For ensuring appropriate level of disaster management , it will remain critical to understand the various categories of disasters, factors which cause such disasters and adverse impact they have at the local level on local communities. Preparing local level vulnerability maps, based on the prevailing typologies of disasters and mapping vulnerable local communities , will remain crucial for evolving effective risk management strategies. Effectively, efficiently and realistically mapping potential hazards, will invariably help in empowering and better prepare, parastatal agencies and local communities, to face various emergencies, mitigate the impacts of disasters, and enhance collective ability to recover from disasters. Effective preparedness would also involve understanding of the various phases of disaster management, as well as evolving appropriate, realistic, rational and effective strategies/options/policies/programs needed to reduce the risks and respond effectively to impending disasters. Building resilient and safe communities and minimising damage/loss caused by disasters, a proactive and well-defined approach, will always remain valuable and critical. Entire community of nations must come on the same platform/wavelength to co-operate, collaborate and support the global efforts of making, ‘Cities and Communities, Safe, Resilient, Inclusive and Sustainable”, as mandated in SDG11, to usher an era of safety, security, peace and prosperity, across nations and communities

1. Making Cities Safe against Natural & Manmade Disasters-
Issues & Options
 Jit Kumar Gupta
 Jit.kumar1944@gmail.com
1. Introduction;
Looking holistically at the evolution and devolution of the universe and planet earth , it
can be safely concluded that disasters have been integral and essential part of
creation, growth& development of communities, human settlements and the earth. It has
been observed that destruction & construction essentially remain two sides of same
coin for the reason, that life subsists on life. Looking at the ongoing pattern of natural
and manmade activities, it can also be safely concluded that; disasters existed in the
past, disasters are currently striking human settlements and the countries continuously,
and humanities and communities will have to face increased number and intensity of
natural and manmade disasters in years to come. However, form, nature, pattern and
intensity of disasters will undergo drastic changes and shall continue to change in the
years to come.
Based on the studies and conclusion drawn, disasters are going to be sudden, more
intense and more severe, causing enormous loss to social fabric, infrastructures,
humanity, communities & property. Disasters invariably lead to loss of life, cause injury,
damage property, cause economic disruption and promote environmental damage,
besides making significant social impact. Disasters are known to promote poverty and
scale down human resource by impoverishing them and denying access to basic
amenities essentials for human living with dignity. The worst suffers are known to be
lower economic strata , poor communities and poor nations, who have little capacity,
capability, resources and preparedness for managing disasters effectively and
efficiently.
Disasters ,their form/pattern and intensity, have always been evolving, devolving, never
defined , never fixed and never finite. Accordingly, new typologies of disasters are now
plaguing the planet earth. Majority of these disasters are the outcome of rising
urbanisation, concentration of large number of human beings in cities, fast changing
human behaviour, consumption of large quantity of natural resources, increasing
volume of traffic and transportation, generation of large waste and creating of

2. unsustainable typologies of built environment . Accordingly, new / future disasters are
being defined in
terms of; urban heat Island global warming , health related issues, Covid 19, climate
change, wars between nations, ever increasing poverty and rising pollution.
Cumulative impact of these disasters will be more severe in cities and towns in
general and metropolitan and mega cities , having large concentration of people,
buildings, institutions etc., in particular. In fact, adverse impact of disasters shall have
positive co-relation with the size, density and population of the city to which they strike.
However, in order to minimize the adverse impact and reduce losses perpetuated by
disasters on communities and human settlements, disasters and area/communities
vulnerable to disasters, would need detailed study, understanding, analysis ,
preparation, effective strategies and options for mitigation.
2. Definition;
Considering the causes, nature, pattern, impact and losses suffered by humanity and
communities, disasters have been defined as;
‘A sudden event ,concentrated in time & space, which causes serious
damage/ harm to people, buildings, businesses, economies, flora, fauna,
social fabric, infrastructure, environment , which affected community
/society cannot handle it on its own.
United Nation’s office for Disaster Risk Reduction(UNDRR), has defined Disaster in
terms of;
A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any
scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure,
vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the following:
human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.
Annotations: The effect of the disaster can be immediate and localized,
but is often widespread and could last for a long period of time. The effect
may test or exceed the capacity of a community or society to cope using
its own resources, and therefore may require assistance from external
sources, which could include neighbouring jurisdictions, or those at the
national or international levels.
Emergency is sometimes used interchangeably with the term disaster, as,
for example, in the context of biological and technological hazards or
health emergencies, which, however, can also relate to hazardous events

3. that do not result in the serious disruption of the functioning of a
community or society.
Disaster damage occurs during and immediately after the disaster. This
is usually measured in physical units (e.g., square meters of housing,
kilometers
of roads, etc.), and describes the total or partial destruction of physical
assets, the disruption of basic services and damages to sources of
livelihood in the affected area.
Disaster impact is the total effect, including negative effects (e.g.,
economic losses) and positive effects (e.g., economic gains), of a
hazardous event or a disaster. The term includes economic, human and
environmental impacts, and may include death, injuries, disease and
other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well-being.
Looking at the above definitions, it can be logically concluded that disasters
invariably involve and include; unpredictability in time, space and causation;
having high intensity and velocity; impacting seriously large area and population;
causing enormous damage and loss in physical, social, economic and
environmental terms . Loss /damage caused, sometimes remain beyond and
exceed the capacity of impacted community, involving support and help from
both internal & external agencies/countries; to overcome the impact of
loss/damage caused.( Image 1)

4. s
Image 1; Havoc, destruction caused by Disasters ( Source; internetdiscada.com)
3. Typologies of Disasters
Looking at the genesis, nature and causes , disasters have been broadly classified
into two distinct categories. These categories include ; Natural disasters- disasters
which are caused and driven by nature and nature-led forces and Manmade
disasters -disasters caused and led by human activities. Manmade disasters include
crime against humanity, accidents, disorder , terrorism, war, fire, power outages,
technology-led disasters etc. . However, it is becoming difficult to draw dividing
line/clear distinction between natural, human-made / human accelerated disasters. In
addition, new/hybrid typologies of disasters are also emerging, which involve both
natural and man-made disasters, like earthquake (natural) causing a nuclear meltdown
(man-made) . Japan suffered from what is known as “triple disaster” in 2011 when
Tohoku earthquake, triggered a massive tsunami, which in turn caused a meltdown at
the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant.

5. 3.1. Natural disasters
Natural disasters ,by its very nomenclature, are known to be disasters caused by
involving earth’s natural processes and include avalanches,
floods, earthquakes, wildfires; cold/heat wave droughts, Hurricane/ cyclones,
landslides, lightning, tsunamis, volcanic activity etc. Natural disasters , while
having large intensity/powerful have enormous capacity/tendency to destroy and
damage the communities and environments. After severe storms and tropical
cyclones, flooding is the third most frequent type of natural disaster event recorded
globally.(Image-2) The 1900 Galveston hurricane is considered the deadliest natural
disaster in North American history whereas Chinese floods of 1931, are often cited as
one of the deadliest natural disasters in the human history. Generally considered
unavoidable, natural disasters are known to offer enormous opportunities for mitigation,
through effective and meticulous planning/ preparedness and management. The
nature and impact of major natural disasters have been defined by Peter Briggs in
NCESC Geographic ,in terms of ; .
 Earthquakes: Sudden, violent shaking of the earth’s surface, often
causing ground rupture, landslides, and tsunamis.
 Tsunamis: Giant waves triggered by underwater earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, or landslides, which can travel vast distances and cause
massive devastation upon reaching shorelines.
 Hurricanes/Cyclones: Intense tropical storms with high winds and
torrential rains that can lead to severe flooding and storm surges
 Floods: Overflow of water onto normally dry land, frequently caused by
heavy rainfall, overflowing rivers, or storm surges.
 Droughts: Prolonged periods of abnormally low rainfall leading to water
scarcity having significant impact on agriculture and ecosystems.
 Landslides: Downward movement of soil, rock, and debris on slopes,
often triggered by heavy rainfall or earthquakes.
 Wildfires: Uncontrolled fires in natural areas, fueled by dry vegetation and
often exacerbated by high winds.
 Volcanic Eruptions: Release of molten rock, ash, and gases from the
earth’s crust, causing lava flows, ashfall, potentially impacting air quality.

6. Image 2; Types of Natural Disasters ( Source ; civiconcepts.com)
3.2 Human- led/ Caused Disasters
Human-caused disasters are those which are directly/indirectly initiated by human
actions, whether intentionally or accidentally. These events frequently involve elements
of negligence, malice, systemic errors. fire, pollution, environmental change(Image 3).
Examples of major man-made disasters include the Chernobyl meltdown, the Bhopal
disaster, and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Key illustrations of human-led disasters
include:
 Inadvertent Misconfiguration: Mistakes in setting up or managing
systems or processes, potentially resulting in operational disruptions or
security vulnerabilities.
 Unauthorized/Outside Party Access or Modification: Unlawful intrusion
into computer systems or facilities by individuals with malicious intent,
often leading to data breaches or infrastructure damage.
 Acts of Terrorism: Intentional acts of violence aimed at causing fear,
disruption, or damage, impacting both physical and psychological well-
being.
 Large-Scale Accidents: Incidents like building collapses or stadium
disasters due to inadequate design, construction, or crowd mis -
management practices.

7.  Pollution: Intentional or accidental release of pollutants into the
environment, causing damage to ecosystems and human health.
 War and Conflict: Large scale battles and civil unrest which displace
people, cause widespread damage and loss of life.
 Public Place Failures: Events where large numbers of people are
impacted, such as stampedes, collapsing structures or fires in public
places.
 Production Failures: Breakdowns in critical supply chains or production
lines impacting essential services and supplies
 Technological failures stem from the breakdown or malfunction of
human-made systems and infrastructure. These disasters often result
from negligence, design flaws, or unexpected external events.
 Power Failures: Loss of electricity supply due to grid malfunctions,
equipment failures, or natural events, causing widespread disruptions to
essential services.
 Network Connectivity Issues: Disruptions to internet and communication
networks due to hardware failures, cyberattacks, or infrastructure damage,
impacting business operations and communication.
 Infrastructure Collapse: Failure of buildings, bridges, dams, or other
critical infrastructure due to design flaws, poor maintenance, or natural
forces, leading to safety hazards and significant economic losses.
 Transportation Accidents: Major accidents involving airplanes, trains,
ships, or large vehicles, resulting in loss of life, injuries, and property
damage.
 Industrial Accidents: Explosions, chemical spills, or other hazardous
material releases at industrial facilities, posing serious threats to human
health and the environment.
 Cyberattacks: Malicious intrusions on digital systems, potentially
disrupting services, stealing data, or causing operational disruptions.

8. Image 3; Types of Manmade Disasters ( Source ; www.educba.com)
3.3 Classification of disasters based on scale, frequency and speed;
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 (para. 15), has further
divided disasters in six different typologies , based on the scale, frequency and
speed. as detailed below;
 Small-scale disaster: typology of disaster which effect only local
communities and which require assistance beyond the affected
community.
 Large-scale disaster: typology of disaster which adversely affect
causing enormous damage , which affected society requires, both
national or international assistance, to mitigate its adverse impact
 Frequent and infrequent disasters: depending on the probability of
occurrence and the return period of a given hazard and its impacts.

9. The impact of frequent disasters could be cumulative, or become
chronic for a community or a society.
 A slow-onset disaster is defined as one that emerges gradually over
time. Slow-onset disasters could be associated with, e.g., drought,
desertification, sea-level rise, epidemic disease.
 A sudden-onset disaster is one triggered by a hazardous event that
emerges quickly or unexpectedly. Sudden-onset disasters could be
associated with, e.g., earthquake, volcanic eruption, flash flood,
chemical explosion, critical infrastructure failure, transport accident
4. Impact of Disaster
Disasters are happening across globe with varible intensity and density, causing
enormous loss of life and injury, damaging property, causing economic disruption
and environmental damage beside damaging social fabric of communities and
nations. Disaster , while hitting, don’t differentiate between nations and communities
and accordingly all nations, both rich and poor, developed/developing/under-
developed are known to be victim of such disasters. However, disasters adversely
impact developing countries .Over 95% of total deaths caused, have been
estimated to occur in developing countries. In addition, developing countries, lose
much more money compared to developed countries. Losses caused by natural
hazards are estimated to be 20 times greater in developing countries than the
industrialized countries. Top 10 most vulnerable countries in the world identified
include; China, USA, Philippines, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Afghanistan, Mexico,
Japan and Pakistan. While China is recorded to have largest number of disasters,
but maximum losses, in economic terms , are suffered by USA and Japan. India, as
a nation, is globally ranked 4th
in the number of disasters taking place and 7th
in the
Global Climate Risk Index 2021. India is estimated to directly lose 2% of GDP
annually to disasters, with 8 states ranked most vulnerable to disasters, namely;
Jharkhand, Mizoram, Orissa, Chhattisgarh , Assam, Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh and
West Bengal.
The EM-DAT data indicates that, year 2024 was reckoned to be more expensive
period , in the human history, in terms of disaster-related damage, than the average
year, over the past two decades. Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), in the
year 2024, has recorded 393 natural hazard-related disasters hitting
nations/locations across globe, resulting in 16,753 fatalities, impacting 167.2 million
people and causing economic losses , of the order of US$ 241.95 billion. Year 2024,
in the human history, will be known for its extreme temperature in Asia, causing

10. thousands of deaths, leading to severe droughts in Africa affecting over 25 million
people, besides generating devastating tropical storms in the United States of
America (USA), with cumulative damage exceeding US$100 billion. Despite all
efforts made, USA remains the worst impacted country by disasters. As per data
made available by NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) of
America, in 2024, there were 27 individual weather and climate related disasters
costing minimum $1 billion in damages, comprised of wildfire, drought and heat
wave event ; flooding ; tornado outbreaks ; tropical cyclones and severe
weather/hail events, causing at least 568 direct or indirect fatalities, and costing
approximately $182.7 billion
Considering disaster/loss caused by the heat wave, available data, indicates that
in India, between March and June, 733 deaths were reportedly caused, whereas
Pakistan lost 568 people In Bangladesh, around 33 million children were affected
by extreme heat. In the USA, preliminary estimates suggest 1,006 deaths, from the
cities of Phoenix (Arizona) and Las Vegas (Nevada). In Europe, excess mortality,
from extreme temperature events, was reported in Mediterranean countries, such as
Italy and Greece.
If extreme temperature caused, damage/disaster in Asia and other countries,
according to Afghanistan Red Crescent Society (ARCS) and the Afghanistan
National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA), , severe winter conditions,
including cold spells, snowfalls, blizzards, landslides, and floods, led to nearly 1,200
deaths in Afghanistan. In May 24, a major landslide struck Enga Province in Papua
NewGuinea, resulting in one of the country’s worst disasters in recent memory.
United Nations agencies estimated around 670 fatalities, with number of victims
remain buried under the debris. In Japan, in January, a powerful earthquake claimed
551 lives and has been ranked among the top 10 costliest disasters of 2024, with
estimated damage totaling US $15 billion.
In addition to extreme heat and cold conditions, floods also remain a major cause
of disaster with highest number of fatalities happening in Africa. While 576 lives
were lost in Chad, floods in Niger claimed 396 lives. In India and Bangladesh, 8
million and 10.9 million people , were adversely impacted by heavy monsoon rains,
flash floods, and thunderstorms , In Spain Valencia region of Spain damage caused
by floods was to the tune of US $11 billion, whereas In Brazil, floods, landslides,
and mudslides in the Rio Grande do Sul region estimated damage caused was
US$7 billion. Tropical storms also had a major global impact, causing 460 fatalities
in Myanmar, 345 in Vietnam, impacting 29 million people across Southeast Asia
and 4.6 million people in Bangladesh. USA also experienced significant impacts from
storms . Droughts, severely affecting several African countries in 2024, which led to

11. causing numerous disasters, impacting approximately 9.8 million people in Zambia,
7.6 million in Zimbabwe, and 6.1 million in Malawi, exacerbating food and water
shortages. In Brazil, an unprecedented drought in the Amazon region caused an
estimated US$ 6 billion in damage. The USA also had its share in drought, primarily
in the southern, eastern and northwestern regions, with losses placed at US$5.4
billion (Image 4)
Image 4; Types of Damage by Earthquake- Bhuj Earthquake-2001
( Source ; www. Gettyimages.dt)
5 Causes or Factors Causing Disaster;
Considering the characteristics and genesis of the major events taking place in the
universe, disasters taking place on the planet earth can be primarily attributed to
both nature-led and human- based activities. It needs to be understood and
appreciated that in majority of cases, disasters lead to vulnerability/
damage/destruction of the built environment in the urban areas. Since large
population is housed in buildings, constructed and concentrated in a limited area,
destruction/damage of unsafe/vulnerable/dilapidated buildings invariably result in
killing large population besides causing destruction of majority of buildings.
Numerous studies conducted have concluded that earthquake normally don’t kill
people, it is the damaged/ destroyed buildings, which are responsible for killing
people and loss of property.
Major causes of disasters can be summarized in terms of ;

12. 5.1 Nature led/based disasters;
 Structure of Earth ;Structure of the earth remains unique with upper layer divided
into different sections/parts called tectonic plates. These plates, being dynamic in
nature, always remain in movement , both alongside and above / below each other,
causing friction and unleashing enormous energy , leading to causing earthquake
and other structural changes on the surface of the earth.
 Tectonic movement; Since planet earth is made up of several plates sliding on
underlying mantle rather than a single surface, a relocation or colliding of these
plates cause disastrous consequences. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
tsunamis are the outcomes of such tectonic movement.
 Specific Geographic regions; Based on peculiar climate conditions and
vulnerable locations ,certain Geographic regions, are known to face periodic
disasters during particular seasons like; spring tornado season in the United
States or the summer-and-fall hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean
Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico; Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions near tectonic
active plate boundaries existing between Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates and
Pacific Ring of Fire, having active volcanoes, which remain the major cause of
disasters happening across nations on regular basis.(Metych Michele),
 Global Warming; Large amount of climate changes generated/caused by the
emission of large volume/quantity of greenhouse gases, released by
the combustion of fossil fuels, are known to increase the frequency of weather- and
climate-related natural disasters, such as droughts, heat waves, increasingly intense
hurricanes, and flooding due to sea-level rise. Global warming remains one of the
prime movers of the natural disasters for the reason that, it impacts prevailing
environment and ecology besides increasing the temperature of planet earth , cities
and seas/oceans, resulting in large number of hurricanes and tropical storms.
Wildfire as a disaster has its origin in the rise of temperature coupled with lack of
rain and moisture in the air and has location in the forest or grassland, engulfing
nearby cities/human settlements. (WMO)
 Deforestation; Forests /trees are known for its capacity, capability and role in
mitigating floods and droughts, by balancing and holding back natural groundwater
resources and stabilize the soil on slopes. Large scale deforestation and soil
erosion, invariably cause landslides, which have been reckoned and considered as
major causes of disaster in hill areas.( Image 5)

13. Image 5; Large scale Deforestation ( Source medium.com)
 Soil Erosion; Soil erosion invariably causes significant soil degradation, leading to
loss of fertility and lower agricultural production, resulting into hunger for local
inhabitants. In addition, soil erosion can also lead to landslides in hill areas , which
are known to cause enormous loss to both nature, property, communities and
humanity. Irrational exploitation of steep slopes and constructing buildings across
slopes, involving large scale cutting and filling in hill areas, have been reckoned as
prime cause of disasters like landslide and settling of the land etc.
 Natural activities in the earth’s crust; Natural disasters are often triggered by
natural events taking place in the earth’s crust. Tension can build up inside the
earth’s crust due to natural processes, which is released through earthquakes to
cause disasters.
 Unpredictable Monsoon pattern; Having genesis in the climate change, global
warming, increasing heat-island impact, rising urban temperature and sea-water
recording higher temperature; fast changing pattern of rainfall and erratic behavior
of monsoon are causing massive flooding and draughts in agriculturally rich areas
leading to numerous disasters on planet earth.
5.2 Human-led Disasters
 Absence of Rational Policy; In this era of increased vulnerability, absence of an
effective, realistic and rational policy, at the state and local levels, for creating an

14. effective and efficient disaster management system, is known to be the prime reason
to make cities unsafe and prone to disasters.
 Non-Involvement of Communities in Disaster Management; Managing disaster
is currently being treated primarily as government -led programmed with least
involvement of people and local communities, which invariably leads to making cities
unsafe and community vulnerable to disasters.
 Low Priority; Low priority accorded to promote safety of communities and human
settlements invariably makes human settlement more unsafe and vulnerable to
disasters.
 Absence of Vulnerabilty Atlas of Cities ;Absence of vulnerability mapping of the
cities and absence of urban vulnerability plans for majority of cities, have emerged
as major cause of making cities prone to disasters.
 Irrational Planning of cities; Master plan of majority of cities are being prepared
without documenting urban vulnerability and ignoring safety as integral part of
urban planning and development process. This practice invariably makes cities
unsafe.
 Absence of land suitability analysis; Ignoring practice of carrying out land
suitability analysis before preparation of both long term and short term plans for the
cities, has led to development taking place in the most vulnerable areas- low lying,
floodable areas, area under High-Tension electric lines etc. making
cities/communities unsafe and prone to disasters. Construction of buildings on soft
soil has been listed as one of the prime causes of building collapsing in the
Myanmar during the recent earthquake.
 Marginalising Nature; Marginalising, muting, diluting and divorcing nature from
urban planning and development process, have emerged as the prime reason of
making cities vulnerable to large number of natural and manmade disasters.
 Large Scale Exploration, Excavation and Storing Resources; Injection of large
fluids into deep wells; detonation of large underground nuclear explosions, the
excavation of mines, and the filling of large reservoirs are known to cause
earthquake causing enormous damage to the cities and people positioned in the
close vicinity.
 Ignoring structural safety in built environment; Marginalising/discounting role,
relevance and importance of structural safety in the planning, designing and
construction of safe and sustainable buildings has globally led to making cities and
buildings unsafe and prone to disaster when earthquake and hurricanes strike the
cities.
 Involvement of Non-Professionals in designing building; With majority of
buildings in India still being designed by non-professionals, having no knowledge,
skill, understanding, qualification and expertise in planning structurally safe

15. buildings has invariably made cities unsafe in the face of manmade and natural
disaster, causing enormous life and damage to human living and property.
 Lack of Resources; Lack of capacity, capability, will and resources available on
the part of Urban Local Bodies, at the local level ,to check, ensure and enforce the
construction of safe buildings, has invariably led to disasters and destruction being
caused in the urban setting.
 Unplanned development; Studies have shown that cost of unplanned development
is always more than cost of unplanned development. Accordingly, Unplanned,
unregulated and haphazard urabanisation and rapid/irrational growth of cities and
towns are being considered as one of the basic causes, of making cities prone to
disaster. With majority of development in urban India, largely marked by large
scale unauthorized , unplanned and sub-standard development, urban areas are fast
becoming hot-beds/recipe for natural and manmade disasters.
 Lack of Skilled manpower; Involvement of large scale unskilled and unqualified
manpower, having limited knowledge, experience and skill in the planning, designing
and construction of safe and sustainable buildings (construction sector) is
invariably leading to making compromises with quality of buildings and safety of
built environment, leading to build environment becoming vulnerable to disasters in
the urban context.
 Non- involvement of voluntary Organisations; Non- involvement, exclusion and
ignoring the role, relevance and importance of NGOs and CBOs in involving and
training communities and capacity building in the domain of disaster preparedness
and disaster management, at local level, has invariably led to increased level of
vulnerability of urban communities.
 Lack of financial resources; non-availability of adequate and appropriate level of
financial resources, at the local level, for disaster management, coupled with
absence of dedicated resources allocated for disaster management in the budget of
ULBs /Development agencies, has generally led to lowering the capacity and
willingness of these agencies involved at local level, leading to increased
vulnerability of the urban areas to disasters.
 Absence of dedicated institutional network; for disaster management at the
local level, invariably increases the vulnerability of communities and cities to
disasters. Lack of institutions involved in the research and development has also
globally impacted the capacity of the cities to innovate, experiment and operate in
the domain of mitigating and making cities safe against disaster.
 Lack of Awareness; Lack of awareness of communities, about the role/importance
of mitigation, preparedness and recovery related to minimizing impact/damage
caused by of disasters has led to increased probability of losses caused by
disasters striking the urban areas

16.  Lack of Trained Manpower; With limited number of institutions of higher learning,
imparting dedicated courses in disaster management and limited exposure related
to disaster mitigation in built environment and development of cities, provided in the
course curricula, defined for teaching urban planning, architecture, engineering
etc., availability of adequate number of trained manpower always remains an issue,
leading to making cities and communities less prepared in the domain of disaster
preparedness, mitigation, recovery and rehabilitation.
 Absence of Disaster Management Plan; Absence of requisite number of trained
professionals and low priority given to disaster management has cumulatively led
to majority of Indian cities growing without any Disaster Management Plan, making
Indian cities and communities more vulnerable to disasters.
 Non- involvement of educational institutions; Educational institutions, because of
having large number of young minds and teachers, are known for their critical role
and relevance in making cities safe against disasters. Lack of recognition and limited
involvement of educational institutors in the domain of disaster management, has
diluted, muted and marginalised the role of the educational institutions in
empowering cities to manage disasters effectively and efficiently.
 Absence of Periodic Structural Safety Audit; In Indian context, buildings have to
prove structural safety of buildings ,only once in entire life-cycle of buildings ,and
that too only at the time of obtaining completion/occupation of buildings. Buildings
have a minimum life-span of 6-7 decades and during this period buildings
invariably undergo wear& tear and additions & alterations during their use and
occupation. In the absence of any provision related to conducting periodic audit of
structural safety, existing buildings have high probability of becoming unsafe, over a
period of time, against disasters. This is considered important particularly for public
building, related to healthcare, education, leisure, trade and commerce etc, having
large capacity involving safety of large number of users/visitors.
 Lack of data- base; In the absence of non-availability of any reliable and
accurate data base related to the residents, buildings, resources, infrastructures,
services, amenities, stakeholders etc., it becomes difficult to
ensure/organize/arrange appropriate rescue and rehabilitation of the local
communities, in the case of disaster striking the area.
 Absence of Technology; Technology has great role and relevance in the domain of
disaster management and making cities safe. Ignoring/non-availability of
technology in assessing/mapping vulnerability, creating a reliable data base of the
vulnerable communities, putting in place appropriate system of warning
communities about impending disasters, mapping resources available to mitigate
disasters etc., has led to making cities unsafe to a large extent.
 Marginalization of small/medium urban settlements; Concentration of large
number of institutions related to disaster management in large sized cities and

17. absence of such institutions/resources in the Small and Medium sized urban
settlements, has invariably led to causing large causality when disasters strike
smaller urban settlements, due to non-availability of resources, lack of capacity,
capability and absence of adequate preparedness on the part of local institutions,
communities and cities.
 Increasing Armed Conflict among nations; Globally, majority of nations are
currently getting involved in large scale insurgency, terrorism, prolonged wars and
armed conflicts, involving use of all kind of chemical based arms and ammunitions,
leading to death/injury to human lives, damage /destruction of built environment
on large scale, destruction of trade and commerce, destruction of institutions
providing healthcare and education besides destruction of basic amenities/facilities
essential for human living. These manmade disasters , gradually increasing in
frequency and intensity, are causing large sized disasters to communities and cities.
Ongoing war in Middle east, Ukraine and Russia war , Iran-Iraq war etc. are the
living examples of large scale manmade disasters caused to humanity, nations and
communities
6 Options for Making Cities Safe against Disaster;
6.1 Promoting Effective and Efficient Disaster Management;
Considering the complexity, intensity and major implications of disasters, a multi-
pronged strategy for Disaster Management is required, to promote safety against
disaster. Four pronged strategies used globally, in disaster management involves;
Mitigation, Preparedness, Response and Recovery .These strategies are
classified into two distinct categories/activities; one used before disasters actually hit
a place and secondly used after/during when disasters strike a place. Mitigation and
Preparedness are the activities , which are taken up prior to happening of a disaster
and involve activities, that help in minimising the adverse impact of disasters, which
include defining realistic and rational building codes, evolving appropriate zoning
controls, carrying out vulnerability analysis and creating awareness and empowering
communities to face disasters. The second category/set of activities namely Response
and Recovery , are taken up during and after the disasters strike any area/community.
While Response comprises of activities taken up during a disaster involving, making
use of public warning system, undertaking emergency operations related to rescue ,
search and safety of people, resources, infrastructure , property etc., whereas
Recovery involves activities which are taken after a disaster strikes takes place. Such
activities include shifting people to safe places, providing medical care to injured and
old , providing food and basic essentials for human living and quick rehabilitation of
displaced persons, including settling of claims, providing financial and material help.

18. 6.2 Opting for a comprehensive policy and its effective implementation;
 A well-defined National/state policy on safety must be put in place on priority
for developing effective risk management strategies and making cities/
human settlements safe.
 For implementing the policy, a well-oiled machinery needs to be created at
national, state and local level
 Implementing machinery must have adequate resources- both financial and
technical besides tools to mitigate disasters.
 Adequate capacity needs to be created within ULBs/UDA’s, to ensure safety
in cities
6.3 Mapping Cities for Vulnerability
 All cities, communities and land parcels included in planning need to be
mapped in terms of nature / extent of vulnerability, both natural and
manmade.
 Nature and extent of vulnerability of the area needs to be assessed by
carrying out a detailed land suitability analysis of the entire land involved
in planning and development before preparing Master Plans/Development
Plans/Local Area Plans.
 City/ Neighborhood level vulnerability map must be prepared and widely
disseminated among users/ stakeholders.
 Vulnerability maps must identify; area/level of vulnerability to disasters; area
which needs to be protected from urbanization due to its environmental
values, forests, water bodies, and flora/fauna; area which needs to be
preserved and conserved due to its heritage value; area which is prohibited
under any law for development/ urbanization along highways, heritage zones,
; area unfit for urbanization being low-lying, liable to flooding. area falling
under High Tension Electric lines etc. and derelict area fit for urbanisation.
6.4 Promoting Planned development
 Planned development ,based on well-defined safety norms ,remains best
option for mitigating and managing disasters.
 Promoting planned development, by making safety, integral part of city
planning, process remains critical to make cities and communities safe.
 Cities development plans to be prepared must be based on level of
vulnerability of any area/communities.

19.  Most vulnerable areas/communities , identified in the city, need to be given
appropriate priority, for making them safe in the planning process.
 Appropriate planning and designing norms for safety must be defined for the
built environment and followed in the planning and development of all
vulnerable locations.
 Adequate arrangements must be made to ensure effective implementation
and enforcement of the vulnerability plans at the ground level.
 In case of specialized/high rise/ public building ,having large footprints and
great high, ,specialized agencies must be enlisted for the certification of the
structural safety of such buildings.
 All buildings involving healthcare, education, public buildings etc., involved in
managing disasters, rescuing/housing the victims of disasters, must be
planned, designed and constructed based on the highest safety norms for
making them safe against disasters. (Image 6 )
Image 6; Promoting Planned Development ( Source; www.track2training.org)
6.5 Redefining Legal Framework
 Creating a comprehensive and self-contained legal framework will remain
valuable and essential for embedding safety into the development process.
 Legal framework must include adequate provisions related to rational
planning of urban settlements and planning, designing and construction of
safe buildings.
 Legal framework should help in creating dedicated institutions, generating
resources and involving skilled manpower to make disaster management a
distinct reality.

20.  Building Bye-laws and zoning controls/regulations must be based on
promoting safety of communities, buildings and cities.
6.6 Making Built Environment Safe;
 Ensuring all Buildings/infrastructures planned, designed and constructed
created in the city are Safe from Disasters
 All New Cities/buildings to be planned, designed; constructed involving
qualified manpower having adequate and appropriate knowledge,
experience, understanding and skill in the art-science of
designing/constructing buildings etc.
 Mandating assessment of vulnerability of the sites to disasters before
permitting development/construction of the buildings at site.
 All existing buildings must be made structurally safe against
natural/manmade disasters- earthquake, fire, flooding, winds etc. by adopting
the mechanism of retrofitting
 Making mandatory that all buildings planned/ designed to adhere to the
defined safety norms
 All public buildings must be subjected to periodic safety checks/audit, after
every five years, to ensure safety of buildings/ inhabitants on continued
basis
 All public buildings to be planned and designed for providing/ creating
adequate/safe open spaces, ensuring unobstructed access to open spaces ,
creating adequate number of exit options/ staircases for vacating buildings,
provided with adequate number of fire extinguishers; besides having
sufficient open space for accommodating all the users, in case of disasters
 All identified low lying area and floodable/vulnerable areas must be identified
and prohibited for construction of buildings. Plan showing such places should
be appropriately displayed and made available to local communities for
awareness and avoiding construction of any building.
 All areas having loose soil needs to be identified and excluded from granting
permission for construction of built environment
 Steep slopes having elevation above 30 degrees must be prohibited for
construction of buildings in hill areas.
 Safety –must include all- natural/manmade disasters-- fire, accidents, crimes,
earthquake, flooding, droughts, landslides, Tsunami's; Cyclones.

21. Image 7; Promoting Safe Buildings ( Source; imp-law.com)
6.7 Capacity Building
Capacity building in disaster management at local level must revolve and built around
3 P’s, involving Prepare, Prevent, and Protect, to make safety a distinct reality and must
include and involve;
 Making safety-integral part of professional learning- Planning, Architecture,
Engineering
 Involving all schools/children in ensuring safety against all disasters by
making safety-integral part of school teaching- learning and making safety
integral part of school curricula.
 Running special/dedicated courses for in-service officials, working in
ULBs/Development Authorities and involved in planning, managing
construction of built environment/ disaster management, for training in the
art and science of managing disasters and making buildings safe.
 Running dedicated courses in disaster management by institutions of higher
professional learning for creating adequate skilled manpower for disaster
management.
 Encouraging students to prepare/ displaying posters on safety against
disasters, hold exhibitions, organize local marches; conduct mock drills for
creating awareness and involving communities in the task of promoting
safety at the local level.

22.  Various institutions working and operating in the city should be made to co-
operate / collaborate for evolving warning system for disasters , putting
signages for safety in public areas and ensure availability of safety kits for
managing disasters.
 Creating disaster management labs in all educational institutions for
promoting awareness among students, faculty and other manpower working
in school, about safety against disasters.
 Evolving appropriate strategies and options for creating adequate capacity in
terms of manpower, resources and skill within ULBs/UDA’s, to ensure
safety in cities.
6.8 Involving Communities;
 Evolving strategies and options for making safety from disasters as
community led activity/mission rather than merely a government-led
programme and responsibility
 Actively involving all RWA, Group Housing societies, Builders, Developers,
in creating awareness about safety and making buildings safe against
disasters.
 Involving local print and visual media for disseminating various issues,
creating awareness, informing people, opting for various strategies related to
disasters and making cities safe against disasters.
 Recognising the role and importance of religious and cultural organisations in
disaster management at local level and making them valued partners in
promoting safety, carrying out task of rescue , recovery and rehabilitation ,
during and after disasters.
 Identifying and actively involving local NGOs, CBOs and voluntary
organisations in skilling, training and capacity buildings of the local
communities to mitigate/ face disasters effectively and efficiently.
 Creating a core group of volunteers with dedicated faculty in educational
institutions, to take care of rescue , recovery and rehabilitation during/after
disasters at the local level.
 Recognising good work done by voluntary organisations in the domain of
disaster management on regular basis.
 Disseminating good practices involving communities and voluntary
organisations, in making cities safe against disasters and carrying out
programme related to rescue, recovery and rehabilitation during and after
disasters. (image 8)

23. Image8; Involving Communities in Disaster Management
( Source; montecarlorel.com)
6.9 Leveraging Technologies
 Technologies , known to have effective role, relevance and importance in
preparation of accurate, cost-effective, time-efficient and realistic plans , need
to be effectively leveraged in evolving strategies and options for promoting
safety at local level. (Image 9 )
 Technology must be appropriately used, for putting in place early warning
systems to make community aware or the impending/ongoing disasters.
 Appropriate Technology must be embedded to bring all stakeholders on
same platform and promote inter/intra departmental/ institutional co-ordination
for managing disasters.
 Technology must be leveraged for creating dedicated/focused groups of all
the communities with contact details for sharing information related to
disasters and its management.
 Technology holds great relevance in effectively disseminating the learning
made from local/global good practices, showcasing use of technology in
promoting safety and mitigating disasters
 Using technologies has always helped in promoting
co-operation/collaboration among all nations to mutual empower for making
communities/nations safe against disasters.
 Leveraging technologies has always been valued for sharing/documenting
good practices used successfully to mitigate/manage disasters.
 Technology has been extensively used for providing relief, mapping disaster
prone areas, provided detailed understanding of region regarding

24. infrastructure damage, identifying safe areas for resettlement & efficient
routes for aid delivery, besides locating stranded communities requiring help,
and saving lives during/after disasters
 Despite the fact that technology cannot replace human beings needed in
disaster for comfort from loved ones, but technology can surely help in
transforming disaster relief efforts, providing food/clothing/shelter, identifying
people trapped evolving approach to international aid, reaching more
people, faster, helping communities to develop resilience before next
disaster strikes.
 Technology can also be used effectively and efficiently for analyzing
/managing large data, created during disaster, related to personal ,
medical, roads, tracking survivors.- via email, SMS, for building a
comprehensive, real-time picture of ground reality.
 Technology also helps in breaking down barriers to enable connectivity when
it is needed most in terms of; connecting people to resources critical for
survival besides enabling humanitarian organizations to quickly deliver life-
saving information
Image 9; Using Technology in Disaster Management ( Source; itroadmap.com)
6.10 Generating Financial Resources;

25.  Adequate and dedicated financial resources for disaster mitigation and
disaster management must be made available at local, state and National
level.
 Each city must create a dedicated Disaster Management Fund, where all fee,
charges , grants, donations, levies, gifts and donations made for disaster
management, should be credited. For incentivizing, contributions made to
fund should remain exempted from levy of income tax and for optimum
utilization available fund , should only be used for disaster related activities
and for no other purpose.
 Disaster Management Fund must be made integral part of the annual budget,
of the ULBs, Development Authorities, improvement Trusts etc. operating at
local level and allocated funds in budget should be deposited in the Disaster
Management Fund.
 Disaster Management charges on pro-rata basis must be levied and
collected as integral part of External Development Charges/ approval of
building plans, levied on all kinds of development .
 For generating resources, all development taken up in the urban areas must
be subjected to levy of disaster management charges, based on the unit
area of proposed development,
 Charity shows dedicated to effective disaster management, by prominent
artists, must be held on regular basis to generate resources for mitigating
disasters at the local level.
 States could also consider the option of running a lottery dedicated to disaster
mitigation and use the profit sourced for managing disasters at the local
level.
 Expenditure related to and contribution made to Disaster management and
mitigation, could also be included and made part of CSR funding.
 A fixed proportion of the property tax collected at local level should also be
made available to City development Fund, as contribution to the local
Disaster Mitigation Fund.
 Cities must innovate and experiment to source funds from international
agencies for disaster mitigation and making cities safe.
7 Conclusion
Disasters globally pose enormous and multi-faceted challenges to humanity,
communities and nations, causing enormous losses and damages in terms of
human beings, human living, social fabric, economy, built environment,
infrastructure, animals, bio-diversity, flora and fauna etc. With typologies, intensity ,
density of these disasters increasing/changing rapidly, the cost of these disasters is
rising disproportionately. Rapidly increasing human numbers, concentration of large

26. population in a limited space, ever increasing urabanisation, rising sea temperature,
global warming, increasing carbon footprints and climate change, are making this
universe and human settlements more unsafe and vulnerable to disasters. This all
calls for evolving appropriate strategies and framework for action so as to minimize,
not only number of disasters, but also the extent of losses caused by them.
It needs to be understood and appreciated that disasters adversely impact the poor
communities and developing nations more, when compared with rich communities
and developed nations, due to low capacity and limited resources available with the
poor communities/nations. In fact, disasters are known to promote poverty and
vulnerability of human beings in urban areas , impoverishing them in the process.
Large scale damage and destruction caused , not only reverses the wheels of
development but also consume limited resources available for rehabilitation. Large
scale poverty prevailing in this universe can be primarily attributed to the adverse
outcome of large number of disasters hitting various nations and communities and
enormous loss being caused to them. In Order to make this world more sustainable
and livable, it will be essential that human settlements are made safe against
disasters.
Studies have shown that disasters have its origin and genesis in natural forces and
human-led activities. Nature- led disasters can be minimized in numbers and
intensity of damage caused; by respecting nature , opting for nature based solutions
and making nature integral part of human growth and development. Considering the
ongoing pattern of disasters, limiting the numbers of human-led disasters will remain
critical and valuable to make this world more livable and sustainable. For minimising
human-led disasters, it will remain critical that cities are planned , designed and
constructed, based on nature and using natural resources for meeting its basic
needs, besides ensuring that all built environment created in cities is made
structurally safe and secure besides having capacity and capability of withstanding
the impact of the forces generated by forces of nature. Minimising travel and
reducing trip length and number of trips by making our cities compact and planning
cities based on empowering people rather than empowering vehicles and promoting
accessibility rather than mobility, will help in reducing number of climate related
disasters in the urban context. In addition, for making humanity and cities safe
against disasters, safety should be made a people-led mission rather than
government-led programme, which would help in involving communities and people
in achieving safety at local level. If all human beings are made to understand and
appreciate the role, relevance and importance of preparing for safety at the

27. individual level, it will go a long way in making our cities and communities safe
against disasters.
Technology , has enormous capacity, role and relevance in mitigating the impact of
disasters and ushering an era of safety /security, and accordingly needs to be
effectively leveraged/embedded in the disaster management process. For ensuring
appropriate level of disaster management , it will remain critical to understand the
various categories of disasters, factors which cause such disasters and adverse
impact they have at the local level on local communities. Preparing local level
vulnerability maps, based on the prevailing typologies of disasters and mapping
vulnerable local communities , will remain crucial for evolving effective risk
management strategies. Effectively, efficiently and realistically mapping potential
hazards, will invariably help in empowering and better prepare, parastatal agencies
and local communities, to face various emergencies, mitigate the impacts of
disasters, and enhance collective ability to recover from disasters. Effective
preparedness would also involve understanding of the various phases of disaster
management, as well as evolving appropriate, realistic, rational and effective
strategies/options/policies/programs needed to reduce the risks and respond
effectively to impending disasters. Building resilient and safe communities and
minimising damage/loss caused by disasters, a proactive and well-defined
approach, will always remain valuable and critical. Entire community of nations
must come on the same platform/wavelength to co-operate, collaborate and support
the global efforts of making, ‘Cities and Communities, Safe, Resilient, Inclusive and
Sustainable”, as mandated in SDG11, to usher an era of safety, security, peace and
prosperity, across nations and communities.(Image 10)

28. Image 10; 17 Sustainable Development Goals ( Source;
www.umweltbundesamt.de)
8 References;
 Briggs Peter; What are the three main disaster NCESC Geographic; last update
February 14, 2025
 Metych Michele; Natural Disaster; Encyclopedia Britannica; updated April 9, 2025
 UNISDR; Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-30; UN
Chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.unisdr.org/files/
43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf;
 Unacademy IIT JEE; What are the causes of natural disasters;
https://unacademy.com/content/question-answer/biology/what-are-the-causes-of-natural-
disasters/
 Relief web; 2024 Disasters in Numbers; Informing humanitarians worldwide 24/7;
18 Apr 2025; https://reliefweb.int/report/world/2024-disasters-numbers
 Smith AB; : 2024, An active year of U.S. billion-dollar weather and climate disaster;
Climate.gov ;January 10, 2025
 https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/2024-active-year-us-billion-
dollar-weather-and-climate-disasters

29. Author:
 * Jit Kumar Gupta
Former Advisor( Town Planning)
Punjab Urban Planning and Development Authority
Email. jit.kumar1944@gmail.com