Organic-Chemistry-Macromolecules-Cell-Communication.pptx
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BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015FINAL EXAMINATIONPlease copy and paste th.docx
BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015
FINAL EXAMINATION
Please copy and paste the final examination into a Word file. Complete it in this form (do not make any structural changes!) and submit it as an attachment into your
Assignment Folder.
Do not forget to put your name on top of the exam!
The absolute deadline for submission is
Sunday, March 8, NOON
.
I cannot accept any later submissions.
YOUR NAME:
_______________________________________________________________
Total possible points: 100
I. Multiple choice questions. Please
bold
or
underline
the correct answer (1point each=50 points)
1. In October of 2003, a raging wildfire swept through the mountain ecosystems in Southern California, burning everything in its path to the ground and driving away all of the animals. In order for the mountain ecosystem to establish itself, which member of the food web has to return first?
Deer
Coyotes
Snake
Grasses
2. Suppose you conduct an experiment which simulates glacial recession over time. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
Glacial mass
Sunlight
The season
Time
3. How many dependent variables can be tested during any single experiment?
4
3
2
1
4. The effectiveness of a medication containing growth hormones is tested on a group of young male rabbits 3 weeks of age. The best control group would be:
Any group of rabbits
A group of male rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
A group of female rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
A mixed group of male/female rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
No control is required; just measure whether the rabbits grew
5. When writing a lab report or a research paper, you need to show what the difference is between the “Results” section and the ”Discussion” section. Which of the following is correct?
The
Discussion
analyzes data, whereas the
Results
analyzes the procedure.
The
Discussion
analyzes data, whereas the
Results
displays data.
The
Discussion
displays data, whereas the
Results
analyzes the Discussion.
The
Discussion
displays the procedure, whereas the
Results
analyzes the data.
6. What characteristic of carbon makes it a good backbone for creating diverse and durable molecules?
Carbon is a large atom
Carbon forms four covalent bonds
Carbon forms hydrogen bonds
All of the above
7. Which of the following reactions or pathways is catabolic?
Converting glucose to carbon dioxide and water (cellular respiration)
Making starch from many glucose monomers
Photosynthesis, which builds glucose from carbon dioxide using energy from light
Making ATP from ADP and phosphate
8. One human disease is caused by a change in the DNA from GAA to GUA. This change is an example of:
Crossing-over
A meiosis error
A mitosis error
A mutation
9. What subatomic particles are found in the nucleus?
Elecctrons
Protons
Neutrons
Protons and neutrons
Protons and electrons
10. Which of the following describes H
2
0, NaCl, CO
2
, and HCl?
All are acids
All are gases
All .
Recommended
BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015FINAL EXAMINATIONPlease copy and paste th.docx
BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015
FINAL EXAMINATION
Please copy and paste the final examination into a Word file. Complete it in this form (do not make any structural changes!) and submit it as an attachment into your
Assignment Folder.
Do not forget to put your name on top of the exam!
The absolute deadline for submission is
Sunday, March 8, NOON
.
I cannot accept any later submissions.
YOUR NAME:
_______________________________________________________________
Total possible points: 100
I. Multiple choice questions. Please
bold
or
underline
the correct answer (1point each=50 points)
1. In October of 2003, a raging wildfire swept through the mountain ecosystems in Southern California, burning everything in its path to the ground and driving away all of the animals. In order for the mountain ecosystem to establish itself, which member of the food web has to return first?
Deer
Coyotes
Snake
Grasses
2. Suppose you conduct an experiment which simulates glacial recession over time. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
Glacial mass
Sunlight
The season
Time
3. How many dependent variables can be tested during any single experiment?
4
3
2
1
4. The effectiveness of a medication containing growth hormones is tested on a group of young male rabbits 3 weeks of age. The best control group would be:
Any group of rabbits
A group of male rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
A group of female rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
A mixed group of male/female rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
No control is required; just measure whether the rabbits grew
5. When writing a lab report or a research paper, you need to show what the difference is between the “Results” section and the ”Discussion” section. Which of the following is correct?
The
Discussion
analyzes data, whereas the
Results
analyzes the procedure.
The
Discussion
analyzes data, whereas the
Results
displays data.
The
Discussion
displays data, whereas the
Results
analyzes the Discussion.
The
Discussion
displays the procedure, whereas the
Results
analyzes the data.
6. What characteristic of carbon makes it a good backbone for creating diverse and durable molecules?
Carbon is a large atom
Carbon forms four covalent bonds
Carbon forms hydrogen bonds
All of the above
7. Which of the following reactions or pathways is catabolic?
Converting glucose to carbon dioxide and water (cellular respiration)
Making starch from many glucose monomers
Photosynthesis, which builds glucose from carbon dioxide using energy from light
Making ATP from ADP and phosphate
8. One human disease is caused by a change in the DNA from GAA to GUA. This change is an example of:
Crossing-over
A meiosis error
A mitosis error
A mutation
9. What subatomic particles are found in the nucleus?
Elecctrons
Protons
Neutrons
Protons and neutrons
Protons and electrons
10. Which of the following describes H
2
0, NaCl, CO
2
, and HCl?
All are acids
All are gases
All .
IB Biology 2.1 Slides: Molecules to Metabolism
Slides covering material from Topic 2.1 of the updated IB Biology syllabus for 2016 exams
BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015FINAL EXAMINATIONPlease copy and paste .docx
BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015
FINAL EXAMINATION
Please copy and paste the final examination into a Word file. Complete it in this form (do not make any structural changes!) and submit it as an attachment into your Assignment Folder.Do not forget to put your name on top of the exam!
The absolute deadline for submission is Sunday, March 8, NOON.
I cannot accept any later submissions.
YOUR NAME:
_______________________________________________________________
Total possible points: 100
I. Multiple choice questions. Please bold or underline the correct answer (1point each=50 points)
1. In October of 2003, a raging wildfire swept through the mountain ecosystems in Southern California, burning everything in its path to the ground and driving away all of the animals. In order for the mountain ecosystem to establish itself, which member of the food web has to return first?
1. Deer
2. Coyotes
3. Snake
4. Grasses
2. Suppose you conduct an experiment which simulates glacial recession over time. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
1. Glacial mass
2. Sunlight
3. The season
4. Time
3. How many dependent variables can be tested during any single experiment?
1. 4
2. 3
3. 2
4. 1
4. The effectiveness of a medication containing growth hormones is tested on a group of young male rabbits 3 weeks of age. The best control group would be:
1. Any group of rabbits
2. A group of male rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
3. A group of female rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
4. A mixed group of male/female rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
5. No control is required; just measure whether the rabbits grew
5. When writing a lab report or a research paper, you need to show what the difference is between the “Results” section and the ”Discussion” section. Which of the following is correct?
1. The Discussion analyzes data, whereas the Results analyzes the procedure.
2. The Discussion analyzes data, whereas the Results displays data.
3. The Discussion displays data, whereas the Results analyzes the Discussion.
4. The Discussion displays the procedure, whereas the Results analyzes the data.
6. What characteristic of carbon makes it a good backbone for creating diverse and durable molecules?
1. Carbon is a large atom
2. Carbon forms four covalent bonds
3. Carbon forms hydrogen bonds
4. All of the above
7. Which of the following reactions or pathways is catabolic?
1. Converting glucose to carbon dioxide and water (cellular respiration)
2. Making starch from many glucose monomers
3. Photosynthesis, which builds glucose from carbon dioxide using energy from light
4. Making ATP from ADP and phosphate
8. One human disease is caused by a change in the DNA from GAA to GUA. This change is an example of:
1. Crossing-over
2. A meiosis error
3. A mitosis error
4. A mutation
9. What subatomic particles are found in the nucleus?
1. Elecctrons
2. Protons
3. Neutrons
4. Protons and neutrons
5. Protons and electrons
10. Which ...
AP Advantage: AP Biology
This is the curriculum I designed for Classroom Matters' AP Advantage Review Program
Igcse biology edexcel 2.1 2.16
Edexcell ppt Biology 2.1-2.16
Used in lessons to scaffold class teaching and as a revision resource for students
AP Advantage: AP Biology
This is the curriculum I designed for Classroom Matters' AP Advantage Review Program.
IB Biology 2.4 & 7.3 Slides: Proteins
Slides covering material from Topic 1.2 (and some AHL material from 7.3) of the updated IB Biology syllabus for 2016 exams
Chemistry of Life Biological MoleculesBiological Molecules.docx
Chemistry of Life: Biological Molecules
Biological Molecules
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
· describe the ways in which carbon is critical to life
· explain the impact of slight changes in amino acids on organisms
· describe the four major types of biological molecules
· understand the functions of the four major types of molecules.
The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called biological macromolecules. There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids), and each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide array of functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cell's mass. Biological macromolecules are organic, meaning that they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and additional minor elements.
Carbon
It is often said that life is "carbon-based." This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon atoms or other elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules found uniquely in living things. Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but carbon certainly qualifies as the "foundation" element for molecules in living things. It is the bonding properties of carbon atoms that are responsible for its important role.
Carbon Bonding
Carbon contains four electrons in its outer shell. Therefore, it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms or molecules. The simplest organic carbon molecule is methane (CH4), in which four hydrogen atoms bind to a carbon atom (Figure 13).
Figure 13: Molecular Structure of Methane
Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an organic molecule. The simplest carbon molecule is methane (CH4), depicted here.
OpenStax
However, structures that are more complex are made using carbon. Any of the hydrogen atoms could be replaced with another carbon atom covalently bonded to the first carbon atom. In this way, long and branching chains of carbon compounds can be made (Figure 14a). The carbon atoms may bond with atoms of other elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (Figure 14b). The molecules may also form rings, which themselves can link with other rings (Figure 14c). This diversity of molecular forms accounts for the diversity of functions of the biological macromolecules and is based to a large degree on the ability of carbon to form multiple bonds with itself and other atoms.
Figure 14: Molecular Structure of Stearic Acid, Glycine, and Glucose
These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon atoms bonded in various ways to other carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements. (a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms. (b) Glycine, a component of proteins, contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. (c) Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.
OpenSt.
PART I SHORT ANSWERDirections Please answer each of th.docx
PART I: SHORT ANSWER
Directions:
Please answer each of the following questions.
Please ensure that your responses are at least 3 to 5 sentences in length.
1.
What is chemosynthesis?
2.
For glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron-transport system, list two molecules that enter and two molecules that leave each pathway.
3.
Why are there different end products from different forms of fermentation?
What are these end products?
4.
Describe how carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can be interconverted from one to another.
5.
Photosynthesis is a biochemical pathway that involves three kinds of activities.
Name these activities and explain how they are related to each other.
6.
How do photosystem I and photosystem II differ in the kinds of reactions that take place?
7.
Even though animals do not photosynthesize, they rely on the sun for their energy.
Explain this concept.
8.
What is the value of a plant that has more than one kind of photosynthetic pigment?
9.
Aerobic cellular respiration occurs in three stages.
Name these stages and briefly describe what happens in each stage.
10.
How is aerobic cellular respiration different in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms?
PART II: ESSAY
Directions:
Write a 1 to 2 page, double-spaced paper in 12 pt. font in response to the following question.
Find one article using AAU’s LIRN (library) to use as support.
Please use APA format.
Please visit the Academic Resource Center for an effective guide on how use LIRN and for concise APA guidelines.
Krebs Cycle
Explain the Krebs cycle process.
Why is the Krebs cycle so important for our bodies?
Why do many body builders study this process?
.
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Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technology
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
More Related Content
Similar to Organic-Chemistry-Macromolecules-Cell-Communication.pptx
IB Biology 2.1 Slides: Molecules to Metabolism
Slides covering material from Topic 2.1 of the updated IB Biology syllabus for 2016 exams
BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015FINAL EXAMINATIONPlease copy and paste .docx
BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015
FINAL EXAMINATION
Please copy and paste the final examination into a Word file. Complete it in this form (do not make any structural changes!) and submit it as an attachment into your Assignment Folder.Do not forget to put your name on top of the exam!
The absolute deadline for submission is Sunday, March 8, NOON.
I cannot accept any later submissions.
YOUR NAME:
_______________________________________________________________
Total possible points: 100
I. Multiple choice questions. Please bold or underline the correct answer (1point each=50 points)
1. In October of 2003, a raging wildfire swept through the mountain ecosystems in Southern California, burning everything in its path to the ground and driving away all of the animals. In order for the mountain ecosystem to establish itself, which member of the food web has to return first?
1. Deer
2. Coyotes
3. Snake
4. Grasses
2. Suppose you conduct an experiment which simulates glacial recession over time. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
1. Glacial mass
2. Sunlight
3. The season
4. Time
3. How many dependent variables can be tested during any single experiment?
1. 4
2. 3
3. 2
4. 1
4. The effectiveness of a medication containing growth hormones is tested on a group of young male rabbits 3 weeks of age. The best control group would be:
1. Any group of rabbits
2. A group of male rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
3. A group of female rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
4. A mixed group of male/female rabbits, three weeks old, not given the medication
5. No control is required; just measure whether the rabbits grew
5. When writing a lab report or a research paper, you need to show what the difference is between the “Results” section and the ”Discussion” section. Which of the following is correct?
1. The Discussion analyzes data, whereas the Results analyzes the procedure.
2. The Discussion analyzes data, whereas the Results displays data.
3. The Discussion displays data, whereas the Results analyzes the Discussion.
4. The Discussion displays the procedure, whereas the Results analyzes the data.
6. What characteristic of carbon makes it a good backbone for creating diverse and durable molecules?
1. Carbon is a large atom
2. Carbon forms four covalent bonds
3. Carbon forms hydrogen bonds
4. All of the above
7. Which of the following reactions or pathways is catabolic?
1. Converting glucose to carbon dioxide and water (cellular respiration)
2. Making starch from many glucose monomers
3. Photosynthesis, which builds glucose from carbon dioxide using energy from light
4. Making ATP from ADP and phosphate
8. One human disease is caused by a change in the DNA from GAA to GUA. This change is an example of:
1. Crossing-over
2. A meiosis error
3. A mitosis error
4. A mutation
9. What subatomic particles are found in the nucleus?
1. Elecctrons
2. Protons
3. Neutrons
4. Protons and neutrons
5. Protons and electrons
10. Which ...
AP Advantage: AP Biology
This is the curriculum I designed for Classroom Matters' AP Advantage Review Program
Igcse biology edexcel 2.1 2.16
Edexcell ppt Biology 2.1-2.16
Used in lessons to scaffold class teaching and as a revision resource for students
AP Advantage: AP Biology
This is the curriculum I designed for Classroom Matters' AP Advantage Review Program.
IB Biology 2.4 & 7.3 Slides: Proteins
Slides covering material from Topic 1.2 (and some AHL material from 7.3) of the updated IB Biology syllabus for 2016 exams
Chemistry of Life Biological MoleculesBiological Molecules.docx
Chemistry of Life: Biological Molecules
Biological Molecules
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
· describe the ways in which carbon is critical to life
· explain the impact of slight changes in amino acids on organisms
· describe the four major types of biological molecules
· understand the functions of the four major types of molecules.
The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called biological macromolecules. There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids), and each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide array of functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cell's mass. Biological macromolecules are organic, meaning that they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and additional minor elements.
Carbon
It is often said that life is "carbon-based." This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon atoms or other elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules found uniquely in living things. Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but carbon certainly qualifies as the "foundation" element for molecules in living things. It is the bonding properties of carbon atoms that are responsible for its important role.
Carbon Bonding
Carbon contains four electrons in its outer shell. Therefore, it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms or molecules. The simplest organic carbon molecule is methane (CH4), in which four hydrogen atoms bind to a carbon atom (Figure 13).
Figure 13: Molecular Structure of Methane
Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an organic molecule. The simplest carbon molecule is methane (CH4), depicted here.
OpenStax
However, structures that are more complex are made using carbon. Any of the hydrogen atoms could be replaced with another carbon atom covalently bonded to the first carbon atom. In this way, long and branching chains of carbon compounds can be made (Figure 14a). The carbon atoms may bond with atoms of other elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (Figure 14b). The molecules may also form rings, which themselves can link with other rings (Figure 14c). This diversity of molecular forms accounts for the diversity of functions of the biological macromolecules and is based to a large degree on the ability of carbon to form multiple bonds with itself and other atoms.
Figure 14: Molecular Structure of Stearic Acid, Glycine, and Glucose
These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon atoms bonded in various ways to other carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements. (a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms. (b) Glycine, a component of proteins, contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. (c) Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.
OpenSt.
PART I SHORT ANSWERDirections Please answer each of th.docx
PART I: SHORT ANSWER
Directions:
Please answer each of the following questions.
Please ensure that your responses are at least 3 to 5 sentences in length.
1.
What is chemosynthesis?
2.
For glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron-transport system, list two molecules that enter and two molecules that leave each pathway.
3.
Why are there different end products from different forms of fermentation?
What are these end products?
4.
Describe how carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can be interconverted from one to another.
5.
Photosynthesis is a biochemical pathway that involves three kinds of activities.
Name these activities and explain how they are related to each other.
6.
How do photosystem I and photosystem II differ in the kinds of reactions that take place?
7.
Even though animals do not photosynthesize, they rely on the sun for their energy.
Explain this concept.
8.
What is the value of a plant that has more than one kind of photosynthetic pigment?
9.
Aerobic cellular respiration occurs in three stages.
Name these stages and briefly describe what happens in each stage.
10.
How is aerobic cellular respiration different in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms?
PART II: ESSAY
Directions:
Write a 1 to 2 page, double-spaced paper in 12 pt. font in response to the following question.
Find one article using AAU’s LIRN (library) to use as support.
Please use APA format.
Please visit the Academic Resource Center for an effective guide on how use LIRN and for concise APA guidelines.
Krebs Cycle
Explain the Krebs cycle process.
Why is the Krebs cycle so important for our bodies?
Why do many body builders study this process?
.
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BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015FINAL EXAMINATIONPlease copy and paste .docx
BIOLOGY 103 Spring 2015FINAL EXAMINATIONPlease copy and paste .docx
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extra-chromosomal-inheritance[1].pptx.pdfpdf
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
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RNA INTERFERENCE: UNRAVELING GENETIC SILENCING
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
SCHIZOPHRENIA Disorder/ Brain Disorder.pdf
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
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