NSCA Coach 1.1

NSCA COACH 1.1 | NSCA.COM 1
DEVELOPING THE POTENTIAL OF THE UNDERSERVED CLUB ATHLETE:
A PROJECT WITH THE DUKE CLUB HOCKEY TEAM
AUTHOR NAME, PHD, CSCS, NSCA-CPT, FNSCA, FACSM
Understanding how to properly utilize movement pattern continuums is essential knowledge for any personal trainer. Using an-
ecdotal evidence, this article shows the importance and provides examples of how to implement movement pattern continuums
into a resistance training program. Understanding how to properly utilize movement pattern continuums is essential knowledge
for any personal trainer. Using anecdotal evidence, this article shows the importance and provides examples of how to implement
movement pattern continuums into a resistance training program.
STRENGTH T R A I N I N G
SPORTS N U T R I T I O N
ATHLETIC D E V E LO P M E N T
TABLE OF CONTENTS
04
11
14
NSCA
COACH VOLUME 1
ISSUE 1

2
EDITORIAL OFFICE
1885 Bob Johnson Drive
Colorado Springs, Colorado 80906
Phone: 719.632.6722
EDITOR
T. Jeff Chandler, EDD, CSCS,*D,
NSCA-CPT,*D, FACSM, FNSCA
PUBLICATIONS DIRECTOR
Keith Cinea, MA, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D
MANAGING EDITOR
Matthew Sandstead, NSCA-CPT
PUBLICATIONS COORDINATOR
Cody Urban
EDITORIAL REVIEW PANEL
Adam Feit, MS, CSCS
Nicole Dabbs, PHD
Samuel Gardner, MS, CSCS, RSCC, USATF,
USA-W Dual Certified: Level 1 Weightlifting
Coach and Sports Performance Coach
Ed McNeely, MS
Joel Bergeron, MS, CSCS,*D
Chad Touchberry, PHD
Meredith Griffin, MS, CSCS
ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION
The NSCA Coach publishes basic
educational information for Associate
and Professional Members of the
NSCA specifically focusing on novice
strength and conditioning coaches. As
a quarterly publication, this journal’s
mission is to publish peer-reviewed
articles that provide basic, practical
information that is research-based and
applicable to a wide variety of athlete
and training needs.
Copyright 2014 by the National
Strength and Conditioning
Association. All Rights Reserved.
Disclaimer: The statements and
comments in NSCA Coach are
those of the individual authors
and contributors and not of the
National Strength and Conditioning
Association. The appearance of
advertising in this journal does not
constitute an endorsement for the
quality or value of the product or
service advertised, or of the claims
made for it by its manufacturer or
provider.
NSCA MISSION
As the worldwide authority on
strength and conditioning, we
support and disseminate research-
based knowledge and its practical
application, to improve athletic
performance and fitness.
TALK TO US…
Share your questions and comments.
We want to hear from you. Write to
NSCA Coach at NSCA Publications,
1885 Bob Johnson Drive, Colorado
Springs, CO 80906, or send an email
to matthew.sandstead@nsca.com.
CONTACT
NSCA COACH
1885 Bob Johnson Drive
Colorado Springs, CO 80906
phone: 800-815-6826
email: matthew.sandstead@nsca.com
Reproduction without permission
is prohibited.
NSCA
COACH VOLUME 1
ISSUE 1
NSCA COACH 1.1 | NSCA.COM

TABLE OF CONTENTS
10
14
16
20
24
04
TRAINING AND RECOVERY OF THE BASEBALL ATHLETE: A PERSPECTIVE FROM THE
ARIZONA DIAMONDBACKS’ STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM
NATE SHAW, ATC, RSCC, AND THE ARIZONA DIAMONDBACKS STAFF
THE IMPORTANCE AND VALUE OF THE WEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS
IN BASEBALL
ALLEN HEDRICK, MA, CSCS,*D, RSCC*D, FNSCA
MODEL OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT
RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW
INFLUENTIAL FACTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION AND TURNOVER IN NCAA DIVISION I
STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHING POSITIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE
ATHLETIC ADMINISTRATION
JUAN GONZALEZ, PHD, CSCS,*D, AND AARON WYANT, MS
EYE NUTRITION FOR OPTIMAL VISION AND PERFORMANCE
DAWN WEATHERWAX, ATC, RD, CSSD, CSCS
ATTACKING THE DEFICIENCIES IN TRAINING FOR BASEBALL
TRAVIS BROWN, MS, CSCS,*D

4 NSCA COACH 1.1 | NSCA.COM
TRAVIS BROWN, MS, CSCS,*D
T
he sport of baseball requires players to move in a variety of
ways and directions from different positions. From pitchers,
catchers, infielders, and outfielders, they all must move in
different directions to play their position. In order to address all of
these various movements through training, coaches need to focus
on a mixture of training movements to help prepare the body for
optimal performance.
A previous edition of the NSCA’s Performance Training Journal
discussed training in different planes of motion (frontal, sagittal,
and transverse), from multiple force lines (vertical, horizontal,
and diagonal) and with different loads on both sides of the body
(bilateral) or loaded different from side to side (unilateral) (1). It
can be assumed that sports, including baseball, encompass or
require all of these movements. In order to make sure that training
is performed in all dimensions and directions that a baseball player
moves on the field, coaches must keep in mind that pushing,
pulling, rotation, locomotion, level change, and complexity
(combination of any of these movements) must be incorporated
during training.
If unfamiliar, coaches should take notice of the difference in how
baseball athletes train in the traditional weight room. Often,
both sides of the body are loaded the same (bilateral), with very
sagittal dominant movements, and very limited and inefficient
rotational movements (e.g., overhead medicine ball throws,
rotational medicine ball throws, shot put with medicine ball,
seated Russian twists, etc.). This illustrates a deficiency in the
training environment that does not address all movement planes
and force lines.
To address the movement requirements of baseball athletes the
following exercises are suggested. With these new exercises,
coaches may redefine the vector forces (magnitude x direction).
Coaches should not only focus on concentric rotation (seen in
all medicine ball throws and sledge hammering tire hits), but
redefine and realign ideal vector forces that will allow the athletes
to incorporate concentric and eccentric muscle contractions. This
may help prevent injuries and prepare the athletes for movements
in all directions more appropriately than how these athletes often
train on their own.
To enhance performance on the field and decrease injury risk,
the following exercises can compliment the volume of one-sided
repetitive movements that are performed in the sport of baseball.
REVERSE THROWING (FIGURES 1 AND 2):
Start with a wide, split stance, facing the anchor point, arms
straight but not locked. Hold the bar/handle parallel to the ground
(if the left foot starts in front, then the right hand starts on top,
and vice versa; identical to throwing)
Rotate the torso up and away, keeping the eyes on the anchor
point. Then finish downward and come through with the chest
out over front leg (make a big arc). Make an emphasis on torso
flexion/extension and rotation, rather than moving the bar/handle
with the arms and shoulders. Repeat on the opposite side. This
move does not call for external shoulder rotation. The elbow
should always stay behind the bar. The torso should perform the
rotation and flexion/extension to move the bar/handle. Anything
else will put undue stress on the elbow and shoulder, therefore
increasing risk of injury.
REVERSE HITTING (FIGURES 3 AND 4):
Start by facing the anchor point holding the bar/handle parallel
to the ground. For hitters, imagine the position at ball contact:
hips and back foot completely turned toward the anchor point,
and hands palm up/palm down (Figure 3). Reverse the pivot and
bring the hands up to the back shoulder by rotating the bar/
handle to vertical (Figure 4). Stay under tension and under control
throughout the entire movement. Repeat on the opposite side.
REVERSE FLAG POLE (FIGURES 5 AND 6):
Start in a lunge stance (if left leg starts forward, then the right
hand starts nearest the bar attachment and vice versa for the
opposite side). Facing the anchor point, grab the bar attachment
with the right hand on top of the bar and the left hand beneath,
with both arms straight but not locked (Figure 5). The shoulders
and bar should be tilted at a 45° angle. Rotate the torso keeping
the head focused on the anchor point and the attachment end
away from the body. Make sure to keep the hips and stance solid
while rotating the torso.
UNDER THROW (FIGURES 7 AND 8):
Start using a cable cross machine with the same bar attachment
as the reverse flag pole (corresponding, adjustable cable pulleys
can be used in replacement of the machine shown). Place one
anchor point at head level and the other anchor point at mid-thigh
level. If the right foot starts forward in a wide split stance, then
the left hand will start on top with an overhand grip with both
hands on the bar (Figure 7). After positioning body in that stance,
tilt the shoulders so that they are as close to parallel to the bar as
possible. Keep the arms at 90°. While keeping the stance solid,
rotate the shoulders so that the top of the bar moves over the
shoulder, while the bottom hand passes the hip (Figure 8). Repeat
on the opposite side.
BEAR PAW (FIGURES 9, 10, AND 11):
Start with the handle of an anchored land-based apparatus in the
right hand, facing to the left with the left foot forward; the right
hand should begin in the middle of the left thigh (Figure 9). Keep
the stance square while rotating the torso away from the lead
leg, swinging the bar upwards (Figure 10). It is important that the
elbow always stays behind the hand. The torso should generate
the rotation to move the bar. Anything else will put undue stress
on the elbow and shoulder, therefore increasing risk of injury. This
move does not call for external shoulder rotation.

ATLAS RAISE (FIGURES 12 AND 13)
Start with the left foot forward, and place the left hand at the
bottom of the bar, away from the loaded end (a loaded barbell-
type apparatus will be needed for this exercise). Hold the bar
with the right hand near the load with both hands in an overhand
grip (Figure 12). From this position, raise the bar (keeping the
arms straight but not locked) vertically with torso extension and
rotation until the bar is close to parallel to the ground overhead
(maintaining stance and eyes forward) (Figure 13). Lower the bar
down in an arc until the chest is over front knee (torso flexion) in a
controlled manner. Repeat on both sides.
CONCLUSION
Since the nature of baseball can often be one sided, developing
imbalances can be easy to do if equal and opposite type exercises
are avoided during training. When you turn the concentric load
on the body (in throwing and hitting) into an eccentric load in
the weight room and vice versa, you will promote performance
gains and develop a strong, athletically balanced body. With
the exercises shown here, the forces put on the body are more
horizontal in nature, as well as on an arc, just like the forces
generated in the sport.
REFERENCES
1. Brown, T. How to train the core: Specific to sports movements.
NSCA’s Performance Training Journal 12(4): 4-13, 2012.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The NSCA and the author would like to acknowledge Jeff Flag’s
contribution to this article, both with imagery and content. Jeff
Flag is the Director of Training/Education at PurMotion, and is a
former Division I college and professional baseball player.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Travis Brown has led a career as a strength and conditioning coach
for over 14 years in Atlanta, GA and at the University of Tennessee,
Knoxville. He currently works for Pinnacle Athletics, which is a
sports performance company that trains professional, college, and
high school athletes. He has trained, or played next to, over 120
National Football League (NFL) starters, including dozens of Pro
Bowlers and first round NFL draft picks. Throughout his career,
he has trained a number of athletes ranging from youth to elite
professionals, which include several Major League Baseball (MLB)
players, National Basketball Association (NBA) athletes, and two
Olympic Medal winners. Brown is currently working towards his
PurMotion Master Trainer certification and is a Certified Strength
and Conditioning Specialist® with Distinction (CSCS,*D®) through
the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).
NSCA.com

6 NSCA COACH 1.1 | NSCA.COM
FIGURE 1. REVERSE THROWING - START
FIGURE 3. REVERSE HITTING - START
FIGURE 5. REVERSE FLAG POLE - START
FIGURE 2. REVERSE THROWING - END
FIGURE 4. REVERSE HITTING - END
FIGURE 6. REVERSE FLAG POLE - END

FIGURE 7. UNDER THROW - START
FIGURE 9. BEAR PAW - START
FIGURE 8. UNDER THROW - END
FIGURE 10. BEAR PAW - MIDDLE
FIGURE 11. BEAR PAW - END
NSCA.com

NSCA COACH 1.1 | NSCA.COM8
FIGURE 12. ATLAS RAISE - START FIGURE 13. ATLAS RAISE - END
JULY 9 – 12, 2014 | LAS VEGAS | NSCA.COM/NATCON14
NATIONAL’1437TH ANNUAL NSCA NATIONAL CONFERENCE AND EXHIBITION

Vidergize is a new
wellness channel
that pays you a royalty
for your videos.
Are you ready
to get started?
PUBLISH
WELLNESS
VIDEOS
Wellness to the people.

NATE SHAW, ATC, RSCC, MIKE SCHOFIELD, LMT, CSCS, RSCC, ANDREW SLORP, MS, LMT, CSCS, RSCC,
MATT TENNEY, LMT, CSCS, SKYLER ZARNDT, MS, ATC, CSCS, DAVID LASNIER, CSCS, USAW,
SEAN LIGHT, CSCS, DAVID HARRIGAN, CSCS, NSCA-CPT, AND VAUGHN ROBINSON, MS, LMT, CSCS, RSCC
T
he debate about the best training practices for sport
encompasses many opinions while new technology,
application of knowledge, and practical experience continue
to push the strength and conditioning industry forward. Because
of internet blogs, Facebook posts, Twitter updates, article and
research journals, it could be said that new information has
never been more accessible. All this information can be great;
however, information overload can lead to paralysis by analysis.
Moreover, when trying to incorporate all of this information to
make exercise programming decisions, poor choices can have
significant consequences. In strength and conditioning, the key
is to determine the most important objectives or goals. This is
especially true when training for baseball.
The game of baseball has many nuances. There are many
similarities in the skills necessary to excel in baseball, but each
position has basic requirements that differentiate it from the other
eight positions on the field. The physical demands throughout
a season can be quite different for starting players compared to
bench players, and starting pitchers compared to middle relief and
closing pitchers. Speed, power, and endurance are all key pieces
to training and there are numerous methods available to prepare
these players to play the game.
For Major League Baseball’s (MLB) Arizona Diamondbacks, there
are a few sayings that resonate with us and seem to surface time
and time again. Leadership prophets often repeat “People don’t
care how much you know until they know how much you care.” In
nutrition you hear, “you are what you eat.” In baseball, “you can’t
make the club from the tub,” and “you can’t hit homers from the
training room” have been staple sayings of players and coaches.
For our sports medicine team, “durability is more important than
ability” has served as a beacon and mindset for our program.
Vern Gambetta wrote an article years ago in which the title itself
makes a great point, “How much Strength is Enough?” (1). At what
point does the quest for strength and power actually tip towards
risk or even injury? Weight training and exercise prescription can
be detailed, thorough, and complex; however, durability may be
more about the risks that are avoided than what is actually done.
Our program with the Diamondbacks is not void of strength,
power, speed, or periodization. But those variables are not our
primary focus. We perform speed drills explosively, lift heavy at
times, and utilize progressions. Our biggest focus is recovery, and
the exercises/interventions under the recovery “umbrella” are our
largest focus because time to recover is so hard to find in our field.
Ultimately, the number one priority is to make sure our players
play, and recovery and health are major contributing factors to
that end. Playing roughly 200 games in 211 days across multiple
time zones takes its toll on a baseball team. That is why “recovery
is king” with the Diamondbacks.

NSCA COACH 1.1
It is our goal to address all aspects of recovery in order to be as
efficient as possible during the long season. To do this, we utilize
several techniques:
• Soft Tissue Maintenance — hands-on massage, foam rollers,
rolling muscle massager, suction cups, Graston® tools, Astym®
treatment, and others
• Nutrition — organic and whole foods, fresh smoothies and
juices, vitamins, protein, and fish oils
• Corrective Exercise (focusing on dysfunction) — focusing
on hips, rib cage position, shoulder, thoracic spine mobility,
diaphragm, and glute facilitation
• Exercise Implementation — exercises that create optimal
firing patterns, kinetic chain sequencing, and whole body
integration
The programming thought process with the Diamondbacks centers
around concepts that remove individual limitations and increase
efficiency in the entire motor system. We perform screenings and
tests according to industry standards like most programs, but
our goals are less explosive and very fundamental. Exercises that
promote joint centration and ideal firing patterns are at the core
of what we implement with our players. While there are countless
exercises and variations that can be used with these principles in
mind, below are some of our most often-programmed exercises:
UPPER BODY:
• Cable push/pull combo (*can also be done individually as
cable push or cable pull)
• Dumbbell row
• Physioball dumbbell bench press, single- or double-arm
variations
• Half-kneeling high cable pull
• Push-up variations
• Cable “X” pulldowns
LOWER BODY:
• Lunge variations (drop, lateral, reverse, etc.)
• Single-leg Romanian deadlift (RDLs)
• Bulgarian split squats (rear foot elevated)
• Step-ups/downs
• Sumo squats
• Glute bridge variations
CORE:
• Physioball cable rotations
• Paloff press variations
• Dead bug variations
• Cable chops
Many of the exercises we program are selected with the intent
to mimic movements on the playing field and target common
problem areas in our sport and those identified individually
(i.e., upper/lower cross patterns, hip alignment, diaphragm
activation, weak glutes, etc.). We also avoid exercises that could
be potentially detrimental to overhead throwing athletes. Two
of the more common and controversial exercises we omit in our
programming are the barbell bench press and overhead pressing
movements. For our program, these exercises do not apply
specifically to baseball or our athletes (sport specificity). While
these exercises will certainly increase strength, they will not
necessarily translate into hitting further or throwing harder.
From our experience, the barbell bench press can potentially
create dyssynchrony between important stabilizing musculature
(like serratus anterior) for baseball athletes. Over development
of the pectoral muscles can also potentially affect postural
alignment, decrease range of motion, and restrict the shoulders.
As mentioned above, we avoid overhead pressing due to the
workload of the shoulder during the season. We have found that
many of our players do not have proper glenohumeral centrality,
scapular stability, or positioning to tolerate this activity. This may
not apply to all programs or athletes, however. Since overhead
pressing without proper glenohumeral centrality, or scapular
stability/positioning may increase risk of impingement and
inflammation in the shoulder, we avoid this type of activity.
We do not ignore upper body pushing exercises, though. We
select exercises that allow the scapulae to move freely whenever
possible. We also avoid isolated movement in general (unless
the athlete is injured and in the rehabilitation process). Running,
jumping, squatting, throwing, and swinging are all complex
movements. In theory, breaking the movements into parts makes
sense, but these may be less favorable when considering the
neurological need for muscles to practice working as a unified
group.
Another focus of our program is on health and injury prevention.
We do not strive for big changes in mass, strength, and power
due to the intricate and delicate mechanics the players use for
throwing and swinging. This is not to say the players cannot
improve during the season, it just is not our top priority when
considering the health and recovery of the players.
As baseball strength and conditioning professionals, we need to
recognize that each player has individual needs, and what may
be an appropriate and beneficial exercise for one player may be
contraindicated for another. We must also constantly be aware
of on-field activity volume, including pre-game skills practice/
repetitions and in-game activity. It is essential to make daily
adjustments to the program design based on the workload volume
of the previous day and perceived recovery. When training for
baseball, whether in-season or off-season, the risk-to-reward ratio
must be considered for exercise selection. For us, there is perhaps
more power in what we do not do in the weight room than what

we do. We strive to make smart decisions and choices that give
our players the best chance to be successful. After all, our number
one priority is making sure our players play.
As strength and conditioning professionals, we have a
responsibility to our players and clients to understand the
requirements of their sport or activity. Creating programs should
be done with purpose. Consideration should be put into every
aspect of your program, including activities and exercises you
prescribe as well as those you do not prescribe. We encourage
strength and conditioning coaches, both new and experienced,
to seek out continuing education and learning opportunities,
and to utilize the information provided to enhance your own
programming.
REFERENCES
1. Gambetta, V. How much strength is enough? Strength and
Conditioning Journal 17(4): 46-49, 1995.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
This year will be Nate Shaw’s ninth year as the Major League
Strength and Conditioning Coordinator with the Arizona
Diamondbacks. He joined the Diamondbacks before the 2006
season after a three-year stint in the Tampa Bay Devil Rays
organization. Shaw started his work in professional sports by
spending two years (2001-2002) with the Toronto Blue Jays during
Spring Training in Dunedin, FL. Prior to his baseball strength
and conditioning career, he worked as a personal trainer. Shaw
graduated from the University of Florida in 2001 with a Bachelor’s
degree in Exercise and Sport Sciences and specialized in Athletic
Training.

NSCA COACH 1.1
TABLE 1. IN-SEASON SAMPLE WORKOUT 1
EXERCISE REPETITIONS
Warm-up
Physioball single-arm dumbbell bench press
Half-kneeling quad/psoas stretch
3 x 6-8
2 x 20 s
Reverse lunge to single-leg RDL combo
Band Ts and Ms
3 x 6-8
2 x 10 each
Dumbbell row
Doorway pec stretch
3 x 6-8
2 x 20 s
Dumbbell/kettlebell lateral lunge
Physioball cable core rotations
2 x 8
2 x 10
Cool-down
*Note: paired exercises are superset with each other
TABLE 2. IN-SEASON SAMPLE WORKOUT 2
EXERCISE REPETITIONS
Warm-up
Cable push/pull combo
Foam roll thoracic spine rotation
3 x 6-8
2 x 10 each side
Kettlebell/dumbbell sumo squat
Physioball dead bugs
3 x 6-8
2 x 10
Half-kneeling high cable pull
Bulgarian split squat (rear foot elevated)
3 x 6-8
2 x 10
Cable chops
Rope triceps extension
2 x 10
2 x 10
Cool-down
*Note: paired exercises are superset with each other

ALLEN HEDRICK, MA, CSCS,*D, RSCC*D, FNSCA
THE IMPORTANCE AND VALUE OF THE WEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS IN BASEBALL
A
lthough there are exceptions, there is still not widespread
acceptance for the use of the weightlifting movements
(i.e., cleans, jerks, snatches, and related training exercises)
as a viable and safe training method for baseball athletes. This
is unfortunate because, as will be shown, the weightlifting
movements have the opportunity to enhance performance in the
sport of baseball.
Why has there been reluctance among some of those working
with baseball athletes to accept the weightlifting movements
as an effective training method for their sport? While there
are likely a variety of responses to that question, one common
opinion is that the weightlifting movements carry with them too
great of risk of injury to include them in the training programs
of baseball athletes. As suggested by Hammer, because of
scholarship limitations in collegiate baseball, the number of highly
talented players on any one team is scarce (4). As a result, the
ability to increase power using the weightlifting movements is
outweighed by the potential for injury. Hammer suggested that
both plyometrics and medicine ball training could improve power
development with less risk of injury than weightlifting (4).
However, while there is widespread belief that the weightlifting
movements involve an increased risk of injury, research does
not support that belief. In a study by Hamill, it was found that
youth training and competing in weightlifting had the lowest
rate of injury among athletes competing in a variety of sports
including soccer, badminton, cross country, and tennis (3). Hamill
did emphasize that all of the athletes training and competing
in weightlifting did so while being supervised by well qualified
coaches familiar with weightlifting technique and program
design (3).
Another common concern expressed by coaches is that the
weightlifting movements are too time consuming to teach (4).
While it is true that teaching the Olympic-style lifts does take
more time than other resistance training movements, a strong
case can be made that because of the benefits that the
weightlifting movements provide to baseball athletes (and
for that matter any athlete involved in a sport that is power
oriented), this extra teaching time is worth the enhanced power
production the athlete will experience as a result of performing
the weightlifting movements correctly.
In terms of teaching the Olympic-style lifts, it has been
suggested that baseball athletes being introduced to the
weightlifting movements may initially find the teaching process
frustrating because the movements can sometimes be difficult
to learn (2). Because of this the athlete should first be taught
basic skills (e.g., clean pull) before the more complex movements
(e.g., power clean) are taught. Only those exercises that the
athlete can consistently demonstrate proper technique should
be included in the training program. Coaches must teach and
demand proper technique so injuries are avoided and the full
value of the exercises can be realized. If a coach cannot teach
an exercise or cannot teach and supervise several athletes
simultaneously, that exercise should not be included in the
training program provided to the athletes.
What makes the weightlifting movements so worthwhile to the
baseball athlete? The weightlifting movements have been shown
to produce power outputs far greater than traditional weight
training exercises such as the squat or bench (1). For example, the
power generated during the second pull of the power clean is five
times greater than the power generated during a squat, and 18
times greater than the power generated performing a bench press
(1). These high power outputs are the result of a combination of
fast movement speeds and high bar loads only possible when
performing the weightlifting movements.
This high power generation is important because baseball is an
explosive sport. For example, to hit a baseball thrown at 85 miles
per hour a distance of 400 feet (with no wind and moderate
temperature) requires a bat speed of 76 miles per hour (1). The
concept of specificity suggests that training to improve both
batting and throwing power should include high-velocity methods.
High-velocity training such as what occurs during performance of
the weightlifting movements is most likely to increase the rate of
muscular force development because the weightlifting movements
require the recruitment of the type IIa (fast twitch) motor units.
Further support for the use of the weightlifting movements
in baseball occurs when you consider the act of hitting and
throwing a baseball is produced by force traveling through a
kinetic link, initiated by the feet pushing into the ground (1,5).
The force generated travels up through the lower body and
core to the upper body where it is expressed during the act of
hitting or throwing a baseball. This is exactly what happens when
performing the weightlifting movements; the force is initiated by
pushing against the ground and that force moves up the kinetic
chain where it is expressed by explosively moving the barbell. As
a result, there are strong similarities between hitting or throwing
a baseball and performing the weightlifting movements. In
contrast, training programs that emphasize the use of exercise
machines, which isolate muscle groups and eliminate multiplanar
movements, are likely to be less effective (1).
Based on the information provided it has been shown that, when
taught and supervised by a qualified coach, the weightlifting
movements are both a safe and effective training method meant
to improve performance in baseball. However, it is critical that
the strength and conditioning coach is qualified to teach and
supervise these movements before they are included in the
training program provided to the athletes.

NSCA.com
REFERENCES
1. Ebben, WP, Fotsch, A, and Hartz, KK. Multimode resistance
training to improve baseball batting power. Strength and
Conditioning Journal 28(3): 32-36, 2006.
2. Gearity, B. Effective collegiate baseball strength coaching.
Strength and Conditioning Journal 31(2): 74-79, 2009.
3. Hamill, BP. Relative safety of weightlifting and weight training.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 8(1): 53-57, 1994.
4. Hammer, E. Preseason training for college baseball. Strength
and Conditioning Journal 31(2): 79-85, 2009.
5. Weatherly, J, and Schinck, C. Concepts for baseball
conditioning. Strength and Conditioning Journal 18(2): 32-39, 1996.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Allen Hedrick is the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach at
Colorado State University-Pueblo, in Pueblo, CO. Previously,
Hedrick has been the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach at the
U.S. Air Force Academy, the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA), and the United States Olympic Training Center.
Prior to that, he worked as a graduate assistant while pursuing his
Master’s degree at Fresno State University. Hedrick was named
the NSCA’s Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coach of the
Year in 2003. Frequently published in various journals related
to strength and conditioning, Hedrick has authored books on
football and dumbbell training, written chapters in three textbooks
related to strength and conditioning, and has spoken at numerous
conferences and clinics both nationally and internationally.

RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW
W
hen considering training programs for developing
young athletes, coaches should focus their attention
on developing a long-term approach to positive youth
development. Some of the main components of effective youth
development programs include positive physical, social, and
psychological outcomes; positive adult, peer, and community
relationships; and focus on learning, mastery, and autonomy
support (2,5). Coaches should be cognizant at this level to focus
on the process (acquisition and development of health- and
skills-fitness, mental training, and psychosocial benefits) rather
than the product (wins and losses). Lerner et al. suggest that all
youth possess the potential for positive, successful, and healthy
development (7).
MODELS OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT
THROUGH SPORT
There exist several models of athletic development from which
coaches can design their programs (1,4,9). These models focus on
the physical aspect of positive youth development primarily, so the
focus of this article will also be on the physical aspect and focus
of training for youth development. Please remember, though, that
just as children do not automatically develop increased motor
skills they do not automatically develop properly without caring
coaches that focus on development of the whole child.
Each model delineates stages through which children and youth
pass, often based on chronological age (age in years). One of the
primary limitations to this approach is that there is often a two-
year developmental difference on either side of the chronological
age in terms of the developmental age (10). Meaning that with a
group of 12-year-olds, the range of developmental ages will range
from 10 to 14. While this provides a reference point in which to
begin sports training program design, coaches must recognize
the variations in development of their youth athletes when
applying these models to their youth athletes. Not all athletes,
therefore, will be able to follow the same program template at any
chronological age.
Recent research on the relative age effect indicates that boys
between the ages of 10 and 16 years that were born in the first
and second quarters of the year have a physical advantage over
boys born in the third or fourth quarters of the same year (13).
Coaches must therefore be mindful of the relative age effect
when designing strength and conditioning programs and sports
practice. The overall emphasis should be on talent development
for all participants as those that are classified as “late-bloomers”
have been shown to not only match the physical development
of early maturing/higher relative age youth eventually but often
surpass their performance and participate longer (4). For coaches,
great care must be taken in designing strength and conditioning
programs and skills practice for youth athletes with such a wide
variance in physical and psychosocial development. Coaches must
also foster positive youth development for all youngsters in order
to reduce burnout and injury of youths that mature early, and
promote continued progress for those youths that mature later or
were born later in the selection year.
THE POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT MODEL
The positive youth development model of Lloyd and Oliver
promotes a balanced approach to strength and conditioning
throughout childhood and adolescence (9). As the Tables 1 and 2
illustrate, all fitness attributes are trainable across childhood and
adolescence.
While this model also is delineated by chronological age, it is
easily adaptable by the coach for variations in developmental
levels. For example, if a 10-year-old boy is developmentally an
8-year old, emphasis on physical training follows the same general
template of balanced development, but sport-specific skills receive
less emphasis. This is of critical importance as the tendency too
often is to focus on sport-specific skills instead of developing the
motor skill and strength base required for advanced functioning.
Coaches should promote strength and conditioning programs that:
• Improve overall strength and conditioning for all youth
• Develop overall athleticism, not early sport specialization
• Balance development of all muscles and muscle groups
• Incorporate a variety of exercises and types of equipment
• Focus on technique, not amount of weight lifted
It is also worth mentioning that coaches should not try to
duplicate a sporting movement in the gym. The focus should be on
the development of motor skills in the gym, as sport specialization
will be acquired through sport practice at this level.
CONCLUSION
To maximize the physical and psychosocial benefits of youth
sports participation, a positive long-term youth development focus
is essential. For developing children, strength and conditioning
programs must focus on the overall physical development of
all participants, rather than emphasizing any element of sport-
specific training. According to the positive youth development
model, sport-specific skills can begin to be emphasized starting
at approximately age 10 for girls and age 12 for boys once
foundational motor skills and a base of strength have been
established (9). Please refer to Tables 1 and 2 for the youth
physical development model for both boys and girls, as published
by Lloyd and Oliver (9). As children enter adolescence, continuing
emphasis on all fitness attributes is warranted as well as focusing
on reducing youth sports injuries, and creating strength and
conditioning programs that will assist in sport-specific training
improvements (11,12,14).
REFERENCES

NSCA.com
1. Balyi, I, and Hamilton, A. Long-term athlete development:
Trainability in childhood and adolescence-windows of opportunity.
Optimal Trainability. Victoria: National Coaching Institute British
Columbia and Advanced Training and Performance Ltd. 2004.
2. Benson, PL. All Kids are our Kids: What Communities must do
to Raise Caring and Responsible Children and Adolescents (2nd
ed).
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2006.
3. Côté, J, Baker, J, and Abernethy, B. Practice to play in the
development of sport expertise. In: Eklund, R, and Tenenbaum,
G (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley;
184–202, 2007.
4. Côté, J, Lidor, R, and Hackfort, D. To sample or to specialize?
– Seven postulates about youth sport activities that lead to
continued participation and elite performance. International
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 9: 7-17, 2009.
5. Damon, W. What is positive youth development? Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science 591: 13-24, 2004.
6. Fraser-Thomas, JL, Côté, J, and Deakin, J. Youth sport
programs: An avenue to foster positive youth development.
Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 10(1): 19-40, 2005.
7. Lerner, RM, Lerner, JV, Almerigi, J, Theokas, C, Naudeau, S,
Gestsdottir, S, Naudeau, S, Jelicic, H, Alberts, A, Ma, L, Smith,
L, Bobek, D, Richman-Raphael, D, Simpson, I, Christiansen,
ED, and vonEye, A. Positive youth development: Participation
in community youth development programs, and community
contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from the first
wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development. Journal of
Early Adolescence 25(1): 17-71, 2005.
8. Little, RR. What’s working for today’s youth: The issues, the
programs, and the learnings. Paper presented at the Institute for
Children, Youth, and Families Fellows’ Colloquium, Michigan State
University, 1993.
9. Lloyd, R, and Oliver, J. The youth physical development
model: A new approach to long-term athletic development.
Strength and Conditioning Journal 34(3): 61-72, 2012.
10. Malina, R, Bouchard, C, and Bar-Or, O. Growth, Maturation, and
Physical Activity (2nd
ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2004.
11. Myer, GD, Faigenbaum, AD, Ford, KR, Best, TM, Bergeron,
MF, and Hewett, TE. When to initiate integrative neuromuscular
training to reduce sports-related injuries and enhance health in
youth? Curr Sports Med Rep 10(3):155-66, 2011.
12. Nakata, H, Nagami, T, Higuchi, T, Sakamoto, K, and Kanosue,
K. Relationship between performance variables and baseball
ability in youth baseball players. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 27(10): 2887-2897, 2013.
13. Sandercock, G, Taylor, M, Voss, C, Ogunleye, A, Cohen, D, and
Parry, D. Quantification of the relative age effect in three indices
of physical performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 27(12): 3293-3299, 2013.
14. Szymanski, DJ, Szymanski, JM, Bradford, TJ, Schade, RL, and
Pascoe, DD. Effect of twelve weeks of medicine ball training on
high school baseball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 21(3): 894-901, 2007.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Rick Howard helped start the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) Youth Special Interest Group (SIG) and served
this year as Immediate Past Chair. In addition, Howard serves on
the NSCA Membership Committee and is the NSCA State/Provincial
Program Regional Coordinator for the Mid-Atlantic Region. Howard
is involved in many pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and
coaching education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical
activity and sports participation.

TABLE 1. YOUTH PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR GIRLS (9)
TABLE 2. YOUTH PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR BOYS (9)
TABLE KEY
FMS: fundamental movement skills
MC: metabolic conditioning
PHV: peak height velocity
SSS: sport-specific skills
TABLE KEY
FMS: fundamental movement skills
MC: metabolic conditioning
PHV: peak height velocity
SSS: sport-specific skills

NSCA.com
MOVEMENT PERFORMANCE CLINIC
MAY 2 – 3 | COLORADO SPRINGS, CO
NSCA NATIONAL CONFERENCE
JULY 9 – 12 | LAS VEGAS, NV
TRAINING FOR HOCKEY CLINIC
JUNE 6 – 7 | COLORADO SPRINGS, CO
TSAC CONFERENCE
APRIL 15 – 17 | SAN DIEGO, CA
2014 EVENTS

JUAN GONZALEZ, PHD, CSCS,*D, AND AARON WYANT, MS
T
he number of certified professional strength and
conditioning coaches has multiplied by more than sixteen
times since May of 2001 (4). Unfortunately, this growth is
accompanied by a high rate of turnover in collegiate, Division
I strength and conditioning positions (14). Previous research
has looked at the personal characteristics and demographics
of strength and conditioning coaches attempting to establish
the ideal candidate for the environment but has not taken into
consideration the environment-related factors that affect the
coach (5,20,21). The aim of this article is to quantify the factors
that affect the strength and conditioning coach’s job satisfaction
and turnover, specifically extrinsic motivation factors.
Locke defined job satisfaction as, “a positive emotional state
resulting from the appraisal of one’s job,” (13). Extrinsic
motivation factors, also known as hygiene factors, describe the
work environment and prevent job dissatisfaction (7). These
hygiene factors—work resources such as compensation, facilities,
support, and work culture or environment—are never satisfied but
require continual maintenance; they do not increase or enhance
productivity but work only to prevent the loss of employee
performance (8). Intrinsic motivation factors seem effective in
motivating people to reach a higher level of performance; they
direct and drive our behavior toward accomplishing goals (7).
Intrinsic motivation factors are those that come from within the
psyche of the coach but can also be established or modified by the
organization. For example, organizational goals and the chance for
new opportunities may influence the coach’s intrinsic motivation
and work performance (7). Intrinsic motivation factors include
the achievement of goals, recognition for accomplishments,
challenging and meaningful work, increased responsibility,
professional growth and development, and overall job
enrichment (7).
The probability of experiencing success within one’s job has
an “inverted-U” relationship with motivation factors; that is,
motivation will increase with the job’s probability of success up to
50% but will then decrease as that probability continues to grow
(1). If the work is not challenging enough to allow for achievement
or professional growth, motivation will decrease. Likewise, if
the work is too challenging or the employee does not have the
necessary resources, motivation will decrease. The lack of extrinsic
or intrinsic motivators in the workplace can cause frustration
and emotional behaviors such as aggression, rationalization,
regression, fixation, or resignation (7). Burnout (a psychological
syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and
reduced personal accomplishment) results from high job demands
and low job resources (16). According to Liang, burnout causes
emotional depression, absenteeism, physical illness, diminished
organizational commitment, lowered performance, and increased
staff turnover (12).
Many Division I universities have experienced significant job
turnover in these strength and conditioning positions. There are
influential, extrinsic factors within the strength and conditioning
job itself that can affect the coach’s job satisfaction positively

NSCA COACH 1.1
or negatively. Analyzing a university’s hygiene factors can
demonstrate the influence and effect each may have on job
satisfaction and turnover. The purpose of this research is to
bring to light these hygiene factors, the effects they have, and to
establish implications for the athletic administration.
COMPENSATION: PAY AND BENEFITS
A strength and conditioning coach salary position is not the
typical, 40 hours-per-week job. Although it may be one of the
more superficial aspects of motivation, compensation may also be
the single most important contributing factor to job performance
(9). The average salary of Division IA (currently Division I, Football
Bowl Subdivision but still referred to as Division IA at the time of
the study) head strength and conditioning coaches was $50,000
– $59,999 in 2004, which is about $10,000 – $20,000 more than
coaches at the Division II and III levels (5). With days often starting
before the sun rises and ending after it has gone down, a base
salary that does not recognize overtime may not fully motivate the
coach. Involuntary overtime is associated with high fatigue and
low job satisfaction; those that receive no reward for overtime are
at risk of burnout (2).
Competitive compensation strategies will have dramatic effects
on employee turnover and the attitudes of employees (11).
According to Hersey et al., 25% of employees show up to work
only to collect a paycheck; 25% of employees feel that employee
benefits are an important reason for joining an organization; and
42% of employees report that benefits are an important reason
to stay with an organization (7). Employees that are dissatisfied
with their annual salary experience increased job stress and lower
job satisfaction (6). Those with less experience and those who
earn low salaries have greater turnover intention, and are more
motivated to search for outside opportunities for professional
advancement (25).
FACILITIES AND COWORKER SUPPORT
Limited facilities and supplies or equipment are important
difficulties noted in many physical education and athletic
environments (26). In a survey conducted in 2005, coaches at
the Division II and III levels reported that they have one or zero
weight rooms to utilize with their athletic teams (5). In the Division
IA setting, however, coaches have two or more weight rooms
exclusively for the athletic department’s purposes (15). Haggerty
states that in order to elicit higher athlete performance and obtain
career advancement the strength and conditioning coach must
be provided with the appropriate facilities and equipment that
enable them to create and manipulate training programs (5). Any
limitation with strength and conditioning facilities will equally
affect the coach’s ability to develop and implement well-designed
strength and conditioning programs. This may lead to a downhill
slide that involves diminished athlete performances, impaired job
performance of the strength and conditioning coach, and reduced
job satisfaction.
Colleague support, along with staying current with information
and technology, have been noted as important factors related
to successful teaching that contribute to longevity in the career
(22). Establishing coworker relationships and working in a “team
environment” is a powerful determinant of job satisfaction, even
more influential than one’s pay (17,24). Additionally, supervisor
and coworker support are factors significantly related to low job
stress and high job satisfaction (18). Coaches at the Division II and
III levels report having a support staff of zero full-time assistants
and no help from graduates or volunteers, while those at the
Division IA level report having two full-time assistants, at least one
graduate assistant (up to six), and one volunteer (5). Limitations
of coworker support for the strength and conditioning coach may
cause excessive work stress which impacts the organizational
commitment, absenteeism, turnover, and turnover intention of the
employee. In turn, this leads to many problems for the employer,
such as increased medical claims and healthcare costs, higher
employee compensation costs, increased employee absence, and
reduced employee productivity (18).
WORK CULTURE OR ENVIRONMENT
According to Hersey et al., 40% of employees feel disconnected
from their employers (7). Kim’s literary investigation and
survey of over 2,600 NCAA Division II coaches showed that the
transactional (TA) and transformational (TF) leadership of an
employer has a direct, positive influence on job satisfaction and
an indirect, negative relationship with turnover intention when
mediated through organizational commitment (10). TA leadership
involves a leader-follower exchange between the employer and
employee for each member’s respective needs; this relationship
functions through the use of hygiene factors. Once this transaction
is made the TA style of leadership may not effectively motivate
the employee and TF leadership is then needed (10). TF leadership
uses intrinsic motivation factors to change the attitudes and
behaviors, increase expectations, strengthen motives to achieve,
and improve the overall performance of employees.
Corporate culture affects work quality, job satisfaction, and
employee retention (23,27). A study of corporate-sponsored
versus individual-sponsored physical activity showed a direct
relationship between work-related activities and the employee’s
perceived productivity level. The research demonstrates that
individuals who are involved in corporate-sponsored health and
fitness programs are likely to view this sponsorship as an act of
concern by the employer. Involvement in work-related activities is
also positively related to company loyalty (23).
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
An athletic administration that is experiencing high levels
of turnover in the strength and conditioning position should
look at the environment-related, hygiene factors that may be
affecting the coach’s job satisfaction. The importance of such
hygiene factors like pay and benefits has been stressed for both
joining and staying with an organization. Those who feel that
the compensation does not adequately meet the level of work
required for the position are likely to experience job dissatisfaction
and burnout. If compensation levels are not close to the national
average for similar universities, coaches may feel overworked and
underappreciated.

It is important that coaches are given the right tools and
support to meet the demands of their job. Providing up-to-
date and sufficient facilities, equipment, and supplies will
improve the coach’s chance of success and may lengthen their
stay in the position; additionally, providing adequate coworker
support is a major determinant of job satisfaction and turnover.
Administrations should use employee and supervisor development
programs that emphasize the value of coworker support in order
to avoid the potentially expensive problems associated with high
levels of work stress (18).
University administrations should exercise the use of corporate-
sponsored activity to instill a sense of a cohesive and caring
culture in the work environment. Promoting physical activity
is at the very heart of strength and conditioning and a work
culture that holds these same values will affect the coach’s
commitment and job satisfaction positively. Administrators may
continue to utilize TA leadership and leader-follower exchange
relationships to motivate the strength and conditioning coach;
however, they should begin to use more TF leadership and
intrinsic motivation factors to affect employee performance by
increasing commitment to the organization’s mission and goals.
Those universities lacking these important hygiene factors cannot
expect to develop a positive work environment that induces higher
employee performance and productivity. Limitations or lack of
these highly influential factors will negatively affect the strength
and conditioning coach’s ability to perform their job, lowering
their job satisfaction and eventually leading to high levels of
turnover in the position.
REFERENCES
1. Atkinson, JW. Motivational determinants of risk-taking
behavior. Psychological Review 64(6): 365, 1957.
2. Beckers, D, van der Linden, D, Smulders, P, Kompier, M,
Toon, W, and Geurts, S. Voluntary or involuntary? Control over
overtime and rewards for overtime in relation to fatigue and work
satisfaction. Work & Stress 22(1): 33-51, 2008.
3. Chelladurai, P. Sport management: Defining the field.
European Journal for Sport Management 1: 7-21, 1994.
4. College Strength and Conditioning Coaches Association.
About the CSCCa. Retrieved December 2013 from http://www.
cscca.org/about.
5. Haggerty, L. A profile of strength and conditioning coaches at
National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II and III member
institutions. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1094.
Retrieved from http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1094, 2005.
6. Hamidi, Y, and Eivazi, Z. The relationships among employees’
job stress, job satisfaction, and the organizational performance of
Hamadan urban health centers. Social Behavior and Personality
38(7): 963-968, 2010.
7. Hersey, P, Blanchard, K, and Johnson, D. Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources (10th ed).
Pearson Education Publishers: 2012.
8. Herzberg, F, Mausner, B, and Snyderman, B. The Motivation to
Work. New York, NY: Wiley; 1959.
9. Jenkins, G, Gupta, N, Mitra, A, and Shaw, J. Are financial
incentive related to performance? A meta-analytic review of
empirical research. Journal of Applied Psychology 83: 777-787,
1998.
10. Kim, H. Transformational and transactional leadership of
athletic directors and their impact on organizational outcomes
perceived by head coaches at NCAA Division II intercollegiate
institutions (Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University).
Retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap:0:0:APPLICATION_
PROCESS=DOWNLOAD_ETD_SUB_DOC_ACCNUM:::F1501_
ID:osu1258697980,attachment
11. Klaas, B, and McClendon, J. To lead, lag, or match: Estimating
the financial impact of pay level policies. Personnel Psychology 49:
121-141, 1996.
12. Liang, S. The role of organizational socialization in burnout: A
Taiwanese example. Social Behavior and Personality 36(2): 197-216,
2008.
13. Locke, E. The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In:
Marvin Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology. Skokie, IL: Rand McNally and Company; 1297-1350,
1976.
14. Magnusen, M. Assessing differences in strength and
conditioning coach self-perceptions of leadership style at the NBA,
Division I, and Division II level (Master’s Thesis, Texas Christian
University). Available from ProQuest, UMI Dissertations Publishing.
(UMI No. 304785695), 2007.
15. Martinez, D. Study of the key determining factors for the
NCAA Division I head strength and conditioning coach. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research 18(1): 5-18, 2004.
16. Maslach, C. Burnout: A multidimensional perspective. In:
Schaufeli, WB, Maslach, C, and Marek, T (Eds.), Professional
Burnout: Recent Developments in Theory and Research.
Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis; 19-32, 1993.
17. Mazerolle, S, Goodman, A, and Pitney, W. Factors influencing
retention of male athletic trainers at the NCAA Division I setting.
International Journal of Athletic Therapy & Training 18(5): 6-10,
2013.
18. McCalister, K, Dolbier, C, Webster, J, Mallon, M, and Steinhardt,
M. Hardiness and support at work as predictors of work stress and
job satisfaction. American Journal of Health Promotion 20(6): 183-
192, 2006.
19. Parkhouse, BL. The management of sport: Its foundation and
application with PowerWeb (4th ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill;
2005.

NSCA COACH 1.1
20. Powers, J. A survey of NCAA Division I strength and
conditioning coaches - characteristics and opinions. Graduate
School Theses and Dissertations. Retrieved from http://
scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/457, 2008.
21. Pullo, FM. A profile of NCAA Division I strength and
conditioning coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Science Research
6(1): 55-62, 1992.
22. Ransdell, L, Grosshans, O, and Trunnell, E. Teaching at the
secondary level: Wisdom from veteran health educators. Journal of
School Health 74(6): 207-211, 2004.
23. Rudman, WJ. Sport and exercise in work culture. Fitness in
Business 2(6): 220-226, 1988.
24. Saygi, H, Tolon, T, and Tekogul, H. Job satisfaction in fisheries
faculties at Turkish universities. Social Behavior and Personality
39(10): 1395-1402, 2011.
25. Stier, W, Schneider, R, Kampf, S, and Gaskins, B. Job
satisfaction for campus recreation professionals within NIRSA
institutions. Recreational Sports Journal 34: 78-94, 2010.
26. Trinkuliene, L, and Kardeliene, L. Occupational difficulties at
work of physical education teachers. Education, Physical Training,
Sport 88: 88-97, 2013.
27. Twist, P. Building corporate culture. IDEA Trainer Success 4(1):
1-5, 2007.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Juan Gonzalez is a former National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) Women’s Cross Country Coach at Schreiner University
in Kerrville, TX, and an Assistant Professor in the Health and
Kinesiology Department at the University of Texas-Pan American
in Edinburg, TX. He has earned his Master’s degree in Kinesiology
and a Doctorate in Exercise Physiology from Texas A&M University.
Gonzalez specializes in training the female athlete and has given
several national presentations for organizations such as the
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and the
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). In addition, he
authored the book “The Athlete Whisperer: What It Takes to Make
Her Great.”
Aaron Wyant is a Graduate Strength and Conditioning Coach at
the University of Texas-Pan American (UTPA) in Edinburg, TX. He
recently graduated with a Master of Science degree in Kinesiology
from UTPA in December 2013.

Many athletes put emphasis on training, fueling, and rest,
but many do not focus on the importance of good eyesight.
Optometrists estimate up to 80% of the information accumulated
during a sporting competition comes from the eyes, and 95% of
all physical movement is controlled visually, and triggers the first
movement (1,9,11). Even eyesight that is slightly blurred can reduce
performance (5).
EYE ANATOMY
Some of the major components of the eye that affect performance
and overall vision are the cornea, retina, macula, and the lens.
The cornea is transparent, approximately spherical, and is located
on the outer layer of the eye (2).
The retina is light-sensitive tissue located in the inner layer of the
eye (2). The retina is an extension of the central nervous system
and is connected to the brain by the optic nerve (2). The lens is
located in the inner eye and is connected to the ciliary body, which
is important to the process of accommodation, or changing focus
(2). Both the cornea and lens are vital components for refraction
within the eye as well (2). Also of importance to optimal vision
is the macula, which is located near the center of the retina,
responsible for absorbing harmful light and protecting the retina.
Proper nutrition must be followed to protect the eye and for each
component to function optimally.
NUTRITION
The types of foods put into the body not only affect performance
but also the eyes. A large-scale research project conducted by the
National Eye Institute found there are several nutrients that help
protect the eyes (8). Some of the most important nutrients include
the following:
• Beta-carotene is an antioxidant. It helps produce pigment
in the retina of the eye and promotes good vision, especially
in low light. Sources include apricots, broccoli, cantaloupe,
carrots, dark green leafy vegetables, pink grapefruit, pumpkin,
spinach, and sweet potatoes.
• Vitamin C is a water-soluble essential nutrient and an
important antioxidant. The eyes need relatively high levels
of vitamin C to function properly. One of its main roles is to
support small blood vessels to and around the eyes. The lens
of the eye is also highly concentrated with vitamin C. Sources
include brussel sprouts, bell peppers, broccoli, berries, and
citrus fruit.
• Vitamin D (for the purposes of this article, we will focus on
Vitamin D3 cholecalciferol) has been shown to positivity
impact vision and reduce retinal inflammation (6). Food
sources include cod liver oil, Atlantic pickled herring, salmon,
mackerel, sardine and tuna packed in oil, fortified cereals/
dairy/soy/tofu products, eggs, and mushrooms.
• Vitamin E (d-alpha tocopherol) is one of the body’s most
powerful fat-soluble antioxidants. Higher intake of vitamin
E can increase the level in the retina. Vitamin E is also found
in the lens. It protects cells of the eyes from damage and
provides ocular protection (8). Sources include wheat germ,
almonds, sunflower seeds, hazelnuts, peanuts, peanut butter,
and sweet potatoes.
• Lutein and Zeaxanthin are powerful carotenoids naturally
present in the macula of the eye. They are part of the retina
which is responsible for central vision. These vital nutrients
work to filter 40 – 90% of the harmful blue light, the kind
of light that can damage the macula. They can increase the
pigment density in the macula. The greater the pigment
density means better retina protection and a lower risk of
macular degeneration (8). These antioxidants cannot be
produced by the body on its own, so they must be obtained
through diet and/or supplements. Sources include egg yolk,
broccoli, corn, dark green leafy vegetables (e.g., kale, collards,
spinach, turnip greens), and peas.
• Zinc (zinc oxide) is an essential mineral. It helps get vitamin
A from the liver to the retina for eye-protective melanin
production. Proper amounts of zinc help with ocular
protection, night vision, and cataract prevention. Sources
include fortified cereals, legumes of all kinds (e.g., black
eyed peas, kidney beans, lima beans) lean red meat, poultry,
seafood, and pumpkin seeds.
• Omega 3 Fatty Acids (fish oil) appears as two types:
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA). They are major components of nervous and retinal
tissues and are highly concentrated in the ocular tissues. They
help promote healthy tear production necessary for healthy
and comfortable eyes, protect tiny vessels within the eyes,
and low levels of these fatty acids can be linked to dry eye
syndrome (3,4,7). Sources include salmon, tuna, sardines, and
anchovies.
EYE HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE
The thicker and denser the macular pigment, the more protection
is afforded to the eyes. This thickness also reduces glare and light
sensitivity along with improving photo stress recovery, contrast
sensitivity, and processing speed (12). Since the eyes and brain are
connected, a millisecond difference in seeing a pitch in baseball,
for example, can be the difference between a strike and a home
run. A 95-mile-per-hour fastball takes less than half a second to
get to the plate. A player must decide to swing in approximately
0.458 seconds. That means the player must see the ball and
decide whether to swing or not. If the player cannot see the
ball properly, performance will likely suffer. This emphasizes the
importance of maintaining proper nutrition for eye health.
DAWN WEATHERWAX, RD, CSSD, ATC, CSCS
EYE NUTRITION FOR OPTIMAL VISION AND PERFORMANCE

NSCA.com
EYE HEALTH FOR MACULAR DEGENERATION
AND CATARACTS
Approximately 10% of people between 66 to 74 years of age
will have findings of macular degeneration (10). The prevalence
increases to 30% when in people between 75 and 85 years of age
(10). Macular degeneration is described as a loss of vision in the
center of the visual field (the macula) because of damage to the
retina. It is a major cause of blindness and visual impairment in
older adults.
Cataracts are another common eye problem. Cataracts are
a medical condition in which the lens of the eye becomes
progressively cloudy, resulting in blurred vision. By age 80, more
than half of all Americans either have a cataract or have had
cataract surgery (7).
SUMMARY
Protecting the eyes and having optimal vision starts with
one’s diet. Maximizing the thickness of the macula pigment may
decrease the chances of macular degeneration and cataracts. In
order to help protect the eyes and promote optimal performance
it is recommended that one consume a diet high in green leafy
vegetables, salmon, tuna, other oily fish, eggs, nuts, beans,
other non-meat protein sources, oranges, and other citrus
fruits or juices.
REFERENCES
1. Arie, B. Sports vision: How enhancing your vision can give you
that extra edge in competition. Peak Performance 188: 6-8, 2003.
2. Atchison, D. Optics of the Human Eye. School of Optometry
and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation: Queensland
University of Technology—Brisbane, Australia. Presentation
accessed January 20, 2014 from http://publicana.ru/files/
opticheskaya-sistema-glaza.pdf.
3. Bonnielin, S, Caulfield, L, Bressler, S, and West, S. The
impact of fish and shellfish consumption on age-related macular
degeneration. Opthalmology 117(12): 2395-2401, 2010.
4. Chua, B, Flood, V, Rochtchina, E, Wang, JJ, Smith, W, and
Mitchell, P. Dietary fatty acids and the 5-year incidence of age-
related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 124(7): 981-998, 2006.
5. Griffiths, G. Eye dominance in sport. Optometry Times 43(16):
34-40, 2003.
6. Lee, V, Rekhi, E, Hoh Kam, J, and Jeffery, G. Vitamin D
refuvenates ageing eyes by reducing inflammation, clearing
amyloid beta and improving visual function. Neurobiology of
Aging 33(10): 2382-2389, 2001.
7. Sangiovanni, JP, Agrón, E, Meleth, AD, Reed, GF,
Sperduto, RD, Clemons, TE, and Chew, EY. {omega}-3 Long-
chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and 12-y incidence of
neovascular age-related macular degeneration and central
geographic atrophy: AREDS report 30, a prospective cohort study
from the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition 90(6): 1601-1607, 2009.
8. SanGiovanni, JP, Chew, EY, Clemons, TE, et al. for Age-
Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. The relationship of
dietary carotenoid and vitamin A, E, and C intake with age-related
macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS Report No.
22. Arch Ophthalmol 125(9): 1225-1232, 2007.
9. Spinell, MR. Contact lenses for athletes. Optom Clin 3: 57-76,
1993.
10. U.P. Ophthalmology. Age-Related Macular Degeneration.
Accessed January 20, 2014 from http://www.eyehealth.com/
macular-degeneration.html.
11. Werner, W. Contact lens fitting for sports. Contactologia 22:
92-94, 2000.
12. Wooten, BR, and Hammond, BR. Macular pigment: Influences
on visual acuity and visibility. Prog Retin Eye Res 21(2): 225-240,
2002.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dawn Weatherwax is a Registered Dietitian with a specialty in
Sports Nutrition and is the Founder of Sports Nutrition 2Go. She
is also a Board Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics, which is
the premier professional sports nutrition credential in the United
States. In addition, she is an athletic trainer and a Certified Strength
and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) from the National Strength
and Conditioning Association (NSCA). Therefore, she brings a
comprehensive and unique understanding of an athlete’s body
and its nutritional needs to those interested in achieving specific
performance goals and optimal health. She is also the author
of “The Official Snack Guide for Beleaguered Sports Parents”
and “Complete Idiot’s Guide to Sports Nutrition,” as well as a
contributing author for “Unique Considerations for the Female
Athlete.”

NATIONAL STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION
1885 BOB JOHNSON DRIVE | COLORADO SPRINGS, CO 80906
PH: 719 632-6722 | TF: 800 815-6826 | FX: 719 632-6367
NSCA.com

NSCA Coach 1.1

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to NSCA Coach 1.1

Similar to NSCA Coach 1.1 (20)

NSCA Coach 1.1