The Niger delta of Nigeria has been besieged by a lot of crises, which have posed serious security risks to the region. This has adversely and seriously affected not only the region, but Nigeria in general. The processes of crude oil extraction in the Niger delta have resulted in ecological degradation and oil pollutions, thereby doing a lot of damages to the farmlands and fishing waters of the people, whose major occupations are farming and fishing. Petroleum, the main source of Nigeria’s revenue is obtained in the Niger delta. Yet, Deltans are confronted with a lot of problems; they are impoverished, exploited, neglected and marginalized despite the economic value of the region to the Nigerian economy. No serious or commensurate efforts are made by the government or the multinational oil companies operating in the region to compensate the people for the losses they suffer through oil pollutions. This has resulted in a lot of protests and violence, culminating in the social unrest in the region. To this effect, there have been reactions to the crises in diverse ways. Though such efforts have yielded little dividends, the crises have persisted. Niger delta deserves priority attention in terms of human and infrastructural developments. In the literary circle, some Nigerian literary artists have expressed concern over the issue with a view to creating awareness on the seriousness of the crises, and advancing suggestions that will proffer permanent solutions to the problems. This paper examines and expounds how Helon Habila deploys the mood system as a language tool in his novel, Oil on Water, to address the Niger Delta crises. He advances suggestions to put an end to the crises in order to restore peace, and enhance sustainable development in Nigeria.
This document provides a literature review on the topics of environmental security, resource scarcity, resource curse, climate change and security, and climate change in Africa and Darfur. It discusses the emergence of environmental security as a field looking at linkages between the environment and conflict. Key theories around resource scarcity and how environmental degradation can lead to conflict through mechanisms like resource capture and ecological marginalization are summarized. The document also reviews literature on climate change impacts in Africa and how climate change is already affecting Darfur through issues like desertification, decreased rainfall and land degradation.
This document discusses several human dimensions of environmental science including population growth, poverty, affluence, and wasteful use of resources. It notes that population growth and higher consumption levels strain natural resources and increase pollution. Poverty also negatively impacts the environment as poor people are often forced to overexploit forests and land for survival. Affluent societies consume far more resources per person than those in poverty. Examples of wasteful resource use include auto racing, military exercises, and inefficient production processes. Accounting for ecological footprints can help evaluate resource consumption and sustainability across countries.
1) African citizens are already experiencing severe impacts of climate change even though they contribute very little to global greenhouse gas emissions.
2) Research across 6 African countries found that while Africans strongly perceive changes to the local environment and weather, public understanding of human-induced climate change is limited.
3) Better information and dialogue is needed to empower African citizens to respond to climate change impacts and ensure their perspectives are represented in global climate negotiations which will determine the future livelihoods of many Africans.
Oil Exploration and Exploitation: Uprising and Insurgence in the Niger Delta,...paperpublications3
Abstract: The conflict in the Niger Delta region is grounded in the deep historical struggles by the local people who have been subjected to several decades of perceived discrimination and marginalization in the distribution of powers and the benefits accrued from the oil in the region. This paper therefore examines the conflict in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria, which emanated as a result of right to a resource control. The study adopts the theory of frustration aggression and structural imperialism to address the impending and uprising problems in the region. The conflict in the region had been attributed to corrupt political elites that misused the resources and wealth that were meant for the growth and development of the region. The study concluded that the problems in the region could only be eradicated if the local people are given the right to self-determination and local autonomy, thereby fighting poverty and underdevelopment in the region.
Environmental scarcities and violent conflict presentationSisty Basil
The document discusses how environmental scarcity, defined as scarcity of renewable resources like agriculture land, forests, water, and fish, can contribute to violence according to Homer Dixon's model. It identifies three main ways environmental scarcity can arise: demand-induced scarcity from population growth, supply-induced scarcity from degradation of resources, and structural scarcity from unequal access to resources. The document then analyzes case studies on conflicts related to resources scarcity, noting water and non-renewable resources like oil are more likely to spark conflicts between states. Specific cases involving Lesotho, South Africa, India, Bangladesh, and Rwanda are examined in more detail.
Flooding regularly occurs in the community of Kwaprow, Ghana due to its location in a low-lying floodplain area near the Kakum River. This causes damage to infrastructure, crops, property and disrupts education, health and livelihoods. The study aims to assess the socio-economic impacts of floods on Kwaprow's population of 1810 people, who rely on farming, fishing and trading for their livelihoods. It will identify vulnerable groups, evaluate coping strategies and make recommendations to reduce flood risks and vulnerability. The conceptual framework is based on disaster risk reduction to understand hazards and build resilience through mitigation and adaptation measures.
This document assesses the environmental, economic, and social impacts of ecotourism development in four areas of Costa Rica: Manuel Antonio, Monteverde, Tortuguero, and ASCOMAFOR. Semi-structured interviews with 50 stakeholders from the tourism industry and local populations in each area were conducted to evaluate the potential benefits and drawbacks of ecotourism identified in literature. The assessment found that while ecotourism brings environmental, economic, and social benefits compared to alternative land uses, its impacts are complex, and it faces challenges in becoming fully sustainable. Larger scale tourism tends to result in more negative impacts. Greater local involvement and institutional capacity help achieve more balanced ecotourism development.
This document provides a literature review on the topics of environmental security, resource scarcity, resource curse, climate change and security, and climate change in Africa and Darfur. It discusses the emergence of environmental security as a field looking at linkages between the environment and conflict. Key theories around resource scarcity and how environmental degradation can lead to conflict through mechanisms like resource capture and ecological marginalization are summarized. The document also reviews literature on climate change impacts in Africa and how climate change is already affecting Darfur through issues like desertification, decreased rainfall and land degradation.
This document discusses several human dimensions of environmental science including population growth, poverty, affluence, and wasteful use of resources. It notes that population growth and higher consumption levels strain natural resources and increase pollution. Poverty also negatively impacts the environment as poor people are often forced to overexploit forests and land for survival. Affluent societies consume far more resources per person than those in poverty. Examples of wasteful resource use include auto racing, military exercises, and inefficient production processes. Accounting for ecological footprints can help evaluate resource consumption and sustainability across countries.
1) African citizens are already experiencing severe impacts of climate change even though they contribute very little to global greenhouse gas emissions.
2) Research across 6 African countries found that while Africans strongly perceive changes to the local environment and weather, public understanding of human-induced climate change is limited.
3) Better information and dialogue is needed to empower African citizens to respond to climate change impacts and ensure their perspectives are represented in global climate negotiations which will determine the future livelihoods of many Africans.
Oil Exploration and Exploitation: Uprising and Insurgence in the Niger Delta,...paperpublications3
Abstract: The conflict in the Niger Delta region is grounded in the deep historical struggles by the local people who have been subjected to several decades of perceived discrimination and marginalization in the distribution of powers and the benefits accrued from the oil in the region. This paper therefore examines the conflict in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria, which emanated as a result of right to a resource control. The study adopts the theory of frustration aggression and structural imperialism to address the impending and uprising problems in the region. The conflict in the region had been attributed to corrupt political elites that misused the resources and wealth that were meant for the growth and development of the region. The study concluded that the problems in the region could only be eradicated if the local people are given the right to self-determination and local autonomy, thereby fighting poverty and underdevelopment in the region.
Environmental scarcities and violent conflict presentationSisty Basil
The document discusses how environmental scarcity, defined as scarcity of renewable resources like agriculture land, forests, water, and fish, can contribute to violence according to Homer Dixon's model. It identifies three main ways environmental scarcity can arise: demand-induced scarcity from population growth, supply-induced scarcity from degradation of resources, and structural scarcity from unequal access to resources. The document then analyzes case studies on conflicts related to resources scarcity, noting water and non-renewable resources like oil are more likely to spark conflicts between states. Specific cases involving Lesotho, South Africa, India, Bangladesh, and Rwanda are examined in more detail.
Flooding regularly occurs in the community of Kwaprow, Ghana due to its location in a low-lying floodplain area near the Kakum River. This causes damage to infrastructure, crops, property and disrupts education, health and livelihoods. The study aims to assess the socio-economic impacts of floods on Kwaprow's population of 1810 people, who rely on farming, fishing and trading for their livelihoods. It will identify vulnerable groups, evaluate coping strategies and make recommendations to reduce flood risks and vulnerability. The conceptual framework is based on disaster risk reduction to understand hazards and build resilience through mitigation and adaptation measures.
This document assesses the environmental, economic, and social impacts of ecotourism development in four areas of Costa Rica: Manuel Antonio, Monteverde, Tortuguero, and ASCOMAFOR. Semi-structured interviews with 50 stakeholders from the tourism industry and local populations in each area were conducted to evaluate the potential benefits and drawbacks of ecotourism identified in literature. The assessment found that while ecotourism brings environmental, economic, and social benefits compared to alternative land uses, its impacts are complex, and it faces challenges in becoming fully sustainable. Larger scale tourism tends to result in more negative impacts. Greater local involvement and institutional capacity help achieve more balanced ecotourism development.
This document provides an overview of disaster readiness and risk reduction. It begins with a pre-test to assess learners' understanding of key concepts like disasters, hazards, and risks. It then defines disasters and risks, explaining that disaster risk is determined by hazards, vulnerability, and coping capacity. Various natural hazards that cause disasters in the Philippines are described, like earthquakes, typhoons, and volcanic eruptions. The document also discusses human-induced hazards and provides examples. Overall, the summary emphasizes defining key terms and concepts regarding disasters, hazards, and risk assessment.
The document discusses how concerns about finite resources and a rising global population were prominent topics in the 1970s. A 1972 book called The Limits to Growth warned that continued population growth and increasing consumption would eventually outstrip the Earth's finite resources. While this view faded from public discussion, recent events related to peak oil production and economic instability have renewed interest in reexamining the models and predictions from the 1970s. The summary argues that early warnings about resource constraints appear to be coming true.
SECRETARIAT MEMBERS
Cecile Guidote Alvarez, Director, Earthsavers, UNESCO Dr. SunOck Lee, Secretary General, APPAN
Dr. Viktor Sebek, Chairman SSCC
Susan Claudio, Executive Assistant
Nelson Zamora, Director SSCC
Edgar Avilan, Executive Director SSCC
Regine Guevara, Co-founder, Asian Youth Peace Network Jul Rashid Dilangalen, Intern
Valerio Ferri, SSCc research Assistant
The document summarizes Dean Bavington's book "Managed Annihilation" which critically examines the management of Canada's fishing industry. It argues that the shift from a pre-industrial to industrial capitalist system put pressure on fishermen and prioritized international markets over local needs. This led the government to treat fish as a commodity and rely too heavily on scientific modeling, which failed to prevent the near extinction of cod stocks. While praising Bavington's historical analysis, the reviewer notes the book does not fully define its alternative of integrating moral values or consider adaptive management approaches.
The main purpose of this paper is to draw the nexus between environment and conflict with the concept of redefining security. This paper is aimed to answer the question whether environmental degradation or environment as a broad concept can lead to a conflict directly, if it can do so then how this will be the central question of this Paper. To do so, some relevant case studies will be framed to show the nexus between environment and conflict. Finally, there will be concluding remarks which will draw the critical perspective behind Environmental Conflict. Fatema-Tuj-Juhra "Environmental Conflict: Myth or Reality?" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42451.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/political-science/42451/environmental-conflict-myth-or-reality/fatematujjuhra
This document discusses risks to urban areas from natural disasters and terrorist attacks. It examines fragmentation across jurisdictions and sectors that can complicate response efforts. Case studies of Los Angeles and Biloxi describe their emergency management structures, past responses to disasters like wildfires and hurricanes, and efforts to improve preparation and coordination. Key challenges include communicating with diverse populations, intergovernmental cooperation, and rebuilding tax bases after major events.
This document provides a summary of key issues from the President of ICID regarding managing water for sustainable agriculture. It discusses the growing challenges of food insecurity as population and biofuel crop area increases. It emphasizes ICID's role in promoting sustainable irrigation and drainage to improve water use efficiency and productivity. The President aims to strengthen capacity building, knowledge sharing, and support developing countries in addressing food and water security concerns through ICID events and collaboration with other organizations.
Human Mobility, Natural Disasters and Climate Change in the PacificDr Lendy Spires
This document provides background information on a regional consultation regarding human mobility, natural disasters, and climate change in the Pacific. It discusses the complex issues facing Pacific Island countries from increased natural disasters and climate change impacts. While most current displacement in the region is internal and temporary, international migration is common and increasingly linked to environmental factors. The consultation will examine challenges like cross-border displacement, planned relocation of at-risk populations, and developing protections for environmentally-motivated migrants. Representatives from Pacific nations will discuss these issues and their country-specific challenges to inform policy discussions on assisting populations impacted by climate change.
Urban flooding is an increasingly important issue. Disaster statistics appear to show flood events are becoming more frequent, with medium-scale events increasing fastest. The impact of flooding is driven by a combination of natural and human-induced factors.
The United Nations Conference on Desertification was held in Nairobi, Kenya in 1977 to address the growing issue of desertification, particularly in West Africa which was experiencing a severe drought and loss of life. At the conference, desertification was defined as the diminution or destruction of land's biological potential that can lead to desert-like conditions. Over 500 delegates from 94 countries attended to discuss questions around the causes and impacts of desertification, as well as what actions could be taken to mitigate its effects. The conference led different countries to pursue various approaches to combat desertification within their own borders.
This document summarizes an article from the Seattle Journal for Social Justice that discusses how promoting secure land tenure in Sub-Saharan Africa could help protect the environment and reduce poverty. It notes that while the economies of many Sub-Saharan countries have grown in recent decades, poverty remains widespread due to a lack of secure access to land for agriculture. Insecure land tenure has also contributed to environmental problems in the region like deforestation, soil degradation, and desertification. The article explores how formalizing land ownership through tenure reform could help address both issues by giving communities incentives to invest in sustainable land management and natural resource protection. It proposes specific policies and programs that could strengthen land tenure security across Sub-Saharan Africa.
The document discusses how oil has negatively impacted many countries and harmed the environment. While oil provides fuel and energy, it undermines most oil-producing nations by weakening democracy and encouraging corruption. It also pollutes the environment through emissions and oil spills. The example of Nigeria is provided, where oil production in the Niger Delta region has led to widespread pollution and many oil spills dating back decades. This pollution has severely damaged the region's environment and harmed the livelihoods of local communities, yet most see little success in obtaining justice or compensation due to barriers like poverty, lack of legal resources, and corruption.
- The document discusses the evolution of the concept of "human security" beyond just military defense, as described in a 2001 article by Roland Paris. It focuses on environmental factors like resource scarcity that can impact security.
- Thomas Homer-Dixon's article is cited, arguing that environmental problems like water scarcity, declining fisheries, and climate change could precipitate violent conflicts in the future if they become severe enough. Resource capture, ecological marginalization, and population growth are linked to conflicts over scarce resources.
- The document advocates for social ingenuity and education around sustainable practices like permaculture as potential long-term solutions to address resource insecurity and avoid future conflicts linked to environmental problems.
Environmental and natural resources economicsMWAIZAVUZYA
This document discusses the relationship between population, poverty, and the environment. It defines key terms like poverty, environment, and population. It then discusses environmental degradation, noting it affects developing countries more and can be caused by both natural disasters and human activities. The document argues there is a two-way relationship between poverty and environmental degradation, where each can cause or exacerbate the other through mechanisms like poor farming practices, overgrazing, deforestation, and more.
The document provides reviews and commentary from multiple individuals about the book "Understanding Water and Terrorism". The reviews praise the book for being a useful and important resource for both concerned citizens and professionals. They note that the book opens vital discussions about protecting water supplies and infrastructure. The document also provides biographical information about the author, H. Court Young, who has decades of experience in water systems and policy.
This document discusses India's challenges in ensuring access to clean water and sanitation for all citizens. Key points include:
- Over 63 crore Indians lack access to sanitation facilities and drink contaminated water.
- Inadequate water and sanitation costs India 6.4% of GDP in health costs and lost productivity.
- Rural women walk long distances each day to collect water.
- Government schemes aim to improve rural water supply and sanitation but challenges remain.
- Ensuring access to clean water and sanitation is important for human dignity.
This document provides a summary of Utah's natural resources and major resource concerns as assessed in January 2012. It identifies the top nine natural resource concerns across the state as soil erosion, soil quality degradation, excess or insufficient water, water quality degradation, degraded plant condition, inadequate habitat for fish and wildlife, livestock production limitations, inefficient energy use, and air quality impacts. Noxious and invasive weeds are highlighted as the number one resource concern in all counties. The document also provides an overview of Utah's geography, land ownership, population, tribal nations, and economy. County-level summaries of each county's major resource concerns are included.
The Rockefeller Foundation’s Oceans & Fisheries work aims to increase the health and productivity of coastal fisheries by replacing unsustainable fishing practices with innovative approaches that recognize the full, long-term value of sustainable marine ecosystems and that improve the economic, nutritional, and social conditions of the poor and vulnerable people whose well-being depends on these near-shore fisheries.
Climate change, leadership challenges and food security inAlexander Decker
This document discusses climate change, leadership challenges, and food security in Nigeria from a historical perspective. It defines key concepts like climate change, greenhouse effect, and gas flaring. It notes that climate change is affecting agriculture worldwide and that in Nigeria, early warning signs were neglected due to corruption, threatening not just food security but human existence. While other countries invested to minimize impacts, Nigeria was unprepared. The document examines how environmental mismanagement and climate change impact food security in Nigeria, putting many livelihoods at risk through effects on farming, fishing, water resources and health.
Climate change, leadership challenges and food security inAlexander Decker
This document discusses climate change, leadership challenges, and food security in Nigeria from a historical perspective. It defines key concepts like climate change, greenhouse effect, and gas flaring. It notes that climate change is affecting agriculture worldwide and that in Nigeria, early warning signs were neglected due to corruption, threatening not just food security but human existence. While other countries invested in controls, Nigeria was unprepared. The document examines how environmental mismanagement and climate change impact food security in Nigeria, putting many livelihoods at risk, and argues leadership has failed to adequately address these issues.
Economic marginalisation in some selected states in the niger delta.Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research paper that examines economic marginalization in selected states in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The paper finds that the lopsided fiscal structure, pollution and degradation from oil spills, and the minority status of the Niger Delta region have led to the economic marginalization of the local people. It recommends providing more employment opportunities for youths and requiring multinational oil companies to apply higher environmental standards to address these issues. The document analyzes theories of an "economy of conflict" and "rentier states" to explain the situation in the Niger Delta region.
This document provides an overview of disaster readiness and risk reduction. It begins with a pre-test to assess learners' understanding of key concepts like disasters, hazards, and risks. It then defines disasters and risks, explaining that disaster risk is determined by hazards, vulnerability, and coping capacity. Various natural hazards that cause disasters in the Philippines are described, like earthquakes, typhoons, and volcanic eruptions. The document also discusses human-induced hazards and provides examples. Overall, the summary emphasizes defining key terms and concepts regarding disasters, hazards, and risk assessment.
The document discusses how concerns about finite resources and a rising global population were prominent topics in the 1970s. A 1972 book called The Limits to Growth warned that continued population growth and increasing consumption would eventually outstrip the Earth's finite resources. While this view faded from public discussion, recent events related to peak oil production and economic instability have renewed interest in reexamining the models and predictions from the 1970s. The summary argues that early warnings about resource constraints appear to be coming true.
SECRETARIAT MEMBERS
Cecile Guidote Alvarez, Director, Earthsavers, UNESCO Dr. SunOck Lee, Secretary General, APPAN
Dr. Viktor Sebek, Chairman SSCC
Susan Claudio, Executive Assistant
Nelson Zamora, Director SSCC
Edgar Avilan, Executive Director SSCC
Regine Guevara, Co-founder, Asian Youth Peace Network Jul Rashid Dilangalen, Intern
Valerio Ferri, SSCc research Assistant
The document summarizes Dean Bavington's book "Managed Annihilation" which critically examines the management of Canada's fishing industry. It argues that the shift from a pre-industrial to industrial capitalist system put pressure on fishermen and prioritized international markets over local needs. This led the government to treat fish as a commodity and rely too heavily on scientific modeling, which failed to prevent the near extinction of cod stocks. While praising Bavington's historical analysis, the reviewer notes the book does not fully define its alternative of integrating moral values or consider adaptive management approaches.
The main purpose of this paper is to draw the nexus between environment and conflict with the concept of redefining security. This paper is aimed to answer the question whether environmental degradation or environment as a broad concept can lead to a conflict directly, if it can do so then how this will be the central question of this Paper. To do so, some relevant case studies will be framed to show the nexus between environment and conflict. Finally, there will be concluding remarks which will draw the critical perspective behind Environmental Conflict. Fatema-Tuj-Juhra "Environmental Conflict: Myth or Reality?" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42451.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/political-science/42451/environmental-conflict-myth-or-reality/fatematujjuhra
This document discusses risks to urban areas from natural disasters and terrorist attacks. It examines fragmentation across jurisdictions and sectors that can complicate response efforts. Case studies of Los Angeles and Biloxi describe their emergency management structures, past responses to disasters like wildfires and hurricanes, and efforts to improve preparation and coordination. Key challenges include communicating with diverse populations, intergovernmental cooperation, and rebuilding tax bases after major events.
This document provides a summary of key issues from the President of ICID regarding managing water for sustainable agriculture. It discusses the growing challenges of food insecurity as population and biofuel crop area increases. It emphasizes ICID's role in promoting sustainable irrigation and drainage to improve water use efficiency and productivity. The President aims to strengthen capacity building, knowledge sharing, and support developing countries in addressing food and water security concerns through ICID events and collaboration with other organizations.
Human Mobility, Natural Disasters and Climate Change in the PacificDr Lendy Spires
This document provides background information on a regional consultation regarding human mobility, natural disasters, and climate change in the Pacific. It discusses the complex issues facing Pacific Island countries from increased natural disasters and climate change impacts. While most current displacement in the region is internal and temporary, international migration is common and increasingly linked to environmental factors. The consultation will examine challenges like cross-border displacement, planned relocation of at-risk populations, and developing protections for environmentally-motivated migrants. Representatives from Pacific nations will discuss these issues and their country-specific challenges to inform policy discussions on assisting populations impacted by climate change.
Urban flooding is an increasingly important issue. Disaster statistics appear to show flood events are becoming more frequent, with medium-scale events increasing fastest. The impact of flooding is driven by a combination of natural and human-induced factors.
The United Nations Conference on Desertification was held in Nairobi, Kenya in 1977 to address the growing issue of desertification, particularly in West Africa which was experiencing a severe drought and loss of life. At the conference, desertification was defined as the diminution or destruction of land's biological potential that can lead to desert-like conditions. Over 500 delegates from 94 countries attended to discuss questions around the causes and impacts of desertification, as well as what actions could be taken to mitigate its effects. The conference led different countries to pursue various approaches to combat desertification within their own borders.
This document summarizes an article from the Seattle Journal for Social Justice that discusses how promoting secure land tenure in Sub-Saharan Africa could help protect the environment and reduce poverty. It notes that while the economies of many Sub-Saharan countries have grown in recent decades, poverty remains widespread due to a lack of secure access to land for agriculture. Insecure land tenure has also contributed to environmental problems in the region like deforestation, soil degradation, and desertification. The article explores how formalizing land ownership through tenure reform could help address both issues by giving communities incentives to invest in sustainable land management and natural resource protection. It proposes specific policies and programs that could strengthen land tenure security across Sub-Saharan Africa.
The document discusses how oil has negatively impacted many countries and harmed the environment. While oil provides fuel and energy, it undermines most oil-producing nations by weakening democracy and encouraging corruption. It also pollutes the environment through emissions and oil spills. The example of Nigeria is provided, where oil production in the Niger Delta region has led to widespread pollution and many oil spills dating back decades. This pollution has severely damaged the region's environment and harmed the livelihoods of local communities, yet most see little success in obtaining justice or compensation due to barriers like poverty, lack of legal resources, and corruption.
- The document discusses the evolution of the concept of "human security" beyond just military defense, as described in a 2001 article by Roland Paris. It focuses on environmental factors like resource scarcity that can impact security.
- Thomas Homer-Dixon's article is cited, arguing that environmental problems like water scarcity, declining fisheries, and climate change could precipitate violent conflicts in the future if they become severe enough. Resource capture, ecological marginalization, and population growth are linked to conflicts over scarce resources.
- The document advocates for social ingenuity and education around sustainable practices like permaculture as potential long-term solutions to address resource insecurity and avoid future conflicts linked to environmental problems.
Environmental and natural resources economicsMWAIZAVUZYA
This document discusses the relationship between population, poverty, and the environment. It defines key terms like poverty, environment, and population. It then discusses environmental degradation, noting it affects developing countries more and can be caused by both natural disasters and human activities. The document argues there is a two-way relationship between poverty and environmental degradation, where each can cause or exacerbate the other through mechanisms like poor farming practices, overgrazing, deforestation, and more.
The document provides reviews and commentary from multiple individuals about the book "Understanding Water and Terrorism". The reviews praise the book for being a useful and important resource for both concerned citizens and professionals. They note that the book opens vital discussions about protecting water supplies and infrastructure. The document also provides biographical information about the author, H. Court Young, who has decades of experience in water systems and policy.
This document discusses India's challenges in ensuring access to clean water and sanitation for all citizens. Key points include:
- Over 63 crore Indians lack access to sanitation facilities and drink contaminated water.
- Inadequate water and sanitation costs India 6.4% of GDP in health costs and lost productivity.
- Rural women walk long distances each day to collect water.
- Government schemes aim to improve rural water supply and sanitation but challenges remain.
- Ensuring access to clean water and sanitation is important for human dignity.
This document provides a summary of Utah's natural resources and major resource concerns as assessed in January 2012. It identifies the top nine natural resource concerns across the state as soil erosion, soil quality degradation, excess or insufficient water, water quality degradation, degraded plant condition, inadequate habitat for fish and wildlife, livestock production limitations, inefficient energy use, and air quality impacts. Noxious and invasive weeds are highlighted as the number one resource concern in all counties. The document also provides an overview of Utah's geography, land ownership, population, tribal nations, and economy. County-level summaries of each county's major resource concerns are included.
The Rockefeller Foundation’s Oceans & Fisheries work aims to increase the health and productivity of coastal fisheries by replacing unsustainable fishing practices with innovative approaches that recognize the full, long-term value of sustainable marine ecosystems and that improve the economic, nutritional, and social conditions of the poor and vulnerable people whose well-being depends on these near-shore fisheries.
Climate change, leadership challenges and food security inAlexander Decker
This document discusses climate change, leadership challenges, and food security in Nigeria from a historical perspective. It defines key concepts like climate change, greenhouse effect, and gas flaring. It notes that climate change is affecting agriculture worldwide and that in Nigeria, early warning signs were neglected due to corruption, threatening not just food security but human existence. While other countries invested to minimize impacts, Nigeria was unprepared. The document examines how environmental mismanagement and climate change impact food security in Nigeria, putting many livelihoods at risk through effects on farming, fishing, water resources and health.
Climate change, leadership challenges and food security inAlexander Decker
This document discusses climate change, leadership challenges, and food security in Nigeria from a historical perspective. It defines key concepts like climate change, greenhouse effect, and gas flaring. It notes that climate change is affecting agriculture worldwide and that in Nigeria, early warning signs were neglected due to corruption, threatening not just food security but human existence. While other countries invested in controls, Nigeria was unprepared. The document examines how environmental mismanagement and climate change impact food security in Nigeria, putting many livelihoods at risk, and argues leadership has failed to adequately address these issues.
Economic marginalisation in some selected states in the niger delta.Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research paper that examines economic marginalization in selected states in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The paper finds that the lopsided fiscal structure, pollution and degradation from oil spills, and the minority status of the Niger Delta region have led to the economic marginalization of the local people. It recommends providing more employment opportunities for youths and requiring multinational oil companies to apply higher environmental standards to address these issues. The document analyzes theories of an "economy of conflict" and "rentier states" to explain the situation in the Niger Delta region.
The implications of youth restiveness on the socio economic development of ik...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes the implications of youth unrest on the socio-economic development of the Ikwerre people in Emohua Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. It notes that the Ikwerre area is rich in natural resources but that the Ikwerre people have been denied access to these resources and their benefits. It describes how oil exploration has disrupted the local economy and introduced poverty and neglect. The youth unrest is a result of socio-economic deprivation, and it has negatively impacted business activities and development programs in the area.
This document discusses development in the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand, India. It summarizes the exploitation of Uttarakhand's natural resources by colonial and post-independence governments, leading to a demand for a separate state. Even after statehood, exploitation has continued as development is framed by foreign organizations like the World Bank in a capitalist, neo-liberal framework that does not respect local languages, knowledge systems and needs. The document argues for analyzing development through decoding local languages to understand how reality is constructed differently.
This document discusses the relationship between humans and their environment. It defines the environment as the natural world that supports human life, including biotic factors like other organisms and abiotic factors like climate. The Earth's biosphere provides resources and conditions necessary to sustain life. However, human activities like pollution, deforestation, and unsustainable resource extraction have negatively impacted the environment. If these practices are not addressed, they could undermine the stability of the global ecosystem and human well-being. International agreements like the 1992 UN Earth Summit aimed to promote more sustainable stewardship of the planet and its resources to ensure long-term environmental health and human progress.
This document discusses several key issues relating to the environment and natural resources in global politics. It covers topics such as declining agriculture and forests, pollution problems like coastal pollution and the ozone hole, challenges in protecting global commons, differing responsibilities between developed and developing countries, pressures on common property resources, important environmental movements, resource geopolitics concerning items like oil and water, and rights of indigenous peoples.
This document discusses several key issues relating to the environment and natural resources in global politics. It covers topics such as declining agriculture and forests, pollution problems like coastal pollution and the ozone hole, challenges in protecting global commons, differing responsibilities between developed and developing countries, pressures on common property resources, influential environmental movements, resource geopolitics concerning items like oil and water, and rights of indigenous peoples.
CENTRE FOR ADVANCED ARTS, SCIENCE, SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE RESEARCHogbaji udochukwu
This document summarizes a paper that examines the poverty and conflict in Ogoni land in Nigeria through the lens of internal colonialism. It discusses how previous analyses have applied the theory of internal colonialism but failed to consider the role of internal class forces, particularly the political elites within Ogoni society. The document provides historical context on Ogoni and outlines the theoretical framework of internal colonialism. It indicates the paper will analyze the class relations and relationships between dominant classes, specifically the political class and state structures, to better understand the dynamics of poverty and conflict in Ogoni land.
1) The document summarizes a postcolonial ecocritical study of the novel "How Beautiful We Were" by Imbolo Mbue. It discusses how the novel depicts the exploitation of nature through the development of an oil field in a small African village.
2) The villagers struggle as their water, air, and land become polluted from the oil drilling, leading to many early deaths of children from diseases. They try to fight back against the oil company and government who ignore their grievances.
3) The study aims to examine how the novel portrays the exploitation of nature and human's relationship with nature, as well as how literacy has impacted humanity's relationship with the natural world.
Conflicts among farmers and pastoralists in northern nigeria induced by fresh...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on conflicts between farmers and pastoralists in northern Nigeria induced by freshwater scarcity. The study found a significant positive relationship between freshwater scarcity and conflicts among farmers and pastoralists. It also found that the struggle for access to water sources, rather than water scarcity itself, was the most potent predictor of the causes of conflicts. Demographic factors like age, religion, ethnicity, education level, and socioeconomic status were found to have an insignificant relationship with conflicts between farmers and pastoralists.
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En todos los rincones del mundo las personas se enfrentan a las oportunidades y la tragedias relacionada con el agua. A veces, el exceso de agua, a veces la escasez. Hoy, cada vez más, la presencia o ausencia de agua es caótica, con los patrones menos predecibles que producen desastres locales de todo tipo.
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The outbreak and subsequent spread of COVID-19 to the West African sub-region have brought significant changes to the different aspects of our lives and grounded educational and socio-political and economic activities of ECOWAS member states. The pandemic has exposed the poor state of the health systems and shortage in medical supplies and protective gears to cope with the health emergency. In response, strict restrictions were put in place to curb the spread of the virus and these have drastically affected peoples’ lifestyles. However, there has been huge increase in the use of technology in business, education, religion and other activities as people adapt to the changing times in the sub-region. It is the argument of this paper that things cannot return to the way they were before the pandemic, but West African states must strategically plan for the Post COVID-19 era to survive the massive wave of unemployment, socio-economic meltdown and changes in lifestyle. The paper concluded that while the fight against the virus in the sub-region was not collective, post-pandemic recovery must be coordinated, strategically plannedamong member states. It was recommended that the governments should be flexible enough to retain the use of ICT and technology alongside the conventional ways of doing things in the post-pandemic era.
Undoubtedly, religion is one of the main factors that increasingly contribute to the shaping of international relations. As it was in the European middle ages, religion and geopolitics have always had ties of one sort or another. Imperialism and nationalist doctrines have found purpose and justification in religious differences and, religious zealotry was functioned to be both cause and consequence of the concentration of state power and the rivalries among existing competitors. The involvement of numerous religious groups and movements in the political scene led the situation to be extremely complicated. The purpose of this article is to see to what extent religion as a soft power has a role in forming international politics. Also, to discuss the role the superpowers and regional powers play in dealing with the question of religious issues. With an argument that these issues including religious conflicts are led by international and regional powers which function these groups in a proxy war to be part of their rivalry overpower, and to achieve their national interests through their foreign policies at the cost of considerable environmental degradation and a massive death toll of people.
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The art of using language for public expression in order to persuade target audience to support development initiatives is a key reason for graphic communication. This requires communication actors particularly, the graphic encoder to know salient input and output variables of communication for effective mediation. However, the prevalence ignorance of these variables, often results in ineffective media production that is counter-productive to development. Therefore, this paper focused on production of practical rhetoric in graphic language for development programmes. The paper employed the critical-historical-analytic examination and content analysis methods. It introduced the reader to the need for practical rhetoric in visual communication. Furthermore, it highlighted the salient input and output variables that the graphic communication actor need be conversant with in order to produce visual rhetoric, using the McGuire’s Communication/persuasion Matrix. And it exemplified graphic media that result from application or neglect of the knowledge of the variables. The paper found that consideration of the variables afforded production of effective rhetoric in graphic language. The paper ended with the need for graphic encoders to internalize knowledge of the input and output variables and utilize it during the process of media production to generate visual rhetoric with desired effect.
The paper seeks to analyze the larger concept of multiculturalism and to further determine its role and importance in modern Georgia. The agenda of cultural diversity is often subject to criticism, accused for being responsible for endangering modern societies. Such statements will be critically analyzed within the context of the increasing far-right sentiments among Georgians, as reflected in a what can be described as a radical march which took place in Tbilisi on the 14th of July 2017, creating risks of further deteriorating of the situation in the country, given the general macro-economic instability of Georgia and undermining democracy. This paper concludes that it is very important to establish an innovative new model of Georgian citizenship, and one which will address all the accumulated misunderstandings now existing in society. It is expected that this will enable multiculturalism to be perceived more appropriately, i.e. as a unifying ideology rather than a dividing force.
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Niger Delta Crises and the Way Forward: A Study of the Mood System in Helon Habila’s Novel, Oil on Water
1. International Journal of World Policy and Development Studies
ISSN(e): 2415-2331, ISSN(p): 2415-5241
Vol. 5, Issue. 12, pp: 113-118, 2019
URL: https://arpgweb.com/journal/journal/11
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32861/ijwpds.512.113.118
Academic Research Publishing
Group
113
Original Research Open Access
Niger Delta Crises and the Way Forward: A Study of the Mood System in Helon
Habila’s Novel, Oil on Water
Edokpayi Justina N. Ph.D
Ambrose All University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria
Abstract
The Niger delta of Nigeria has been besieged by a lot of crises, which have posed serious security risks to the region.
This has adversely and seriously affected not only the region, but Nigeria in general. The processes of crude oil
extraction in the Niger delta have resulted in ecological degradation and oil pollutions, thereby doing a lot of
damages to the farmlands and fishing waters of the people, whose major occupations are farming and fishing.
Petroleum, the main source of Nigeria’s revenue is obtained in the Niger delta. Yet, Deltans are confronted with a lot
of problems; they are impoverished, exploited, neglected and marginalized despite the economic value of the region
to the Nigerian economy. No serious or commensurate efforts are made by the government or the multinational oil
companies operating in the region to compensate the people for the losses they suffer through oil pollutions. This has
resulted in a lot of protests and violence, culminating in the social unrest in the region. To this effect, there have been
reactions to the crises in diverse ways. Though such efforts have yielded little dividends, the crises have persisted.
Niger delta deserves priority attention in terms of human and infrastructural developments. In the literary circle,
some Nigerian literary artists have expressed concern over the issue with a view to creating awareness on the
seriousness of the crises, and advancing suggestions that will proffer permanent solutions to the problems. This
paper examines and expounds how Helon Habila deploys the mood system as a language tool in his novel, Oil on
Water, to address the Niger Delta crises. He advances suggestions to put an end to the crises in order to restore
peace, and enhance sustainable development in Nigeria.
Keywords: Petroleum; Niger delta; Crises; Oil pollution; Solutions.
CC BY: Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
1. Introduction
Petroleum, the most valuable mineral product in the world is obtained in abundance in the Niger delta region of
Nigeria. But, unfortunately, the region is denied the benefits of petroleum and the priority attention it deserves in
terms of infrastructural and human developments. Not only does the region suffer ecological degradation that poses
threats to lives and properties, but the people who have become victims of environmental pollutions are subjected to
abject poverty and untold hardship in the midst of plenty. The wealth accruing to Nigeria from petroleum has been
diverted by the corrupt leaders to the detriment of the South, Nigeria’s major source of revenue. Moreover,
southerners are exploited, neglected and marginalized by the various oil companies operating in the region and the
government. The injustice meted out to the people triggered a lot of protests and violence from different quarters.
The Niger Delta region has been besieged by a lot of crises ranging from protests, violence, militancy to youth
restiveness that have culminated in social unrest. The nagging problem of militancy, a burning issue in Nigeria, is
consequent upon the injustice meted out to the Niger Deltans. Despite the adverse effects of the crises on the people,
the Nigerian economy and the world oil market, the government and the oil companies are unable to proffer
permanent solutions to the crises.
Generally, due to the adverse effects of man’s industrial activities all over the world, the attention of the literary
artists is gradually shifting to the issue of ecological crisis. In different parts of the world, eco-criticism, a literary
theory is becoming popular in literature. Eco-criticism is the “study of literature and the environment from an
interdisciplinary point of view where all sciences come together to analyze the environment and brainstorm possible
solutions for the correction of the contemporary environmental situation’’ (Lawrence Buck 288). In the same vein,
Jude Agho claims that eco-criticism is a revolutionary movement concerned with the despoliations of the flora and
fauna of the ecosystem, owing to the industrial activities all over the world and the adverse effects on man (287).
Agho further claims that the idea underscores the application of ecology and ecological concepts to the study of
literature. The movement is a contribution to the efforts to resolve the world ecological crisis that threatens human
existence.
The seriousness of the Niger delta crises in Nigeria has been a source of concern that has attracted public
attentions, especially from the literary circle in Nigeria by artists such as Ken Saro-wiwa, Tanure Ojiade, Kaine
Agary and Helon Habila. Habila’s novel, Oil on Water, is preoccupied with the ecological degradation in the Niger
delta region, the devastating effects on the people, corruption in Nigeria, neglect of the people, and the resultant
social unrest. The author X-rays the destruction done to the Niger Delta region due to the processes involved in oil
extraction by the various oil companies.
This paper examines and explicates how Helon Habila deploys the mood system, among other language
resources to convey the themes of his novel under study. Moreover, he advances suggestions aimed at proffering
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114
lasting solutions to the problems. In language study, mood reveals the various functions of speeches. How the
intention of a speaker is determined in a given situation in a text is the concern of mood. Jayanthi Murthy claims that
‘’mood is the mode or method in which a verb is used to express a particular action (95). Micheal Halliday who
defines mood as that aspect of grammar that indicates the roles of characters in a text, further asserts that:
Language itself defines the roles which people may take in given situations in which they are
communicating with one another, and incorporates options whereby the speaker can vary his own
communication role, making assertions, asking questions, giving orders, expressing doubts and so
on. The basic ‘speech functions’ of statements, questions, responses, commands and exclamations
fall within this category. (159)
The moods in a literary text are generally significant in the realization of the author’s style of narration. In this
study, we examine how Habila applies various moods in giving texture to his story, taking cognizance of the fact that
each category of the English sentence, serves a purpose that is determined by contextual variations.
2. The Mood System
Michael Halliday sees mood as that aspect of the interpersonal function of language, indicating the speech roles
that characters adopt in their desire to communicate. The role may be that of declaring, questioning, commanding
and exclaiming. Here are some of the functional sentence types the author deploys to communicate the themes of Oil
on Water, his novel, under consideration.
2.1. Declarative Sentences
Declarative sentences make statements or assertions or state facts that cannot be doubted (A. W. Heffernan and
John Lincion). We examine below Helon Habila’s use of declarative sentences with their informative nature in the
text to convey his messages.
1. Their rivers were already polluted and useless for fishing, and
the land grew only gas flares and pipelines.(40)
2. It was an entire village on stilt, situated by the river on a vast
mud flat which at that time was under water… The houses were
made from weeping-willows bamboos and raffia palms bits of
zinc and plywood and clock and it seemed anything else the builders
were able to lay their hands on. The whole scarecrow settlement
looked as if the next strong wind or wave would blow it away.(14)
Habila deploys the declarative construction in extract 1 above to convey the theme of oil pollution in the Niger
delta. He paints a clear picture of the damages done to the fishing water and farmlands of a people whose major
occupations are fishing and farming. The consequence is that their occupations are hindered, thereby plunging them
into unemployment, which is responsible for abject poverty, hardship, diseases and deaths among the people.
In the same vein, the author portrays the poor, deplorable and dehumanizing environments of the Niger Deltans,
especially those who live in the creeks. In sample 2, he describes vividly the deplorable environments, and the poor
quality houses in which they live.
Habila also captures the pitiable conditions of the people and the alarming rate of poverty among them. Due to
their impoverishment, arising from unemployment as earlier stated, they cannot meet their daily needs. Even the
petroleum products obtained in their region such as kerosene, diesel, cooking gas and fuel are unaffordable because
they are so expensive and, therefore out of the reach of the people faced with abject poverty.
Despite the wealth accruing from petroleum obtained in their region, Deltans are denied the necessities of life.
They lack good medical care, electricity, good drinking water, and job opportunities for their teeming youths.
Moreover, their children are denied quality education because their parents cannot afford it. Rufus, a newspaper
reporter, whose family has suffered such a fate, narrates his ugly childhood experiences in a Niger delta community.
He recalls how they have been forced to sell crabs even at tender age to pay their school fees because of their
father’s inability to sponsor them in school in the declarative sentences in the excerpt below:
… I picked up pen and paper and the words had come effortlessly. I wrote about our childhood,
about our days catching crabs to pay our way through secondary school, about Boma‘s dream of
becoming a doctor. (127)
Habila also portrays the total neglect of the Niger delta and the people of the region by the government and the
oil companies in the text under study. They neither pay the people adequate compensations nor the attention they
deserve, in spite of the losses they suffer from the pollution of their land and water. As people of the oil producing
region in Nigeria, Deltans deserve the benefits of petroleum as obtained in other counties of the world. Government
and the oil companies ought to give the Niger delta and the people priority attention in terms of infrastructural and
human developments respectively. Yet, there are no meaningful developments in the region. Habila captures the
pitiable situation in the region and the major causes of the Niger delta crises in the excerpt below:
But I don’t blame them for wanting to get some benefits out of the pipelines that have brought
nothing but suffering to their lives licking into the rivers and wells, killing the fish and poisoning
the farmlands. And all they are told by the oil companies and the government is that the pipelines
are there for their own good, that they hold great potent for them for their future. These people
endure the worst conditions of any oil producing community in the world, the government knows
it but does not have the will to stop it, the oil company knows it, but because the government does
3. International Journal of World Policy and Development Studies
115
not care, they too don’t care. And you think the people are corrupt? No, they are hungry and tired.
(97)
Corruption and bad governance are responsible for all the problems in the Niger delta. Only the privileged few
in the country enjoy the wealth accruing from petroleum, to the detriment of the Niger Deltans, who have nothing to
show for their losses from oil pollutions. This is the height of injustice done the people, and it is the cause of the
Niger delta crises. It has forced the Deltan youths into a lot of criminal practices, violence and protests, which have
culminated in militancy, a security risk in the Niger delta.
The intervention of the government by the deployment of soldiers to the region has worsened the situations of
the people. The incessant clashes between the militants and the soldiers drafted into the region have posed serious
problem of insecurity to the region. Their villages are attacked and the people are subjected to terrorisms,
harassments, and all forms of inhuman treatment and even deaths. The clashes result in the destruction of lives and
properties. Habila gives vivid accounts of the horrible situations in Niger Delta, with the presence of the soldiers and
militants who parade the waters, and perpetuate injustice on the innocent and helpless villagers in the extracts below.
1. A man run out of a hut and came face to face with a soldier; he
raised his hands high in surrender, as in a single motion, the soldier
revised his rifle and swung the butt at the man’s head. The man fell
back into the doorway and the soldier moved on to another
target. (12)
2. The boy grabbed tightly on to my arm, screaming for his father. I saw a gun rise and
descended on the old man’s head and he slumped against the boat and then into the water. Slowly
I stood up, my hands raised. (197)
The authorial voice also narrates the bitter experience of Karibi, a villager in the hands of the soldiers, as he is
falsely accused of fraternizing with the militants:
We went to the riverbank with the villagers to watch the speed
boats that brought the soldiers …Karibi sat between two soldiers,
his hands tied behind him, his face staring into the distant horizon.
His son said he’d been taken to Port Harcourt, where he’d be tried and found guilty of
fraternizing with the militants. ---But he‘s innocent. (13)
He also deploys the declarative constructions in the extracts below to reiterate the states of chaos, fear, killings,
as well as insecurity to which Niger Deltans are subjected due to the clashes in the oil producing communities.
1. As we talking the professor came in, with only two men. The
rest, he said, they had been killed in the fight with the
soldiers. He was wounded but wouldn’t sit. (132)
2. There was a loud noise as of stampeding feet, dust rose and
covered the tight passages, and the stalls and the sheds, people
rushed down the passages, knocking down tables and the
entire sheds as they went. Then a single gunshot ran out.
Then a single moment everyone froze. (11)
Habila reveals cases of incessant kidnappings and states of uncertainty in the Niger delta. As depicted by the
author in the novel, many of the youths who claim to be freedom fighters, fighting for the interests of the people
have turned militants, kidnappers and terrorists. The different kidnapping groups including the Black Belts of
Justice, the Free Delta Army and the AK 47 Freedom Fighters kidnap innocent and helpless people and oil workers,
especially the expatriates as reported in these excerpt:
1. People like the professor are responsible for that, they call
themselves freedom fighters, but they are rebels, terrorists
and kidnappers. (26)
2. Now, I saw how thin she looked. Her hair had been chopped off.
Her face was covered within rashes; her skin was slightly discolored from
whatever dye she had used to disguise herself while making her escape
from her kidnappers. (186- 187)
3. Well, just now, on that radio, it was announced they kidnapped
a three-year old girl in Port Harcourt, and you know what, her
family is not connected to the oil industry. A three-year old girl.
They don’t care if they are shot. …It’s my job to pursue them to
their swamp hideouts. I capture them and most times, it’s
easier to shoot them than to capture them.(148)
Habila paints a clear picture of the state of the kidnapped British woman, Isabel, held hostage by the kidnappers
in the creeks. As reported in sample 2, she has been so traumatized that she has become so thin. Sometimes, the
victims of the kidnappers lose their lives in the process. Boasting of their destructive activities in the Niger Delta,
Professor, the dreaded militant leader says:
… but I can tell you the war is just starting. We will make it so hot
for the government and the oil companies that they will be forced
to pull out. (220).
Due to the incessant kidnappings and deaths of oil workers in Port Harcourt and Warri, which pose security
risks, majority of the expatriate oil workers have left Nigeria. Moreover, many of the oil companies have been forced
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116
to fold up. This has been seriously and adversely affecting not only Nigeria and the economy, but the world oil
market.
Moreover, the author conveys the theme of homelessness among the Deltans due to violence. He condemns in
totality the violent activities that have rendered many people homeless, thereby forcing them out of their
communities in the following samples.
1. ----The doctor can tell you about the deserted villages around here.
They used to be well populated, you know, striving. Now the people
have all packed their things and left, because of the violence. (26)
2. Communities like this had borne the brunt of the war, caught
between the militants and the military. The only way they could
avoid being crushed out of existence was to pretend to be deaf
3. The place looked desolate. The only signs that a community once
lived there was a few sticks jutting out of the water, pieces of
straw from roof thatches scattered in the mud and pile of
garbage under a tree, that was all. (185).
Cases abound in the novel where many villages have been set ablaze by the reckless soldiers during clashes and
in anger against the villagers. The authorial voice narrates his experience in one of such communities with the
informative nature of the extract below:
Now it was deserted: the people, with their chickens and pots and
pans, must have escaped ripple down the river in their dugout canoes after
the first shot was fired. Trees lay on the ground, cut in half, dripping vital
sap. The smell of burning hung in the air. In the centre of a compound a hut
had been hit square on its conical roof, causing the thatch to cave in, and
now the grass and the rafters all lay in a big pile of ash in the middle of
the hut.(71)
The messages inherent from the excerpts above are the consequences of the violence and clashes in the region,
which are that houses are destroyed, villages are wiped out of existence and the people are rendered homeless.
Habila condemns the mismanagement and corruption in Nigeria. Nigeria is blessed with both human and natural
recourses. But the people are subjected to abject poverty and untold hardship by the corrupt leaders, who amass
wealth to the detriment of the citizens. He asserts that Nigeria would have been one of the best and most developed
countries of the world, but for corruption, which is responsible for poverty and underdevelopment in the sample
below:
This segment was accompanied by a long, rote-like voice-over about poverty in Nigeria, and how
corruption sustained that poverty, and how oil was the main source of revenue, and how because
the country was so corrupt, only a few had access to that wealth. Such great potential. You people
could easily become the Japan of Africa, the USA of Africa, but the corruption incredible.(96- 97)
Another form of insecurity which Helon Habila captures in the novel is the risks some Deltans are subjected to
in their attempts to find their daily bread. Deprived of their means of livelihood and neglected, Niger Deltans resort
to bursting oil pipes lines to siphon fuel, thereby endangering their lives. In the process, a lot of their houses are
razed down by fire, and sometimes lives are lost. There have been cases of fire incidents as a result of illegal petrol
businesses in the region, where jericans and drums of fuel are stored in residential houses at the risk of the people’s
lives. Even children are involved in this illegal business. Narrating his experience in his father’s house, the authorial
voice says:
Even before he opened the door I could smell petrol, and when he turned on the light I saw more
than ten drums…We sat on two wooden stools in a clear space between two drums. In the two
days I spent at home before returning to Port Harcourt, I saw how much my father has changed.
He left home early in the morning in a pickup trucks to go to the bush, where he and his partner
buy the petrol from the kids and he return home only after midnight, often drunk. The house stank
of petrol and cigarette He said he smoked just to kill the smell. (64)
The unfortunate and horrible Jesse incident of 1985 where many lives were lost was the result of such illegal
fuel business. To prevent future reoccurrences of such incidents, the authorities concerned should put security
measures in place.
Again, the author conveys the theme of health hazards leading to diseases and deaths in the oil producing
communities as a result of injustice. Due to environmental pollution and the presence of toxins in the area that pose
risks to lives, the people are exposed to diseases and deaths. It is most pathetic and surprising that neither the oil
companies nor the government puts adequate measures in place to protect the lives of the people. When cases of
diseases and casualties are reported, nothing is done to save the situation, leaving the people to die like fowls as
Habila portrays in the following excerpt.
I told them of the dangers that quenchless flare, but they wouldn’t
listen. And a year later, when the livestock began to die and the plants began to wither on their
stalk, I took sample of the drinking water and in my lab I measured the level of toxin in it: it was
rising steadily. In one year it has grown almost twice the safe level…When I conf ronted the oil
workers, they offered me money and a job. ... So when people started dying, I took blood samples
and recorded the toxins in them, and this time I sent my result to the government. They thanked
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117
me and dumped the result in some filing cabinet. More people died… Almost overnight I watched
the whole village disappear just like that. (14)
This is a case of injustice that must be corrected to protect the lives of the people. Generally, the authorities have
to change their attitudes towards the people of the Niger delta if they want their co-operation.
2.2. Imperative Sentences
A verb which is used to express a command, an advice or an entreaty is known as an imperative mood (Murthy
95). It is important to state that in grammar, the subject ‘you’ is omitted in imperative mood. We observe a
prominent use of imperative sentences in the text as Habila conveys the incessant cases of violence, harassment and
terrorism to which the innocent and helpless villagers are subjected in Niger Delta. The soldiers and militants order
the innocent villagers around indiscriminately, accusing them falsely of one offense or the other. Let us examine the
extracts below.
1. Bring her here. Now! (196)
2. ----You, come with us. (12)
3. ----Oya, move faster now! (75
4. ----Stop and throw away your oars and weapons. Do it.
Now…You will do as I tell you. If you attempt to escape, or
disobey in any way, you will be shot. Leave your boat and swim
over to our boat. Do not take anything from your boat. (43)
5. When I tried to explain to a sergeant that Zaq was not feeling well,
he raised his gun at me. (187)
6. ---Keep walking. (45)
7. Just before I turned to see what he found so arresting, I heard
the command:
---Oya, move faster!
8. Perhaps he can tell you about the white woman. Hey, you, talk to the
reporters. Go on. Talk.
---I have to see the professor. I’m a reporter---
---Go back before I blast you to hell! (202)
All the extracts above are instances of Habila’s deployment of imperative sentences in the novel to depict
forcefulness, the violence, terrorism and harassment to which people in the Niger delta are exposed due to the
activities of the kidnappers, militants and soldiers. In extract 1, all the occupants of the boat including the abducted
British woman who has escaped from her abductors, are harassed by the kidnappers. This is in an attempt by the
owner of the boat to help the British woman to Port Harcourt for safety. As the kidnappers threaten to shoot them,
she surrenders herself to them.
Similarly, in sample 8, the journalists in search of the British woman are harassed and ordered around. Just like
others in the extracts above, they are subjected to traumatic experiences being commanded by masked kidnappers,
with their hands raised above their heads and guns pointed at them as conveyed in the extract.
2.3. Interrogative Sentences
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question. Below are instances of Helon Habila’s deployment
of interrogative sentences to convey the themes of his text under study.
1. How can Oga do this to me? ... I respected him. I trusted him, and see what
he did to me. Why? I want to know why, can you please tell me? (192)
2. Where is the British woman . . . and the professor? (129)
3. But what do you think? Is she alive or not... Did Zaq give you any
message for me? (96)
4. Are you happy here?
5. I say how can we be happy when we are wanders without a home?
6. What of the people? (157)
In the novel, the author also conveys the themes of betrayal and injustice done to delta youths. With the
interrogative sentence in extract 1 above, he reveals Salomon’s bitterness against Mr Floode, his expatriate boss, for
impregnating and taking away from him his fiance, Koko. Mr. Floode succeeds in luring Koko due to Salomon’s
poverty. Salomon is poor because as a university graduate he is forced to take up a menial job as a common driver
with meager salary. His poverty is, therefore borne out of unemployment, a general problem among Delta youths.
This is due to the neglect of the region and its teeming youths by the government and the oil companies, which is
responsible for youth restiveness in the region.
Being bitter and traumatized by the betrayal of his boss, Salomon is easily convinced by the suggestion of his
friends to kidnap Mrs. Floode in order to collect ransom from her husband, as his punishment for the betrayal. The
message inherent in this extract is that some of the youths in Niger Delta take to kidnapping not only to make
money, but as a way of retaliating for the injustice done them. Many graduates among them are forced by
circumstances to take up menial jobs as cleaners and company drivers. Hear what the authorial voice says about
Salomon like many other graduates:
Today he spoke grammatically faultless English, even the assent was
modified, easy to understand. Later, she discovered that he was a
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118
university graduate, who like a lot of young men in Delta, had been
forced to take a job far below his qualifications.(191
Furthermore, Habila conveys the theme of anxiety associated with insecurity in his novel under study. Sample 3
contains questions asked in quick succession by Mr Floode whose wife is held hostage by kidnappers. The author
deploys the questions stylistically to convey Mr. Floode’s anxiety over his abducted wife, Isabel. As earlier stated,
Isabel is abducted to avenge the betrayal of her husband’s driver.
Habila also utilizes interrogative sentences in samples 4 and 5 to convey the themes of displacement, hardship
and sorrow in the novel. Chief Ibiram and members of his extended family are forced out of their ancestral family
compound to relocate out of frustration. Question 4 above is directed to Chief Ibiram by Zaq, the newspaper
reporter, to inquire whether his displaced family members are happy in their new location. Chief Ibiram responds
with question 5. With the response, Habila depicts the hardship, anguish and sorrow to which the displaced people in
Niger delta are subjected.
In sample 6, the literary artist reiterates and condemns the activities of the soldiers deployed by the government
to Niger Delta to maintain peace. Instead of protecting the people, the soldiers take laws into their hands to inflict
more injuries on them. Major, a character in the novel, vividly describes the condition of Irikefe village after it has
been attacked and razed down by the soldiers, saying:
Irikefe is now mostly ashes and rubble, bombed by the gun helicopter over there. Not a hut is left
standing… (157)
At that juncture, Rufus, the newspaper reporter, inquires about the inhabitants of Irikefe in sample 6. In
response, Major emphasizes that as a war zone a lot of casualties are expected among the villagers.
2.4. Exclamatory Sentences
A sentence that expresses some strong or sudden feeling is called an exclamatory sentence (Murthy 236). This
could be feeling of fear, shock, anxiety, and joy among others.
1. THEY ARE HERE! The soldiers are here! (12)
2. In the distance a woman wailed at the top of her voice, calling to
God over and over: Tamuno! Tamuno! (12)
In the exclamatory sentences above, the author reiterates the state of unrest and mental agony associated with
the Niger Delta region due to the incessant clashes between the soldiers and militants.
3. Conclusion
In this paper, it has been established that the processes of crude oil extraction in the Niger Delta has resulted in
devastating effects of ecological degradation, which has subjected the people of the region to serious crises, ranging
from environmental pollution, poverty, hunger, diseases to death. It is also stated that Helon Habila has deployed the
mood system as a language tool in his novel, Oil on Water, to create awareness on the Niger Delta crises. He calls on
the Nigerian government and the oil companies operating in the area to address the crises with all seriousness, to
avert the impending ecological danger, and proffer permanent solutions to the crises. To a large extent, these could
be achieved if the government and oil companies give the Niger delta and the people priority attention, in terms of
human and infrastructural developments.
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