The document discusses how average atomic mass is determined and used. It notes that atoms exist as different isotopes, and the average atomic mass accounts for the masses and relative abundances of naturally occurring isotopes. It provides examples of calculating average atomic mass by multiplying each isotope's mass by its fractional abundance and summing the products. The average atomic mass is used instead of individual isotope masses because substances contain huge numbers of atoms.
This document provides an overview of a training module on basic aquatic chemistry concepts. It includes information on the funding sources for the module, the module objectives to understand chemical equilibria, pH, alkalinity, and buffers. It also includes the session plan, overhead masters to support the lecture, and evaluation materials. The module aims to help participants understand key aquatic chemistry concepts relevant for water quality monitoring and assessment.
En 1836, Edmundo Davy descubrió que al agregar agua al carburo de potasio se produce una violenta reacción química que genera un gas incoloro llamado acetileno. El documento luego describe los usos del acetileno, que incluyen carburación en equipos automotrices y soldadura, y explica el proceso de producción del acetileno a partir del carburo de calcio y el agua.
Wastewater management involves treating various sources of water pollution using advanced oxidation processes like photo-Fenton oxidation. Photo-Fenton oxidation uses UV light, hydrogen peroxide, and iron ions to produce hydroxyl radicals that effectively eliminate organic pollutants through oxidation. The process parameters that affect photo-Fenton oxidation include pH, hydrogen peroxide dose, irradiation time, and initial iron ion concentration. Photo-Fenton oxidation shows potential for treating industrial wastewater for reuse in fertilizer production after further treatment.
O documento discute os principais tipos de hidrocarbonetos, incluindo alcanos, alcenos, alcinos, alcadienos, cicloalcanos, cicloalcenos e compostos aromáticos. Fornece fórmulas gerais e exemplos de cada tipo, destacando suas características estruturais como ligações simples, duplas e triplas.
O documento descreve as principais características de ácidos orgânicos e ésteres. Define que ácidos carboxílicos são responsáveis pelo odor desagradável da transpiração e que desodorantes usam substâncias básicas para neutralizá-los. Também explica que ésteres são usados em aromatizantes de alimentos e produtos como ceras, óleos e gorduras.
The document discusses how average atomic mass is determined and used. It notes that atoms exist as different isotopes, and the average atomic mass accounts for the masses and relative abundances of naturally occurring isotopes. It provides examples of calculating average atomic mass by multiplying each isotope's mass by its fractional abundance and summing the products. The average atomic mass is used instead of individual isotope masses because substances contain huge numbers of atoms.
This document provides an overview of a training module on basic aquatic chemistry concepts. It includes information on the funding sources for the module, the module objectives to understand chemical equilibria, pH, alkalinity, and buffers. It also includes the session plan, overhead masters to support the lecture, and evaluation materials. The module aims to help participants understand key aquatic chemistry concepts relevant for water quality monitoring and assessment.
En 1836, Edmundo Davy descubrió que al agregar agua al carburo de potasio se produce una violenta reacción química que genera un gas incoloro llamado acetileno. El documento luego describe los usos del acetileno, que incluyen carburación en equipos automotrices y soldadura, y explica el proceso de producción del acetileno a partir del carburo de calcio y el agua.
Wastewater management involves treating various sources of water pollution using advanced oxidation processes like photo-Fenton oxidation. Photo-Fenton oxidation uses UV light, hydrogen peroxide, and iron ions to produce hydroxyl radicals that effectively eliminate organic pollutants through oxidation. The process parameters that affect photo-Fenton oxidation include pH, hydrogen peroxide dose, irradiation time, and initial iron ion concentration. Photo-Fenton oxidation shows potential for treating industrial wastewater for reuse in fertilizer production after further treatment.
O documento discute os principais tipos de hidrocarbonetos, incluindo alcanos, alcenos, alcinos, alcadienos, cicloalcanos, cicloalcenos e compostos aromáticos. Fornece fórmulas gerais e exemplos de cada tipo, destacando suas características estruturais como ligações simples, duplas e triplas.
O documento descreve as principais características de ácidos orgânicos e ésteres. Define que ácidos carboxílicos são responsáveis pelo odor desagradável da transpiração e que desodorantes usam substâncias básicas para neutralizá-los. Também explica que ésteres são usados em aromatizantes de alimentos e produtos como ceras, óleos e gorduras.
History, Classification, Uses of organic chemistryAnm Sharif
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-based compounds found in living things. The first organic chemist, Berzelius, believed organic compounds could only come from living organisms, but Wöhler discovered the organic compound urea could be synthesized from inorganic precursors, disproving this idea of vitalism. Organic compounds make up the basic building blocks of life like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids and have a wide variety of uses from medicines to plastics.
Chromium is a metal that exists in several oxidation
• Chromium is a metal that exists in several oxidation or valence states, ranging from chromium (-II) to chromium (+VI).
• Chromium compounds are very stable in the trivalent state and occur naturally in this state in ores such as ferrochromite, or chromite ore.
• Chrome III is an essential nutrient for maintaining blood glucose levels
• The hexavalent, Cr(VI) or chromate, is the second most stable state. It rarely occurs naturally.
This document provides information about water technology and water treatment. It discusses the existence and states of water on Earth, sources of water including surface and underground sources, types of water impurities and their effects, hardness of water, types of hardness and units of measurement, disadvantages of hard water, estimation of hardness, scale and sludge formation in boilers, and methods of water treatment both internal and external methods. It covers topics like ion exchange process, zeolite process, desalination methods like electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.
O documento discute as propriedades e reações de aldeídos e cetonas, incluindo sua nomenclatura, exemplos importantes, propriedades físicas, métodos de obtenção, propriedades químicas e aplicações.
This chapter discusses the mole concept, including defining the mole, deriving empirical and molecular formulas, stating Avogadro's Law, and applying the mole concept to ionic and molecular equations. It introduces the mole as the amount of substance containing 6x1023 particles. It provides examples of how to determine the empirical formula, molecular formula, and formula of a compound from composition data. It also discusses molar volume of gases and limiting reactants. Worked examples are included for many of these concepts.
The document discusses the mole, which is a unit used in chemistry to represent 6.02 x 1023 particles. It is named after Amedeo Avogadro, who discovered that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules. The mole represents this number of particles, just as a dozen represents 12 objects. While difficult to conceptualize due to its sheer size, using the mole allows for convenient counting of particles in chemical reactions and calculations.
El ácido nítrico es un líquido incoloro, corrosivo y tóxico que se obtiene industrialmente mediante el método de Ostwald, el cual involucra la oxidación del amoníaco con aire y óxido nitroso. Es uno de los ácidos más importantes industrialmente y se utiliza ampliamente en la fabricación de abonos, explosivos, colorantes y otros productos químicos.
This document discusses physical and chemical properties of matter. It defines physical properties as those that can be observed without changing the identity of the substance, such as density, state, and thermal conductivity. Chemical properties describe a substance's ability to change into a new substance with different properties through chemical reactions. Some signs that a chemical change has occurred include production of a new odor or color, a change in temperature, formation of bubbles if a gas is produced, or a precipitate forming if a solid is produced.
Este documento discute diferentes tipos de reações químicas, incluindo combustão, ácido-base e precipitação. Ele explica como identificar reações químicas, representá-las em esquemas e lê-las. Também aborda indicadores de pH e a escala de pH.
All substances are made up of tiny particles called atoms. There are over 100 basic substances called elements that are made of only one type of atom. Elements can combine to form compounds with different properties. Chemical reactions involve atoms joining together to form new compounds. The periodic table arranges elements based on their properties, with metals mostly on the left and non-metals on the right.
Ethers are a class of organic compounds containing an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, following the general formula R-O-R'. Ethers have relatively low polarity and reactivity compared to similar alcohols and alkenes. Common reactions of ethers include forming peroxides in the presence of oxygen and dehydration of alcohols to form ethers. Historically, ether was first used as a general anesthetic for surgery in the 1840s and is still applied as a colorless liquid that causes unconsciousness.
O documento discute hidrocarbonetos, compostos orgânicos formados por carbono e hidrogênio. Apresenta as principais classes de hidrocarbonetos como alcanos, alcenos, alcinos e aromáticos e explica a nomenclatura destas classes, incluindo cadeias ramificadas. Também fornece exemplos como o metano, eteno e benzeno.
El neón es un gas noble incoloro, inodoro e inerte descubierto en 1898. Tiene aplicaciones en indicadores publicitarios, tubos de televisión y láseres. Aunque es inerte, puede ser peligroso si se inhala en altas concentraciones, causando mareos o la muerte. El neón se encuentra naturalmente en la atmósfera terrestre y en estrellas, y se obtiene industrialmente mediante subenfriamiento y destilación fraccionada del aire.
History, Classification, Uses of organic chemistryAnm Sharif
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-based compounds found in living things. The first organic chemist, Berzelius, believed organic compounds could only come from living organisms, but Wöhler discovered the organic compound urea could be synthesized from inorganic precursors, disproving this idea of vitalism. Organic compounds make up the basic building blocks of life like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids and have a wide variety of uses from medicines to plastics.
Chromium is a metal that exists in several oxidation
• Chromium is a metal that exists in several oxidation or valence states, ranging from chromium (-II) to chromium (+VI).
• Chromium compounds are very stable in the trivalent state and occur naturally in this state in ores such as ferrochromite, or chromite ore.
• Chrome III is an essential nutrient for maintaining blood glucose levels
• The hexavalent, Cr(VI) or chromate, is the second most stable state. It rarely occurs naturally.
This document provides information about water technology and water treatment. It discusses the existence and states of water on Earth, sources of water including surface and underground sources, types of water impurities and their effects, hardness of water, types of hardness and units of measurement, disadvantages of hard water, estimation of hardness, scale and sludge formation in boilers, and methods of water treatment both internal and external methods. It covers topics like ion exchange process, zeolite process, desalination methods like electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.
O documento discute as propriedades e reações de aldeídos e cetonas, incluindo sua nomenclatura, exemplos importantes, propriedades físicas, métodos de obtenção, propriedades químicas e aplicações.
This chapter discusses the mole concept, including defining the mole, deriving empirical and molecular formulas, stating Avogadro's Law, and applying the mole concept to ionic and molecular equations. It introduces the mole as the amount of substance containing 6x1023 particles. It provides examples of how to determine the empirical formula, molecular formula, and formula of a compound from composition data. It also discusses molar volume of gases and limiting reactants. Worked examples are included for many of these concepts.
The document discusses the mole, which is a unit used in chemistry to represent 6.02 x 1023 particles. It is named after Amedeo Avogadro, who discovered that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules. The mole represents this number of particles, just as a dozen represents 12 objects. While difficult to conceptualize due to its sheer size, using the mole allows for convenient counting of particles in chemical reactions and calculations.
El ácido nítrico es un líquido incoloro, corrosivo y tóxico que se obtiene industrialmente mediante el método de Ostwald, el cual involucra la oxidación del amoníaco con aire y óxido nitroso. Es uno de los ácidos más importantes industrialmente y se utiliza ampliamente en la fabricación de abonos, explosivos, colorantes y otros productos químicos.
This document discusses physical and chemical properties of matter. It defines physical properties as those that can be observed without changing the identity of the substance, such as density, state, and thermal conductivity. Chemical properties describe a substance's ability to change into a new substance with different properties through chemical reactions. Some signs that a chemical change has occurred include production of a new odor or color, a change in temperature, formation of bubbles if a gas is produced, or a precipitate forming if a solid is produced.
Este documento discute diferentes tipos de reações químicas, incluindo combustão, ácido-base e precipitação. Ele explica como identificar reações químicas, representá-las em esquemas e lê-las. Também aborda indicadores de pH e a escala de pH.
All substances are made up of tiny particles called atoms. There are over 100 basic substances called elements that are made of only one type of atom. Elements can combine to form compounds with different properties. Chemical reactions involve atoms joining together to form new compounds. The periodic table arranges elements based on their properties, with metals mostly on the left and non-metals on the right.
Ethers are a class of organic compounds containing an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, following the general formula R-O-R'. Ethers have relatively low polarity and reactivity compared to similar alcohols and alkenes. Common reactions of ethers include forming peroxides in the presence of oxygen and dehydration of alcohols to form ethers. Historically, ether was first used as a general anesthetic for surgery in the 1840s and is still applied as a colorless liquid that causes unconsciousness.
O documento discute hidrocarbonetos, compostos orgânicos formados por carbono e hidrogênio. Apresenta as principais classes de hidrocarbonetos como alcanos, alcenos, alcinos e aromáticos e explica a nomenclatura destas classes, incluindo cadeias ramificadas. Também fornece exemplos como o metano, eteno e benzeno.
El neón es un gas noble incoloro, inodoro e inerte descubierto en 1898. Tiene aplicaciones en indicadores publicitarios, tubos de televisión y láseres. Aunque es inerte, puede ser peligroso si se inhala en altas concentraciones, causando mareos o la muerte. El neón se encuentra naturalmente en la atmósfera terrestre y en estrellas, y se obtiene industrialmente mediante subenfriamiento y destilación fraccionada del aire.
Este documento describe las características básicas de los virus y bacterias. Los virus son estructuras acelulares que se replican dentro de las células vivas utilizando su maquinaria metabólica. Las bacterias son células procariotas unicelulares que pueden ser beneficiosas o patógenas. El documento también explica brevemente los ciclos de infección viral, la estructura bacteriana, las enfermedades infecciosas y los mecanismos de defensa del sistema inmunológico.
Los ecosistemas se caracterizan por un biotopo, una biocenosis y las relaciones entre los seres vivos. El biotopo incluye factores abióticos como la temperatura y la acidez. La biocenosis está formada por las especies que habitan el ecosistema. Estas especies interactúan a través de relaciones como la competencia, depredación, parasitismo, comensalismo y mutualismo.
El documento describe las adaptaciones en plantas y animales que les permiten sobrevivir en diferentes ambientes. Las plantas tienen hojas de diferentes tamaños y formas para captar luz o retener humedad dependiendo del clima, y también producen flores, frutos y semillas para reproducirse. Los animales acuáticos tienen aletas, cilios o formas alargadas para nadar, y los de profundidad tienen ojos y bocas grandes. Los terrestres se adaptan a la temperatura con pelo, grasa y cambios estacionales, y a la escasez
Lurraren egitura eta dinamika aztertzen da. Plaken tektonikaren azalpena: aurrekariak Wegenerren kontinenteen jitoa, plaken tektonika, ertz-motak eta bakoitzari dagozkion egitura geologikoak
2. 6
Natura Zientziak – DBH 2
Ikatza nola eratzen den
1. Landare-hondakinak metatzea
Ikatza erregai fosil bat da, orain dela milioika urteko landare-
hondakinetatik sortu zena; landare-hondakin haiek
eraldaketa-prozesu motela izan zuten. Prozesu hark hiru
etapa izan zituen:
2. Hondakinak sedimentuen azpian lurperatzea
3. Behin betiko ikatz bihurtzea
3. 6
Natura Zientziak – DBH 2
Ikatza nola eratzen den
1. Landare-hondakinak metatzea
Ikatza sortu zuen landaredia orain dela milioika urteko padura eta
deltetan hazten zen. Baso sarri haien hondakinak geruza lodietan
metatuz joan ziren, eta, haiek poliki-poliki deskonposatu ahala, zohikatz
deritzona sortzen zuten.
Landare-hondakinen geruza, delta edo
padura bateko landarediaren azpian
4. 6
Natura Zientziak – DBH 2
Ikatza nola eratzen den
Landare-hondakinak metatzea
Ikatza sortu zuen landaredia orain dela milioika urteko padura eta
deltetan hazten zen. Baso sarri haien hondakinak geruza lodietan
metatuz joan ziren, eta, haiek poliki-poliki deskonposatu ahala, zohikatz
deritzona sortzen zuten.
Gutxi eraldatutako
landare-hondakinak
(zohikatza)
5. 6
Natura Zientziak – DBH 2
Ikatza nola eratzen den
2. Hondakinak sedimentuen azpian lurperatzea
Itsas mailan izandako aldaketen ondorioz, padurak eta deltak urpean
gera zitezkeen, eta sedimentuak landare-hondakinen eta zohikatzaren
gainean metatu.
Lurpean geratzean, are gehiago eraldatu ziren hondakinak, karbono-
edukia kontzentratuz eta gogortuz; horrela, lignitoa sortu zen, gutxi
eraldatutako ikatza.
Itsas sedimentuen geruza
6. 6
Natura Zientziak – DBH 2
Ikatza nola eratzen den
2. Hondakinak sedimentuen azpian lurperatzea
Itsas mailan izandako aldaketen ondorioz, padurak eta deltak urpean
gera zitezkeen, eta sedimentuak landare-hondakinen eta zohikatzaren
gainean metatu.
Lurpean geratzean, are gehiago eraldatu ziren hondakinak, karbono-
edukia kontzentratuz eta gogortuz; horrela, lignitoa sortu zen, gutxi
eraldatutako ikatza.
Gehiago eraldatutako
hondakinak, ikatz itxura
handiagokoak (lignitoa)
7. 6
Natura Zientziak – DBH 2
Ikatza nola eratzen den
Sedimentu-geruzek egindako presioaren ondorioz, sakoneko geruzak
harri sedimentario bihurtu ziren, eta ikatz-geruza, berriz, antrazita edo
ikatz heldu bihurtu zen. Litosferaren dinamikako indarrek harri
sedimentario haiek tolestu zituzten, eta ikatz-meatokia egungo lekuan
finkatu zuten.
3. Behin betiko ikatz bihurtzea
Tolestutako harri sedimentarioak
8. 6
Natura Zientziak – DBH 2
Ikatza nola eratzen den
Guztiz osatutako ikatza
(harrikatza eta antrazita)
Sedimentu-geruzek egindako presioaren ondorioz, sakoneko geruzak
harri sedimentario bihurtu ziren, eta ikatz-geruza, berriz, antrazita edo
ikatz heldu bihurtu zen. Litosferaren dinamikako indarrek harri
sedimentario haiek tolestu zituzten, eta ikatz-meatokia egungo lekuan
finkatu zuten
3. Behin betiko ikatz bihurtzea
