure additions, and rock powders. Weed management is accomplished through cultivation and cultural practices. Insect management uses trap cropping, strip cropping, border vegetation, and biopesticides. The document also discusses strategies for specific insect pests and diseases, as well as defoliation, marketing, and economics of organic cotton.
This document provides an overview of organic cotton production practices, including soil fertility management, weed control, insect and disease management, and marketing. Specific practices discussed for soil fertility include crop rotation, cover cropping, animal manure additions, and use of naturally occurring rock powders. Weed management is accomplished through cultivation, flame weeding, and other cultural practices. Insect and disease management relies on trap cropping, strip cropping, beneficial insect habitat management, and certain biopesticides. Organic cotton production is challenging but can be profitable with the right strategies and commitment to organic practices.
Organic Farm Certification & the National Organic ProgramElisaMendelsohn
Organic farmers seeking to market their products as certified organic must undergo a certification process to assure buyers of the integrity of their organic claims. This involves a third party certification agent evaluating the farm based on the National Organic Program standards. If the farm is found to meet these standards prohibiting synthetic inputs and ensuring separation from conventional operations, the farmer becomes certified and can market products with the USDA organic seal. The certification process provides consistency across certifiers and reassures consumers that certified products are truly organic. It requires documentation from farmers to demonstrate compliance with organic practices and prevent contamination. While certification involves costs and paperwork, it also opens access to premium prices in the organic market.
This document provides information on organic cotton production. It discusses soil fertility practices for organic systems, including crop rotation, cover cropping, and additions of animal manure and rock powders. Weed management uses a combination of cultivation, flame weeding, and other cultural practices. Insect management employs techniques like trap cropping, strip cropping, and border vegetation to encourage beneficial insects, as well as certain biopesticides. The document also addresses specific pest management strategies, diseases of cotton, defoliation methods, and marketing and economics of organic cotton.
This document provides an overview of organic sweet corn production. It discusses key aspects such as varieties, soil fertility, crop rotations, weed control, insect pest management, diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling, marketing and economics. The summary focuses on organic farming practices for sweet corn including relying on crop rotations, cover crops, compost and organic fertilizers for soil fertility and pest management. It also discusses National Organic Program certification requirements and challenges with weed and insect control in organic systems.
This document provides an overview of organic sweet corn production, including key aspects such as varieties, soil fertility, crop rotations, weed control, insect pest management, diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling, marketing and economics. It discusses organic farming practices like using crop rotations, cover crops, compost and organic fertilizers to build soil fertility and manage pests without synthetic pesticides. The document also provides resources for further information on organic sweet corn production.
This document provides an overview of organic strawberry production methods, including various planting systems, integrated pest management techniques, and discussions of weeds, pests, diseases, varieties, fertility, and economics. It describes common raised bed planting systems using plastic mulch that are also used by organic growers. Alternative systems like matted rows and ribbon rows are also covered.
This document provides an overview of organic strawberry production methods. It discusses various planting systems including raised bed plasticulture, the most common system used by organic and conventional growers in warmer regions. It also covers integrated pest management techniques for controlling weeds, pests, and diseases without synthetic pesticides. The document includes information on varieties, fertility, greenhouse production, and economic considerations for organic strawberry production.
This document provides an introduction to organic pasture and rangeland management under the US National Organic Program. It describes how organic certification applies standards for crop production to pasturelands. The focus is on building healthy soil through the soil food web by feeding it organic matter like plant residues, manure, and root exudates. Nitrogen is supplied through legumes and manure rather than synthetic fertilizers to develop a balanced, biologically active system.
This document provides an introduction to organic pasture and rangeland management under the US National Organic Program. It describes how organic certification applies standards for crop production to pasturelands. The focus is on building soil health through the soil food web by feeding the soil organic matter through practices like rotational grazing and nutrient cycling. Nitrogen is an important nutrient, and legumes are emphasized as the primary source of nitrogen in organic systems rather than synthetic fertilizers. Proper record keeping is required to document compliance with the organic standards.
This document discusses organic herb production in the United States. It provides an overview of research into organic herb production, including projects funded by USDA SARE grants. It also summarizes regulations for organic certification and highlights some of the challenges for beginning organic herb producers, such as the years of experience needed to successfully grow and market herb crops.
Potatoes: Organic Production and Marketing Gardening
This document outlines organic potato production practices including fertility and nutrient management, pest management, harvesting, storage, and marketing. Key points include:
- Organic potato producers must use certified organic seed potatoes unless not commercially available and adhere to certification guidelines excluding synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
- Fertility is managed through animal manures, compost, and crop rotations. Rotations of 4-7 years between potato crops are recommended to reduce pests and build soil health.
- Pest management uses biointensive IPM including rotations with non-host crops, organic matter additions, and biorational controls for insects, diseases, weeds, and nematodes.
- Harvesting, curing
Personal reflection on the status and challenges regarding use of agricultura...ExternalEvents
The document discusses the status and challenges of agricultural biotechnologies in Asia Pacific regions. It notes that molecular breeding, genetic engineering, microbiology, and biodegradation technologies are currently used approaches that can benefit farmers in the region. Some concerns with GM technologies include the need for proper risk assessment, management, and public awareness. New technologies such as gene editing should also be explored. Governments in the region need clear policies to facilitate the commercialization of products while addressing social issues.
This document provides a summary and list of resources for organic and sustainable vegetable production, including books, publications, and websites. It begins with an overview of sustainable and organic vegetable production practices. The main body consists of recommendations for books and publications to include in a farmer's library, such as Sustainable Vegetable Production From Start-Up to Market, which provides a comprehensive overview of the topic. It also lists relevant ATTRA publications and websites. The resource guide aims to support farmers transitioning to sustainable practices by collating some of the best print and online information sources on topics like soil management, integrated pest management, and marketing.
This document provides a sustainability checklist for beef cattle farms. It includes questions about farm resources, management priorities, herd health, reproductive management, forage programs, grazing management, soil and water quality, energy and economic efficiency, quality of life considerations, and goals for improvement. The checklist is intended to help farmers critically evaluate the sustainability of their operations and identify areas for potential enhancement.
Garden Therapy: Links to Articles, Books, Profession Groups, DVDElisaMendelsohn
GARDENING THERAPY Resource List of Articles, Books, Manuals, DVD's, Training Programs and Professional Associations
TOPICS COVERED:
Horticulture Therapy
Healing Gardens
Sensory Gardens
Garden Therapy
Garden Therapy for the Disabled
Garden Therapy for the Mentally Challenged
Garden Therapy for Alzheimer’s Disease
Garden Therapy for Depression
Garden Therapy for Autistic Children
Garden Therapy for the Blind and the Visually Impaired
Garden Therapy for Hospitals
Garden Therapy for Nursing Homes
Garden Therapy for Seniors
Garden Therapy for the Handicapped
Garden Therapy for Prisons, Jails and Correction Facilities
Garden Therapy for Botanical Garden
Garden Therapy and Community Gardens
Garden Therapy for Single Mothers
Garden Therapy for Stress
Garden Therapy for Veterans
Garden Therapy at Veterans Facilities
Garden Therapy for Soldiers
Garden Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorders
People Plant Connections
Gardening and Physical Fitness
Greenhouse and Garden Therapy for Disabled People
Accessible Gardening
Wheelchair Gardening
Vertical Gardening and Garden Therapy
Container Gardening and Garden Therapy
Adaptive Garden Equipment for Garden Therapy
Tools for Garden Therapy
Urban Trees and Mental Health
Parks and Garden Therapy
Nature and Learning
Greening School Grounds by Design
Garden Therapy for Schools
Plants in the Classroom for Enhanced Learning
Garden Therapy for Pre Schools
Garden Therapy for Daycare
Garden Therapy for Elementary School Bullies
Garden Therapy and Community Development
Garden Therapy and Food Security
Garden Therapy for Low Income People
Garden Therapy for Homeless People
Garden Therapy and Crime Reduction
Garden Therapy and Neighborhood Security
Sistemas Avícolas Alternativos con Acceso a PasturaElisaMendelsohn
Este documento describe y compara sistemas avícolas alternativos y convencionales. Los sistemas alternativos incluyen aves con acceso a pasturas a través de casas fijas, casas portátiles, corrales de pastura u otros diseños que permiten a las aves expresar su comportamiento natural al aire libre. Estos sistemas son comúnmente a pequeña escala e integrados a granjas diversificadas. El acceso al exterior es una parte importante del bienestar de las aves y permite producción extensiva en comparación con los sistem
Producción Orgánica de Lechugas de Especialidad y Verduras Para EnsaladaElisaMendelsohn
Este documento describe las técnicas de producción orgánica de lechugas de especialidad y ensaladas. Explica que el mercado de lechugas de especialidad ha crecido, pero que el aumento de la producción ha hecho bajar los precios. Describe diferentes tipos de lechugas y verduras para ensaladas, así como técnicas de preparación del suelo, propagación, control de plagas y cosecha. Resalta la importancia de planificar cultivos para mantener un suministro constante a lo largo de la temporada.
Este documento cubre el procesamiento de aves a pequeña escala, ya sea en la granja o en plantas pequeñas. Describe las etapas clave del procesamiento, como la inmovilización, matanza, sangrado, desplume, evisceración, enfriamiento y empaque. También compara el procesamiento a pequeña, mediana y gran escala, y explica cómo el acceso a instalaciones de procesamiento es crucial para los pequeños productores avícolas.
Planeando la Plantación de Vegetales para una Cosecha ContinuaElisaMendelsohn
Este documento ofrece consejos para planificar plantaciones sucesivas de vegetales con el fin de lograr una cosecha continua a lo largo de la temporada de crecimiento. Explica que es importante mantener registros de plantaciones y cosechas anteriores para determinar las fechas óptimas de siembra. También destaca que el clima y las condiciones de la tierra afectan el crecimiento de los cultivos, por lo que es útil considerar las temperaturas ideales de germinación de cada vegetal. El documento incluye una tabla con esta información y un
Este documento trata sobre la nutrición de rumiantes en pastoreo. Explica que los rumiantes como vacunos, ovinos y caprinos pueden convertir plantas no comestibles para humanos en alimentos mediante la digestión de la celulosa. También destaca que la mayoría de las tierras son aptas solo para pastoreo, no para cultivo, y que el pastoreo es una forma eficiente de convertir la biomasa vegetal en alimentos como carne y leche. Además, resalta la importancia de entender la nutrición de los rumiantes considerando fact
Este documento trata sobre los requerimientos nutricionales para aves de pastura y cómo cubrirlos a través de diferentes ingredientes alimenticios comunes y poco comunes. Explica el valor nutritivo de ingredientes como el maíz, trigo, avena, harina de pescado y frijol soya, y discute consideraciones como la molienda, la formulación de raciones y la nutrición aplicada para diferentes tasas de crecimiento y estilos de alimentación.
Nuevos Mercados para Su Cosecha (audio version)ElisaMendelsohn
Pedro quiere vender sus productos agrícolas pero no puede vender todo en el mercado local y los comerciantes le ofrecen precios bajos. José le sugiere vender a instituciones como escuelas, hospitales y asilos de ancianos. José introduce a Pedro con el comprador de alimentos del hospital local. El comprador está interesado en comprar productos de la granja de Pedro y pide detalles sobre sus productos, precios y disponibilidad. Pedro comienza a vender lechuga al hospital y el comprador pide un volumen mayor, pero Pedro no puede
Los Escarabajos del Pepino: Manejo Integrado de Plagas — MIP Orgánico y Biora...ElisaMendelsohn
Los escarabajos del pepino son plagas importantes de cultivos de cucurbitáceas en los Estados Unidos. Transmiten enfermedades bacterianas y virales y causan daño directo al alimentarse de raíces, tallos, hojas y frutos. Sus ciclos de vida y las medidas orgánicas de control como plantación tardía, cobertores flotantes, cultivos trampa e insecticidas botánicos deben ser comprendidos para implementar estrategias de manejo integrado efectivas.
Las Crónicas Orgánicas No. 1: No Tenga Pánico Vuélvase OrgánicoElisaMendelsohn
Este documento presenta la historia de Pedro, un agricultor, que aprende sobre los beneficios de la agricultura orgánica a través de una visita a una granja orgánica y conversaciones con agricultores orgánicos. Pedro descubre que la agricultura orgánica fomenta la biodiversidad en el suelo y los cultivos, lo que ayuda a controlar plagas de forma natural. Aprende que el uso de pesticidas químicos puede dañar a los organismos benéficos en el suelo y los cultivos. Finalmente, Pedro decide convertir
La Certificación para Granjas Orgánicas y el Programa Orgánico NacionalElisaMendelsohn
Este documento describe los requisitos para la certificación orgánica de granjas y el Programa Orgánico Nacional de los EE.UU. Los agricultores que quieran vender sus productos como orgánicos deben obtener la certificación de un agente acreditado. La certificación asegura a los consumidores que los productos cumplen con las normas orgánicas. El Programa Orgánico Nacional estableció normas uniformes para la certificación y acredita agentes certificadores. Los agricultores deben cumplir con las normas de producción e
Jardinería Comercial: Consideraciones para Producción de Frutas y VerdurasElisaMendelsohn
Este documento proporciona consideraciones para iniciar un negocio de jardinería comercial. Explica que se debe desarrollar un plan de negocios que incluya un plan de marketing enfocado en los mercados. También discute opciones de mercado como mercados de productores, ventas directas, restaurantes e instituciones. Finalmente, enfatiza la importancia de aprender técnicas de producción a través de talleres, conferencias u observando otros productores.
Guía Ilustrada para la Producción de Ovinos y CaprinosElisaMendelsohn
Este documento es una guía ilustrada para la producción de ovinos y caprinos. Proporciona información sobre la selección de animales, la alimentación y el pastoreo, el cuidado de animales jóvenes y de cría, la sanidad, el equipo y el manejo, y la comercialización de productos de ovinos y caprinos. La guía describe las características deseables para una buena conformación en ovinos y caprinos, y ofrece consejos sobre cómo proveer una dieta y pastoreo saludables para estos animales.
Este documento proporciona una guía sobre métodos orgánicos para producir fresas. Cubre técnicas como el control de malezas mediante acolchado de plástico negro, fertilización orgánica, y control biológico de plagas. También discute sistemas de producción como la plantación en camellones con plástico y la producción en túneles, y provee recursos adicionales sobre certificación orgánica y recomendaciones de variedades por estado. La producción orgánica de fresas puede requerir más esf
Este documento describe el equipamiento básico necesario para una pequeña granja avícola, enfocándose en los sistemas de bebederos y comederos. Explica que los bebederos son cruciales para el bienestar de las aves y deben proveer agua limpia de manera confiable para prevenir enfermedades y la muerte de los pollos. También discute brevemente consideraciones para cercos, perchas y cajas nido.
Este documento describe el proceso de certificación orgánica según las normas del Programa Nacional Orgánico del Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos. Explica que la certificación permite vender, representar y etiquetar productos como orgánicos, y que involucra inspecciones anuales realizadas por un certificador acreditado para verificar el cumplimiento de las normas. También destaca algunos de los beneficios de la certificación, como mantener mejores registros que ayudan a identificar y resolver problemas de producción con mayor facilidad.
Este documento trata sobre el manejo sostenible de suelos. Explica las propiedades básicas del suelo y los pasos para mejorar y mantener la calidad del suelo de manera sostenible. Cubre temas como la importancia de la materia orgánica y los organismos del suelo, técnicas para mejorar el suelo como el compost y la labranza reducida, y ejemplos de agricultores que han tenido éxito mejorando la calidad de sus suelos.
El Manejo de Gallineros para la Producción AlternativaElisaMendelsohn
Este documento proporciona información sobre el manejo del medio ambiente en la producción avícola alternativa. Explica que tanto el área interior como el exterior son importantes para el bienestar de las aves. Detalla la importancia de la ventilación, temperatura, iluminación y lecho dentro del gallinero. Además, enfatiza que la producción alternativa a menudo ocurre a pequeña escala y puede ser certificada orgánica, requiriendo ciertas prácticas especiales en comparación con la avicultura convencional.
Este documento describe los cuatro pasos que los productores y procesadores orgánicos deben seguir para prepararse adecuadamente para su inspección de certificación orgánica anual. El primer paso es leer las secciones pertinentes de las Normas Orgánicas Nacionales según el tipo de operación. El segundo paso es revisar su Plan de Sistema Orgánico. El tercer paso es revisar la comunicación de la agencia certificadora del año pasado. El cuarto paso es organizar todos los registros requeridos usando las listas proporcionadas. La public
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
A Free 200-Page eBook ~ Brain and Mind Exercise.pptxOH TEIK BIN
(A Free eBook comprising 3 Sets of Presentation of a selection of Puzzles, Brain Teasers and Thinking Problems to exercise both the mind and the Right and Left Brain. To help keep the mind and brain fit and healthy. Good for both the young and old alike.
Answers are given for all the puzzles and problems.)
With Metta,
Bro. Oh Teik Bin 🙏🤓🤔🥰
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
Whether you're new to SEO or looking to refine your existing strategies, this webinar will provide you with actionable insights and practical tips to elevate your nonprofit's online presence.
How to Manage Reception Report in Odoo 17Celine George
A business may deal with both sales and purchases occasionally. They buy things from vendors and then sell them to their customers. Such dealings can be confusing at times. Because multiple clients may inquire about the same product at the same time, after purchasing those products, customers must be assigned to them. Odoo has a tool called Reception Report that can be used to complete this assignment. By enabling this, a reception report comes automatically after confirming a receipt, from which we can assign products to orders.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
2. less than $5,000 annually. For more infor- Several factors may have contributed to the
mation on organic crop production and increase, including:
organic farm certification, see ATTRA’s
• Reduced concern about fat in foods
publications Organic Crop Production Over-
view, Organic Farm Certification and the • Studies linking peanut consumption
National Organic Program and Organic to health
Certification Process. • Introduction of new products such
as flavored in-shell peanuts
Part I: Markets, peanuts • Increased retail promotion by the
Related ATTRA
publications and premiums industry
• Promotional emphasis on peanut
Alternative Agronomic Organic markets
Crops
health benefits (USDA/ERS, 2002)
There is very little published marketing In conventional peanut production, the bat-
NCAT’s Organic Crops research on emerging organic peanut mar- tle for a share of the world peanut market is
Workbook kets. Anecdotal information shows that constant and influenced by price and qual-
Organic Field Crops demand is high for organic peanuts and ity of peanuts, on-time service to buyers and
Documentation Forms organic farmers enjoy high premiums over ample peanut supplies (Spearman, 2006a).
Soil Management:
conventionally grown peanuts. The United States now ranks third in the
National Organic Some large organic food manufacturers seek world in peanut production, behind China
Program Regulations dependable supplies of organic peanuts and and India.
Biodiesel: may be willing to contract for organic pro-
The Sustainability duction. The snack food industry, rather than Organic peanuts
Dimension the peanut butter sector, may be the larger
Organic peanut production is traditionally
market for organic peanuts.
Oilseed Processing for confi ned to the Valencia cultivar in New
Small-scale Producers This has implications for the type of pea- Mexico, Colorado and West Texas.
Organic Crop nut desired and for the geographical area
Production Overview most suited to its production. Since shellers Virginia, Runner, Spanish and Valencia are
and manufacturers are the principal con- the four peanut cultivars. The main commer-
Organic Farm
Certification and the
tractors for peanut production in the South, cial peanut crop raised in the United States is
National Organic a much different processing and marketing the Runner type, used mainly for peanut but-
Program infrastructure may need to be developed to ter. The Runner cultivar makes up 75 percent
serve organic markets. of the country’s planted acreage, mostly in
Organic Certification the Southeast. The Virginia type comprises
Process In general, peanut production in the United 15 percent of the U.S. crop, grown mainly in
States is rising. According to the Peanut Virginia and the Carolinas. Five percent of the
Overview of Cover
Crops and Green Council, American peanuts are considered national crop is Spanish peanuts, grown in
Manures to be the highest quality in the world (Led- the Southwest. The Valencia cultivar, grown
better and Wallace, 2006). The United in New Mexico, makes up 1 percent of the
States exports from 200,000 to 250,000 U.S. crop.
metric tons of peanuts per year (American
Peanut Council, 2002).
While several major market types of
Peanuts-value of production in 2005 peanuts can grow in New Mexico, three
State rank State Value of production Valencia strains were developed for the
climate, soil and length of growing season
1 Georgia $368.1 million
in the state. Valencias, a red-skinned pea-
2 Texas $162.9 million
nut undesirable for making peanut butter,
3 Alabama $103.6 million are typically marketed as in-shell edible
4 Florida $69.8 million peanuts.
5 North Carolina $56.7 million
• Valencia A has a red seed coat and
Source: National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2006
a bunching growth habit. The A200
Page 2 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production
3. cultivar, developed from the Tennes- pre-colonial times (Georgia Cooperative
see Red peanut, was released in 1971 Extension, 1982). Historical records indi-
by New Mexico State University’s cate that the peanut was primarily a gar-
Agricultural Experiment Station as den crop until after the Civil War. As a field
New Mexico Valencia A. This variety crop, farmers grew peanuts only for hog
of peanut has the greatest proportion pasture until about 1930 (Putnam et al.,
of three- and four-seeded pods. 1991). Peanuts are still recommended as an
• Valencia C also has a red seed coat easy-to-grow home garden crop in the South
and emerges one to three days later and can mature as far north as central New
than Valencia A. This strain is a York (Dawling, 2006). The noted scientist
1979 NMSU release, developed George Washington Carver, of Tuskegee
from irradiated Colorado Manfredi Institute in Alabama, developed numerous
seed with parentage of Colorado de products from the peanut, including food-
Cordoba introduced from Argentina. stuff, dyes, medicines and fuels.
Valencia C has a larger seed and a Peanuts need a minimum of 110 frost-free
higher percentage of sound, mature days to produce a crop, and Virginia-type
kernels than other Valencia variet- peanuts require 2520 to 2770 growing-
ies. It matures at the same time as degree days above a base of 57 degrees
the Valencia A strain. Fahrenheit for successful production (Dawl-
• The McRan Valencia cultivar is pro- ing, 2006). Other requirements include
tected under the New Mexico Plant warm to hot growing conditions with ade-
Variety Protection Act. The McRan quate but not excessive water. Irrigation
cultivar produces three- and four- may be necessary in some years. Light,
seeded pods that have limited con- loose, well-drained soil is also highly desir-
striction and contain full, touching, able. Using the right rotation, or even inter-
flattened seed (Baker et al., 2000). planting another legume, often eliminates
the need for additional fertilizer.
History
The peanut, Arachis hypogaea L. (Fabaceae, Dr. Mark Boudreau, a farm consultant with
subfamily of Leguminoseae), likely origi- Hebert Green Agroecology, received a 2005
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Educa-
nated in Bolivia and already grew in the tion grant from Southern Region Sustainable
Americas when European explorers arrived Agriculture Research and Education (SoSARE).
in the 16th century. Peanuts, a tropical and Boudreau contends that peanut growers in the
warm-season temperate crop, soon were South can switch to organic production using
cultivated in Europe, Africa, Asia and the whole-farm decision risk management and
Pacific Islands. state-of-the-art techniques. He recommends:
• Using resistant cultivars
In Africa, peanuts are called groundnut,
but a related edible weed species (Apios • Using cover crops and rotations
americana) is also known as groundnut. • Understanding diversification and
Other related genera include Amphicar- insect management
paea (hog peanut), Astragalus (milkvetch), • Checking weather-based advisories
Cajanus (pigeon pea), Canavalia (jackbean • Using organic pesticides
and swordbean), Caragana (Siberian pea
shrub), Cicer (chickpea), and all garden Marketing challenges
beans, including limas and fabas. Most of
It is difficult to fi nd published marketing
these plants have edible seeds or pods, but
research results of any type, especially
some peanuts can cause an allergic reaction
research on emerging organic markets. In
in susceptible individuals.
New Mexico, Sunland Peanut Company con-
A University of Georgia bulletin notes that tracts for 2,500 acres of organic peanuts
peanuts have grown in that state since from eight to 10 growers that are certified
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 3
4. by Farm Verified Organic, a USDA-accred- once established. Perennial peanuts were
ited organic certifier, and eligible for export introduced to Florida in 1936 from Bra-
to the European Union. Processing occurs zil. Other types of peanut had long been
in the certified-organic Sunland facility at used for grazing in the Southeast. Cultivars
Portales (Yancy, 2000). include Floragraze, Arbrook and Ecoturf.
An Overview of the North Carolina Organic Commercial production is limited to the
Industry contained the results of a survey of warmer portion of USDA hardiness zone 8a
17 peanut buyers that handled organic pea- and zones 8b, 9 and above, including the
nuts east of the Mississippi: coastal plain from South Carolina to Browns-
Six [buyers] typically bought bulk loads of ville, Texas and including all of Florida.
organic peanuts...The six companies that
Perennial peanut hay is sold by the bale,
bought organic peanuts preferred to buy
‘Valencia’ peanuts. Each company purchased but may also be pelleted and cubed. There
different amounts of peanuts, with the two is some demand for perennial peanut hay
largest volume companies buying in excess of as ornamental material for turf. Perennial
150 tons of organic peanuts per year. Three peanuts are also being used as a cover crop
companies bought smaller amounts ranging in citrus groves (Silva, 1998).
between 1 and 2 tons annually...Larger volume
buyers preferred peanuts to be packaged in In 2005, 16,000 acres of perennial, or
containers that held either 55 pounds of pea- forage, peanuts were planted in the United
nuts or [in] a bulk bin. Smaller volume buyers
found smaller units such as a 25-pound box
States (Williams, 2005). Elide Valen-
an acceptable container. Peanut buyers paid cia of the University of the Virgin Islands
growers between $0.80 per pound and $1.50 published extensively on forage peanut.
per pound, with the largest volume buyer pay- In 2003, the USDA’s Agricultural Research
ing the lowest price to growers...Peanut buy- Service sent scientists to Paraguay for
ers indicated that large proportions of organic
new germplasm of A. glabrata, and acces-
peanuts were obtained from New Mexico
growers because they believed that the afla- sions are being evaluated at six locations
toxin risk was lower with New Mexico peanuts in the United States (Williams, 2005).
than with east-coast produced peanuts. Buyers Organic production of forage peanut is not
also believed that organic peanuts were a com- yet underway.
plicated crop to grow using organic methods
and encourage growers to improve quality to
have a competitive edge in the organic market Peanut oil potential for biodiesel
(Estes et al., 1999). As described in the ATTRA publication
Biodiesel: The Sustainability Dimensions,
Alternative Uses peanuts rank in the first tier of oilseed crops,
While nonfood products and by-products producing 109 gallons of oil per acre. This
are derived from conventional peanut yield compares very favorably with that
production, there is no indication at pres- of other temperate oilseeds like rapeseed,
ent that manufacturers of organic body- which yields 122 gallons per acre and sun-
care products or livestock feed would flowers, which yield 98 gallons per acre. The
constitute a significant market for organic yield from peanuts is much higher than that
peanut producers. of soybeans at 46, oats at 22 and corn at 18
gallons per acre.
Forage peanuts Competing uses for peanuts and acreage
The perennial peanut (Arachis glabrata limitations restricted the investigation of pea-
Benth; A. pintoi), a warm season, tropical nut oil as a motor fuel. However, it is quite
perennial legume native to South Amer- feasible to produce biodiesel from used
ica, is propagated by rhizomes since it does restaurant cooking-oil blends that contain
not set seed in temperate zones. The pea- peanut oil. Peanut oil was the prototype fuel
nuts are called perennial because they are used by Rudolph Diesel for the Paris World
long-lived and do not require replanting Exhibition in the late 19th century. For more
Page 4 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production
5. information on this topic, see the References irrigation costs are considered. Costs of off-
section at the end of this publication. farm inputs may also rise for conventional
producers. For sample production budgets
Organic demands and for flood-irrigated and sprinkle-irrigated
premiums peanuts in New Mexico, see Libbin in the
References section (2001 a,b).
Organic peanut production, like conventional
farming, is mostly done by contract. At the Wedel said he employs three additional full-
2005 Nebraska Sustainable Agriculture time workers for his organic operation. He
Society meeting, peanut grower Jimmy Wedel spent an additional $100,000 for seasonal,
of Muleshoe, Texas, quoted a 2004 organic including migrant, labor including hoeing.
premium of $225 per ton for his 650 acres Wedel also spent an additional $20,000
of Valencias. The price for conventionally for repairs and fuel expense for equipment
grown peanuts was $575 per ton (2005). specific to organic production. This repre-
Wedel also said the price for 2004 organic sents a cost of about $185 per acre more
Spanish peanuts was quoted at $800 per ton than conventional production, not account-
compared to $425 per ton for conventionally ing for lower costs associated with not using
grown peanuts. Wedel estimated the five-year pesticides and fertilizers. Wedel said a good
yield range for Valencia peanuts at 1 to 1.75 hoe crew is fundamental to managing weeds
tons per acre. This means a gross income for good crop yields since peanuts are
of $1,200. For Spanish peanuts, Wedel particularly susceptible to weed pressures.
estimates a five-year yield of 1.25 to 2 tons
per acre with a gross income of $1,400. Part II: Production of
Since peanuts are part of a three-year crop organic peanuts
rotation, Wedel also raises organic blue Organic production of peanuts relies on
corn, white and yellow food corn, soybeans, management techniques that replenish and
wheat for grain, grazing and green manure,
maintain long-term soil fertility by opti-
cotton and grass for wildlife habitat. Wedel
mizing the soil’s biological activity. This is
devotes 10 percent of his 5,000 mostly irri-
achieved through crop rotation, cover crop-
gated acres to conventional alfalfa, silage
corn, pinto beans, black-eyed peas and ping or composting, and by using organi-
green beans. With this method, Wedel said cally accepted fertilizers that feed the soil
he harvests “virtually the same yield that and provide plants with nutrients. Organic
your conventional acres make” and receives farmers manage insects, diseases, weeds
“a huge premium over the conventional and other pests with an array of cultural,
market” (2005). mechanical and biological options. As a last
resort, peanut growers can use organically
Wedel is certified by the Texas Department accepted biorational and chemical controls.
of Agriculture and only has domestic con-
tracts. Additional certification would be nec- Soil and fertility
essary if supply and demand ever indicated
export opportunities. International Certifica- Organic peanut growers need to get a sense
tion Services is the internationally accepted of their soil fertility by obtaining a soil test
organic certifier for U.S.-grown peanuts. report with recommendations specifically
For more information, see the Resources for peanuts. Previous experience with rota-
section at the end of this publication. tional cover crops and compost or manure
appl icat ions is a lso helpful. Organic
Production budgets peanut growers must work closely with
crop adv i sers fam i l ia r w ith orga n ic
Every peanut-producing state publishes
production and peanuts.
annual production budgets for conventional
production, but not organic production. Growers should always consider the his-
Budgets vary by state, especially when tory of the field they select for peanuts,
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5
6. especially if it is a new site. In 2003, the systems. Finding the right rotation crop in
North Carolina Department of Agricul- terms of profitability and agronomic char-
ture and Consumer Services warned new acteristics can be challenging. Factors like
peanut growers about zinc buildup due geography, climate and irrigation capabili-
to chicken litter application, especially in ties are important to consider when choos-
eastern counties. ing suitable rotational crops.
Some fields that received heavy, long-term Relay crops are recommended by North
litter applications now have zinc-index (Zn-I) Carolina State University plant pathologist
values approaching (Zn-I = 300 (12 ppm), Dr. Jack Bailey, a professor and extension
caution advised) or exceeding the toxicity specialist. Relay cropping is a cropping sys-
thresholds (Zn-I = 500 (20 ppm), critical tem that calls for two or more crops grown in
toxic level) for peanuts. Growing peanuts sequence in the same field in the same year
on fields with Zn-I values above 300 is not with little or no overlap in time. Relay crops
advisable. Officials alerted growers that tox- keep the ground covered at all times and
icity was more likely for soil pH below 6.0 help control the No. 1 problem in organic
(Hall, 2003). production — weeds (Yancy, 2002).
Lime is essential for successful peanut To combat soilborne diseases endemic in
production. Soil pH needs to be carefully the Southeast, Bailey recommended “the
monitored and should be in the 5.8 to 6.2 longest possible rotation, with crops such
range for Southern growers. Large-seeded as cotton, wheat, corn and grasses.” Other-
Virginia peanuts require high calcium con- wise, a field might be out of production for
tent in the soil surface at pegging for pod several years just to get rid of disease build-
development and quality. Land plaster or up, and long rotations are known to reduce
gypsum, a by-product of drywall, is not leafspot problems.
allowed as a source of calcium in organic
Some rotation crops for peanuts are sweet
production. Mined sources of gypsum
corn, sweet potatoes, cotton, sesame, veg-
are allowed.
etables, small grains and pastures like
Excessive levels of potassium within the Bahia grass. In Australia, tropical peanuts
fruiting zone, or the top 2 to 3 inches of soil, are grown as a companion crop for sugar
are associated with peanut pod rot. Potas- cane, or as an optional cane fallow legume.
sium also competes with calcium uptake at In addition to being a profitable extra crop,
pegging, resulting in a high percentage of peanuts provide nitrogen and are resistant
pops, or unfi lled shells. Any potash (K2O) to root knot nematodes that are blamed for
is incorporated along with the preceding declining cane yields in lighter cane soils
crop’s fertilizer, if possible, in order to allow (Peanut Company of Australia, 2006).
enough time for potassium to move below
the fruiting zone before pegging.
Manganese deficiency may occur when soil
pH exceeds 6.2. Again, careful soil moni-
toring and soil and plant analysis are rec-
ommended. The amount of boron recom-
mended on a soil test report prevents hollow
heart in peanuts. Boron can be applied as
a pre-plant broadcast treatment along with
other fertilizer applications, or as a foliar
spray near blooming (Hardy et al., 2006).
Rotations
Rotations are critical in the fertility and Symptoms of root knot. Photo by Howard F.
pest management of organic production Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org
Page 6 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production
7. New techniques for
managing migrating
peanut pests
By Rex Dufour, NCAT California
Farmers who grow peanuts adjacent
to cotton fields may want to plant sor-
ghum between the peanuts and cot-
ton. U.S. Department of Agriculture
researcher Dr. Glynn Tillman found that
rows of sorghum planted between cot-
ton and peanut fields will act as a trap
crop for stinkbugs that migrate out of
the peanuts during harvest. Tillman’s
Georgia project is part of a Conserva-
tion Innovation Grant funded by the
Natural Resources Conservation Ser-
vice and managed by the National Cen-
ter for Appropriate Technology.
Growers should sow two plantings of
sorghum several weeks apart. That This photo shows a sorghum trap crop with ripe brown seed heads. Yellow pheromone traps for
helps pests find the stage of sorghum brown stink bug are placed in the first row of sorghum. Cotton is barely visible on the far side of
that is most attractive during the entire the field in front of the trees. Peanuts are in the foreground. When peanuts are ready for harvest,
the plants are turned upside down to allow the peanuts to dry. A few days later a combine comes
cotton season. The sorghum also pro-
through to remove the peanuts from the plant. In this photo, the peanuts are inverted. The four
vides plenty of pollen for the minute rows adjacent to the sorghum are yet not turned. As the peanuts in this field are dug, stink bugs
pirate bug, an egg predator of stink- will migrate from the plants into the adjacent sorghum, rather than into the cotton crop. Photo
bugs. This combination of trap crop by Kristie Graham.
and beneficial insect habitat can pro-
tect cotton crops from damage by
stinkbugs that are migrating from To achieve a similar effect, research- method that calls for sowing the entire
harvested peanut fields. ers are experimenting with another sorghum planting in one day and then
mowing half of the sorghum rows 70
to 80 days later. This technique mim-
ics the two-plantings approach, but is
easier to execute. The two stages of
sorghum will provide beneficial and
pest insects preferred habitats.
For more information about this
research, contact:
Glynn Tillman,
Research Entomologist
229-387-2375
Glynn.Tillman@ars.usda.gov
Rex Dufour,
NCAT California Regional Director
406-533-6650
rexd@ncat.org
Growing in this field are, from left to right: peanuts, the first planting of sorghum with nearly
ripe grain, the second planting of sorghum with seed heads still green and cotton. Entomologist
Glynn Tillman (center) and field scouts Brittany Giles (left) and Kristie Graham evaluate the
sorghum for stink bug populations. Photo courtesy of USDA ARS.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 7
8. Organic integrated pest arthropods (insects and mites) and large
soil-dwelling mammals like moles, ground
management squirrels and gophers.
Integrated pest management is a broad eco-
logical approach to pest management using Photosynthesizers, the primary producers
a variety of pest control techniques that tar- in this system, use the sun’s energy to con-
get the entire pest complex of a crop eco- vert atmospheric carbon into sugars. Other
system. Integrated management of pests organisms feed off these primary produc-
ensures high-quality agricultural produc- ers. Dead organisms and their by-products
tion in a sustainable, environmentally safe decompose and become the soil’s organic
Related ATTRA and economically sound manner (Bajwa and matter that stores nutrients and energy.
publications Plants use these nutrients, preventing them
Kogan, 2002.).
Alternative Control of from accumulating in soil and water.
Johnsongrass Soil health is based on soil biology, which
is responsible for the cycling of nutrients. The life cycle of all these organisms improves
Nematodes: The complex interaction of this biological the condition of soils by enhancing structure,
Alternative Controls community is known as the soil food web. water infi ltration and holding capacity, and
Conservation Tillage The soil ecosystem is composed of bacte- aeration. This results in healthy plants that
Cucumber Beetles:
ria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, algae, are more productive and resistant to pests.
Organic and
Biorational IPM
Farmscaping to Soil solarization
Enhance Biological The technique known as solar-
Control ization involves laying a clear
Field Bindweed plastic polyethylene tarp on
Control Alternatives moist soil and letting the
sun’s rays heat the soil. Heat
Flame Weeding for trapped under the plastic
Agronomic Crops raises the soil temperature and
Principles of kills or debilitates pests. Most
Sustainable Weed research worldwide concen-
Management for trates on hot and arid areas,
Croplands but anywhere with hot sum-
mers has the potential to use
Pursuing this system. Soil pasteuriza-
Conservation Tillage tion usually takes four to six
Systems for Organic weeks, but the amount of Plant pathologist Daniel Chellemi (left) and organic grower Kevin O’ Dare
Crop Production time depends on factors such inspect the progress of a soil solarization treatment. Photo by Randall Smith,
as rain, wind, day length, soil courtesy of USDA ARS.
Sustainable
texture and the quality of the
Management of Soil- Before solarization, the land inches of soil, and best control
polyethylene tarp. Ultravio-
borne Plant Diseases where the crop will be seeded is generally obtained down to
let-protected plastic is recom-
or transplanted must be pre- 6 inches.
Thistle Control mended so that the tarp can
pared for planting. Growers
Alternatives be removed and re-used. Special caution: Drip tape must
must shape beds, install drip
Thrips Management Certain types of organic mat- tape and level fields. This prep- be buried at least 1 inch deep
Alternatives in the ter can be added to the soil for aration is necessary to avoid to avoid damage from the
Field bio-fumigation. Compost and stirring up the soil after solar- sun’s rays. In experiments when
residues from brassica crops ization. Stirring would bring researchers placed tape on the
such as broccoli and mustard fresh pest organisms to the surface of the bed and then cov-
show this bio-fumigant effect. soil surface. Depending on the ered the tape with the clear plas-
When heated in the solarization outside temperature, sunlight tic, the magnifying effect of the
process, some brassica crops density and the type of pests, sun on the water droplets that
release volatile compounds soil solarization can provide condensed on the plastic dam-
that are toxic to many pests. good pest control in 8 to 10 aged the drip tape.
Page 8 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production
9. The North Carolina Peanut Project:
Insects
On-farm research on pesticide Using biological and cultural insect con-
alternatives in peanut production and trols for peanuts involves understanding
methods of implementation the ecology of agricultural systems. Plant-
A multi-partner project to make North Carolina ing large expanses of a single, susceptible
peanut production more environmentally benign crop, or monocropping, encourages pest
and improve peanut profitability started in 1995,
problems. A diverse farmscape involving
when it became evident that the USDA’s pea-
nut program was likely to change dramatically
many types of plants and animals consid-
in the next decade. A strong support network erably diminishes the likelihood of severe
and some funding were provided to individual insect pest outbreaks.
farmers trying new approaches. Ten key goals
for more sustainable, less chemical-dependent
Farmers must create production methods
production came out of this project and set the that complement natural systems. The use
groundwork for future organic production: of beneficial insect habitats along crop field
1) Convince producers that bottom-line return borders increases the presence of benefi-
was more important in the long run than cial insects (Grez and Prado, 2000; White
gross yield. et al., 1995; Bugg, 1993). These habitats
2) Improve soil fertility by utilizing cover, catch, provide shelter, food (pollen and nectar)
relay and green manure crops, as well as and act as refuges that attract the natural
composts and slow-release rock fertiliz- enemies of pests.
ers to increase crop health and vigor and
reduce the effects of weeds and pests. When farmers release beneficial insects,
3) Reduce soil erosion through a variety of these field-edge habitats will encourage the
conservation measures. beneficial insects to stay and continue their
4) Implement a site-specific, biologically based life cycles. This helps reduce pest popula-
whole-farm integrated pest management tions. Some pests may also inhabit the field-
plan through beneficials enhancement,
edge habitats. These habitats should be
crop rotation and resistant cultivars as the
first choice before using least-toxic, target- monitored along with the crop. For additional
specific pesticides. information, request ATTRA’s publication
5) Scout frequently to improve an operator’s Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control.
ability to respond promptly and efficiently
to pest problems. Caterpillar pests
6) Provide long-term habitat for beneficials
through skip rows, field border manage-
Corn earworm, fall armyworm, velvetbean
ment, relay cropping, reduction of broad- caterpillar, green cloverleaf worm, Euro-
spectrum pesticide usage and other pean corn borer, redneck peanut worm,
management techniques. saltmarsh caterpillar, soybean looper and
7) Add market value to all crops in the rota- cutworms are some of the caterpillar pests
tion to increase the producers’ share of retail that attack peanuts. Caterpillars have many
through market premiums for specific prac- natural enemies that help keep their popula-
tices, niche markets and additional post-har- tions at low levels. Ground beetles, spiders,
vest handling and packaging.
damsel bugs, minute pirate bugs, assas-
8) Lengthen and improve crop rotations to
sin bugs, bigeyed bugs and lacewing lar-
provide cost-effective prevention against
a wide range of pests, diseases and weed vae attack caterpillars. The parasitic wasps
problems. Trichogramma, Copidosom, Apanteles, Dia-
9) Develop and use a range of options for pest degma and Hyposoter sting and parasitize
control intervention including biological eggs and larvae.
control of weeds and insects, flame weed-
ing and innovative cultivation equipment.
Some of these organisms are available com-
10) Increase cultivar pest resistance through
mercially or may occur naturally in the
selective breeding, plant spacing and seed- environment. For information on suppli-
ing rates (Marlow, 1998). ers of beneficial insects, visit the Suppliers
of Beneficial Organisms in North America
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 9
10. Web site at www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/ipminov/ applications. Caterpillars in the early
ben_supp/ben_sup2.htm stages of development (first and second
instars) are more susceptible to Bt. Older
Biopesticides, or microbial controls, con-
sist of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), insect- and bigger worms are more difficult to kill.
consuming fungi and viruses. Bt is a Entrust, from Dow Agrosciences, is
naturally occurring bacterium that pro- derived from the soil organism Saccha-
duces a toxin that causes paralysis of a ropolyspora spinosa. It is OMRI-approved
T
caterpillar’s digestive tract. A caterpillar and registered for control of armyworm,
he benefi- may continue to live for some hours after corn earworm, loopers and other cater-
cial popu- ingestion, but will not continue to feed. pillar pests on peanuts. Spod-X LC and
lation may Bt strains are available in a number Gemstar LC from Certis USA are nuclear
often keep the pest of commercial products under various polyhedrosis virus products available com-
under the economic trade names. The following products are mercially and are OMRI-approved for the
threshold, which is approved for organic production by the control of armyworm and corn earworm,
Organic Materials Review Institute: Pro- respectively, on peanuts. Other naturally
the level below eco-
long from Cillus Technology Inc., Britz occurring granulosis viruses and nuclear
nomic injury to the polyhedrosis viruses sometimes occur in
BT Dust from Britz Fertilizers Inc., DiPel
crop. An application and Xantari from Valent Biosciences, high-density caterpillar populations.
of a broad-spec- and Agree, Deliver and Javelin from Cer-
Beauveria bassiana, an insect-eating fun-
trum insecticide may tis USA. Additional information may be
gus, infects caterpillars if humidity and
damage both the obtained at ATTRA’s Ecological Pest
Management Database at www.attra.org/ temperature are adequate. Commer-
pest and beneficial
attra-pub/biorationals/biorationals_main_ cial products include Naturalis L, Myco-
insect populations. srch.php trol and Botanigard. Botanical insecti-
cides, including neem products such as
Bt degrades rapidly in sunlight and Agroneem and Neemix, act as repellents,
requires careful timing or repeated appli- antifeedants and insect growth regulators.
cations. Caterpillars must ingest Bt in Pyrethrum and rotenone-based products
sufficient amounts for the biopesticide to are broad spectrum and will kill benefi -
be effective. Growers must understand cial insects as well as pests, so monitor-
the feeding habits of these pests to use ing is important.
proper formulations and optimal timing of
Growers must also consider beneficial
Organically accepted materials to combat caterpillars insect populations when a pest population
is present. The beneficial population may
Biopesticides Commercial products often keep the pest under the economic
Bacillus thuringiensis Agree, Deliver, Javelin, Dipel, threshold, which is the level below eco-
Xantari, Prolong, Britz BT Dust nomic injury to the crop. An application of
Spinosad Entrust a broad-spectrum insecticide may damage
both the pest and beneficial insect popula-
Viruses Spod-X, Gemstar tions, and other minor pests may become a
Beauveria bassiana Mycotrol, Naturalis, Botanigard big problem. This is known as a secondary
pest outbreak.
Botanical insecticides Commercial products
Neem Neemix, Argoneem, Azadirect
Other management practices to reduce cat-
erpillar infestation include using floating
Pyrethrin Pyganic row covers over a young crop to exclude
Pyrethrin + Diatomaceous Earth Diatect V egg-laying females, nocturnal overhead
Repellents Commercial products sprinkler irrigation, pheromone misters
or emitters to disrupt mating and pepper,
Garlic Cropguard, Garlic Barrier garlic and herbal repellents.
Page 10 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production
11. Southern corn rootworm products approved for organic production
are registered for the control of thrips.
Southern corn rootworms are the subterra-
nean larvae or grubs of cucumber beetles.
The adult cucumber beetle lays eggs at the Spider mites
base of the peanut plants and then the lar- Spider mites, Tetranychus, a re t iny
vae move through the soil, feeding on the arachnids (related to spiders, ticks and
pods. Organic approaches to managing this scorpions) that live in colonies. Spider
pest include population monitoring, cultural mites spin webs and feed under plant
practices, trap crops, baits, sticky traps, leaves. They have modified mouth parts
predatory organisms and organic insecti- that pierce the cells of the leaf to con-
cides and protectants. For detailed informa- sume its contents. Yellow spots appear on
tion check the ATTRA publication Cucum- the leaf’s upper surface when the feeding
ber Beetles: Organic and Biorational IPM. is moderate. If the infestation is severe,
mites can cause defoliation, stunting and
Three-cornered alfalfa hoppers reduced yields.
The three-cornered alfalfa hopper, Spissisti- Insect predators of spider mites include
D
lus festinus, is a major pest in the South. It minute pirate bugs, damsel bugs, bigeyed iseases
is a piercing and sucking triangular-shaped bugs, some midges, lacewing larvae, dusty- in plants
green insect that feeds on stems and leaves. wings, spider mite destroyers, lady beetles, occur
It is also found on vegetables, soybeans, sixspotted thrips and western flower thrips.
other legumes, grasses, small grains, sun- Other mites that prey on spider mites are when a pathogen
flowers, tomatoes and weeds. On peanuts, it Amblyseius, Galendromus, Metaseiulus and is present, the host
girdles the stem during feeding, causing a Phytoseiulus. Insecticidal soaps, narrow is susceptible and
scab-like appearance. range oils, neem-based products such as the environment is
Trilogy and sulfur are acceptable miti-
Natural enemies include the bigeyed bug favorable.
cides in organic production. Check with a
and damsel bug. The bigeyed bug has been
certifier regarding specific products. Cul-
observed causing the highest mortality,
tural controls include keeping dust down
about 90 to 100 percent of the first and sec-
along roads that border peanut fields. This
ond nymphal stages, while the damsel bug
is usually done by reducing traffic along
attacked all nymphal stages of the three-cor-
those roads, watering down the roads or
nered alfalfa hoppers (Medal et al., 1995).
planting dust barriers such as corn or sun-
The kaolin clay product Surround is listed as
flowers between the field and the road.
an approved product to repel this pest.
Other insects that can be a problem in pea-
Thrips nut production are aphids and whitefl ies. If
these organisms are causing a problem in
Although not a problem in Western pea-
organic peanut production, contact ATTRA
nut-producing regions, thrips control is
for more information on how to manage
essential in the Southeast since the insect
these pests.
spreads Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus. For
control strategies, see the ATTRA pub-
lication Thrips Management Alternatives Diseases
in the Field. Thrips control options were Diseases in plants occur when a pathogen
field-tested by peanut farmers in the North is present, the host is susceptible and the
Carolina Peanut Project. As a result, 31 environment is favorable for the disease to
North Carolina growers substituted scout- develop. Altering any one of these three
ing-based control for blanket control on factors may prevent the disease from occur-
3,728 acres, significantly reducing pesti- ring. Organisms responsible for plant dis-
cide use, increasing profits and maintaining eases include fungi, bacteria, nematodes
yields (Marlow, 1998). Neem and spinosad and viruses. If these organisms are present,
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 11
12. manipulating the environment and making A study at Auburn University explored
the host less susceptible helps sustainably potential for biological control of early
manage diseases on peanuts. leafspot in peanuts using the bacteria Bacil-
lus cereus and chiton as foliar amendments
Once again, soil health and management is (Kokalis-Burelle et al., 1992). Cultural
the key for successful control of plant dis- practices such as resistant varieties and
eases. Soil with adequate organic matter crop rotation may alleviate the disease, as
can house uncountable numbers of organ- could foliar inoculation of microorganisms
isms such as beneficial bacteria, fungi, with compost teas or commercial products
nematodes, protozoa, arthropods and earth- that include Bacillus subtilis bacteria, like
worms that deter harmful bacteria, fungi, Serenade. Copper and bicarbonate fungi-
nematodes and arthropods from attacking cides may also help.
plants. These beneficial organisms also help
create a healthy plant that is able to resist
pest attack. For more information, see the
Pod rots
ATTRA publication Sustainable Manage- Pythium myriotylum, Rhizoctonia solani and
ment of Soil-Borne Plant Diseases. Sclerotium rolfsii are all capable of causing
S
pod rots, which occur in every peanut-grow-
oil health
ing area. Pod rots, unlike Southern blight,
and manage- Blackhull do not exhibit above-ground symptoms.
ment is the Blackhull, a disease caused by the fungus Occasional pulling of plants throughout the
key for successful Theilaviopsis basicola, affects the pods and field, especially during pod maturation, is
control of plant mostly attacks susceptible Spanish peanut the only way to detect pod rots. Manures,
varieties in the West. Conditions that favor compost and green manure crops will
diseases.
disease development are alkaline soils, poor increase the organic matter of the soil and
drainage, low temperatures late in the sea- increase microorganisms that constitute the
son, heavy soils and a crop rotation with sus- soil food web. This increase in organisms
ceptible crops like cotton or alfalfa. Careful helps deter plant pathogens through compe-
choice of planting location and appropriate tition and antagonism and reduces disease
crop rotations, as well as early planting, are incidences in plants. Arbuscular mycorrhi-
important for organic production. zal fungi may also provide some protection
from these pod rots.
Verticillium and Fusarium wilts
Wilts can be a problem in New Mexico. Loss Southern blight (stem rot)
can be kept to a minimum if a farmer knows The disease is caused by the fungus Scle-
the disease or cultivation history of a field rotium rolfsii. The fungus spreads from
and peanuts are not planted following cot- infected plants to adjacent ones. Control
ton or vegetable plants (including potatoes) methods in organic production include the
in the crop rotation. The arbuscular mycor- use of a deep covering of crop residue,
rhizal fungus Glomus mosseae protects pea- flat cultivation to avoid pulling soil and
nut pods from infection by Fusarium solani trash toward the plants and crop rotation
(Abdalla and Abdel-Fattah, 2000). Com- with grain sorghum to reduce the number
mercial products include Mycorise, Activa- of infectious sclerotia. The fungus Tricho-
tor BioVam, Mycor and Tag Team. derma harzianum, the active ingredient in
products such as PlantShield, RootShield
and T-22 HC, inhibited mycelial growth
Leaf spot and germination of sclerotia in vitro.
Rainfall or irrigation followed by high Under screen house conditions, the fun-
humidity during the growing season can gus reduced the incidence of the disease by
contribute to Cercospora leaf spot and web 33 percent compared to untreated control
blotch (Phoma arachidicola). peanuts (Khonga et al., 1998).
Page 12 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production
13. Sclerotinia blight Nematodes
Sclerotinia blight (Sclerotinia minor) occurs There are many types of nematodes in soils.
in parts of Oklahoma, Texas and North Most are beneficial, but a few are pea-
Carolina. Resistant cultivars such as Olin, a nut pests. Nematodes that attack peanuts
Spanish variety, and Tamrun OL 01, a Run- include the root knot nematodes, Meloido-
ner type developed by the USDA Agricul- gyne arenaria; M. hapla; M. javanica, lesion
ture Research Service at Stillwater, Okla., nematode Pratylenchus brachyurus, ring
show promise in resisting sclerotinia blight nematode Criconemella and sting nema-
(Pons, 2006). Research in North Caro- todes Belonolaimus longicaudatus.
lina showed that pruning peanut canopies
to alter microclimate or enhance fungicide
penetration reduced disease and increased
yield when Sclerotinia minor damage limited
yields (Bailey and Brune, 1997). Good san-
itation practices such as thorough cleaning
and washing of peanut production equip-
ment prior to entering an unaffected region
are advised.
Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)
TSWV is best controlled by new, resistant
varieties that are superseding old standbys
some growers still prefer, such as Georgia
Green, Southern Runner ViruGard, Gregory Scanning electron micrograph of the anterior ends of two male root knot nema-
and VC-2. The newest varieties are Georgia todes. Photo by Jonathan D. Eisenback, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Bugwood.org
02C and Georgia 01R, as well as Tift Run-
ner (Culbreath, 2004).
TSWV was severe in the Southeast in 2004, In sustainable production systems, growers
but speculation that it may be cyclical has can manage nematodes by crop rotation,
no scientific basis. Thrips transmit TSVW resistant varieties and cultural practices.
from plant to plant throughout the winter Where nematode infestations are heavy,
season since TSVW overwinters on weed sampling and laboratory analysis can be
species. Researchers believe weather may used to determine the length of rotations
have an effect on TSWV severity (Hollis, and the non-host crops to use.
2005; Mandal et al., 2002). Eventually a living soil will keep harm-
ful nematodes and soil borne fungi under
Cylindrocladium black root rot control (Yancy, 1994). Crop rotation is a
(CBR) good strategy, but it is important to iden-
Long rotations and knowledge of field his- tify the type of nematode in a field and
tory are the best controls in attempting rotate with a crop that is not an alternate
organic peanut production in humid regions host for that nematode. Check with seed
of the United States. Avoid rotation with suppliers to identify varieties resistant to
other hosts such as soybeans, alfalfa, clo- the nematodes present in fields. Cultural
vers, beans and cowpeas. Cylindrocladium practices include cover cropping with
produces microsclerotia, which are persis- plants that are antagonistic to nematodes
tent in the soil for many years. Non-hosts such as rapeseed or marigolds, controlling
include corn, cotton, sorghum and pasture weeds, incorporating chicken litter and
(bermuda or bahiagrass). In heavily infested other manures and solarization. For more
soils, rotation for at least five years without information, see the ATTRA publication
hosts is recommended. Nematodes: Alternative Controls.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 13
14. Weeds to deal with weeds. In no-till research con-
Weed control in organic systems, espe- ducted in Georgia in the 1990s by Dr. Sha-
cially in peanut production, relies heavily rad Phatak, researchers found that peanuts
on crop rotations, cover crops and cultiva- yielded well when planted into rye and Crim-
tion. Of these, cultivation is the most criti- son clover. In follow-up research, the Crim-
cal to reduce weeds in an established pea- son clover was flail mowed and C-11-2-39,
nut stand. For cultivation to be successful, a a fast-spreading, quick-shading and disease-
straight, well-made bed, as well as straight resistant peanut variety, performed very well
seeding lines in a conventional diamond when planted into the clover. However, even
pattern, are necessary for cultivating imple- with superior varieties, researchers had to
ments to remove the most weeds while leav- hand weed two times. (Culbreath, 2005).
ing the crop undisturbed. Strip-tillage systems reduce most insect
Cultivation implements will cut, bury or turn pest injury. However, burrower bugs
over most young weeds, leaving the crop (Heteroptera: Cydnidae) caused major eco-
undisturbed while reducing competition. nomic injury to peanuts in some conserva-
Hoeing between plants eliminates weeds in tion tillage systems under drought stress
the planting row. For more information on (Chapin and Thomas, 2005). Conservation
weed control, read ATTRA’s publications tillage or strip tillage reduced the incidence
Principles of Sustainable Weed Management of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus in peanuts
for Croplands, Alternative Control of Johnson- by 42 percent when compared to peanuts
grass, Thistle Control Alternatives and Field grown using conventional tillage. This is
Bindweed Control Alternatives. significant because there is no single effec-
tive control measure for spotted wilt of pea-
nuts. As a result, the University of Georgia
Conservation tillage Cooperative Extension Service added con-
Conservation tillage or strip tillage in pea- servation tillage to its Tomato Spotted Wilt
nuts increased in the Southeast due to the Risk Index (Johnson et. al., 2001).
rise in fuel costs and the potential for conser-
vation tillage to reduce labor costs, reduce For more information on conservation tillage,
soil erosion, increase soil quality and reduce read the ATTRA publications Conservation
disease pressure. Conservation tillage also Tillage and Pursuing Conservation Tillage
works in other crops such as corn, cotton and Systems for Organic Crop Production.
soybean (Wright et al., 2002).
Flame weeding and other thermal devices
In conventional strip tillage, herbicides are can reduce broadleaf weeds, but grasses
a major tool to control weeds. For organic still need to be mechanically removed. For a
production, farmers must use other methods list of thermal devices and suppliers, see the
This Georgia farmer planted crimson clover as a cover crop, killed it, then strip tilled peanuts into it. This system attracts many beneficials,
improves the soil, provides low-cost nitrogen, reduces soil erosion and conserves soil moisture. Photos by Rex Dufour.
Page 14 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production
15. Appendix section. For more information on can produce aflatoxin, a natural toxin.
flame weeding, read the ATTRA publication Aflatoxin can mean financial losses for
Flame Weeding for Agronomic Crops. peanut growers.
The Peanut Advisory Board in Atlanta, Ga.,
Irrigation estimated that aflatoxin contamination costs
Peanut seedlings develop tap and lateral the nation’s peanut growers $25 million
roots quickly. Seedlings need 20 to 30 annually. The Food and Drug Administra-
inches of water per season. Daily water use tion prohibits grain and fi nished products
is about 0.25 inches per day and 0.4 inches with 20 parts per billion or more of afla-
if the weather is extremely hot (Baker et al., toxin from being sold for human or animal
2000). The Peanut Company of Australia consumption. One part per billion is equiv-
estimates peanuts use at 24 to 28 inches alent to less than one drop in 10,000 gal-
per season (2006). lons. Many states and export markets are
setting stricter tolerance levels.
Water availability is a limiting factor in
Western peanut production. Jimbo Gris- Until recently, the only methods for control-
ling preharvest aflatoxin contamination in
A
som of Gaines County, Texas, the winner
of the 2004 Farm Press Peanut Profitabil- peanuts were expensive irrigation or early flatoxin
ity Award, suggests a low-energy precision harvest, which reduces quality and yield. contamina-
application system to ease the effects of A mutant strain of A. parasiticus was devel- tion costs
evaporation. Grissom aims to lose as little oped to treat soils and drive out virulent
the nation’s peanut
water as possible to evaporation. His modi- strains (USDA/ARS, 1992).
growers $25 million
fied LEPA system uses hoses, usually set
annually.
about 80 inches apart, that dangle from a Harvesting and post harvest
main center-pivot irrigation pipe to either handling
drag along rows or spray water just above
Organic handling is a complex issue. If
the peanut canopy. True LEPA systems, irri-
organic peanuts are processed on-farm in
gation experts say, employ drag hoses that
any way, a second certification as a handler
dribble water along alternate rows. Gris-
or processor may be required. For a more
som’s system uses wobbler nozzles to apply
detailed explanation, see NCAT’s Organic
water just above the peanuts. Ground water Crops Workbook.
availability from the aquifer that underlies
West Texas is declining (Smith, 2004). Jim Riddle of the University of Minnesota,
the former chair of the National Organic
Peanut growers in Randolph County, Ga., Standards Board, published some post-
use center-pivot systems to combat sporadic harvest tips for organic field crop produc-
drought in the Southeast (Smith, 2004). ers. These include the following (adapted
Drought has become more prevalent in for peanuts):
recent years, increasing the need to install
farm irrigation systems. • Know the equipment. Know what the
equipment is used for. This includes
In humid Florida, poor irrigation manage- rented and borrowed equipment and
ment can cause white mold and pod rots, equipment used by custom opera-
leading to lower yields than without irriga- tors. Know how to clean all pieces
tion (Whitty, 2006). of equipment, including planters,
Drought stress constitutes a serious threat combines, wagons, trucks and other
for peanut production because of the danger equipment. Clean equipment prior
of aflatoxin. This problem commonly occurs to use in organic fields and keep
in the last days before harvest, when pea- records to document equipment
nuts under drought stress are most suscepti- cleaning activities.
ble. When fungi such as Aspergillus parasiti- • Know crop storage. Carefully
cus and A. flavus infect peanuts, the fungi inspect storage units prior to use.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 15
16. Thoroughly clean bins, dryers, and testing protocols. Communicate
cleaners and other storage units. with buyers and organic certifying
• Know the truckers. Carefully agents if any problems arise.
inspect and clean trucks and trail-
ers prior to loading. Make sure that Summary
transport units, including over- Strategies for successful production of
seas shipping containers, are free organic peanuts will differ by U.S. region.
of foreign matter. Keep records to Organic peanuts now come from New Mex-
document trucks, including clean ico, Arizona and West Texas, where pest
transportation affidavits and bills and disease pressures are much less than
of lading. in the Southeast, where conventional pro-
• Know the farm’s records. Docu- duction historically occurrs. Integrated pest
ment efforts to minimize contami- management strategies are apt to be more
nation. With good records, farmers successful in Western states, including
will have a better chance of limit- California, than east of Interstate 35, about
ing losses, identifying causes of 98 degrees west longitude.
problems and determining liability. Development of pest- and disease-resistant
Valid records of organic yields and varieties is crucial to any organic peanut
sales may help establish claims for production on a scale comparable to that of
losses should contamination or co- conventional production in the Southeast.
mingling occur. Recent research in the Southeast focused on
• Know the buyers. Know the contract development of pest-resistant peanut varieties
specifications the organic crop is for alternative fuel, rather than varieties for
grown under. Know buyers’ sampling organic production of an edible crop.
Wasp –
Ladybird parasite of
beetle – lepidoptera.
aphid
predator.
Tachinid fly – parasite of stinkbugs.
Planting milkweed along a field margin supplies nectar and pollen for a
wide range of beneficial insects that provide free pest control.
Photos by Rex Dufour.
Page 16 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production
17. References:
Abdalla, M. E, and G. M. Abdel-Fattah. 2000. Culbreath, Leeann. 2005. Are they nuts? Southern
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American Peanut Council. 2002. About the Peanut Indus- Culbreath, Leeann. 2004. New variety may open way
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ted Wilt Virus in New Peanut Breeding Lines. CAES, sumer Services, Agronomic Division, Raleigh. Note 3.
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19. March 2006. Since then, the agency has completed
Putnam, D.H., E.S. Oplinger, T.M. Teynor, E.A. harmonization with international HTS codes, consist-
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Alternative Field Crops Manual. Minnesota Extension, involving peanuts. Peanuts are now aggregated with
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Madison. 8 p.
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ences. University of Florida Extension. SS-AGR-185.
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answers as planting nears. The Peanut Grower. March.
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Maybe different, maybe the same. The Peanut Peanut Farmer. July. 4 p.
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USDA/ARS. 1993. Great-tasting peanuts? Try hairy! Further resource:
Agricultural Research. December. p. 14. International Certification Services, Inc.
USDA/ARS. 1992. Pitting fungus against fungus. doing business as Farm Verified Organic
Agricultural Research. May. p. 8-9. Customer Contact Information:
ICS, Inc.
USDA/ERS. 2002. Peanut consumption rebound- 301 5th Ave SE
ing amidst market uncertainties. Agriculture Outlook. Medina, ND 58467
March. p. 2. 701-486-3578
USDA/FAS. 2006. www.fas.usda.gov/ustrade 701-486-3580 fax
Note: Peanut export figures given in the text were info@ics-intl.com
abstracted from the USDA FAS statistical reports in www.ics-intl.com/fvo.htm
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 19