the principle of sustainable development is very significant environmental principle developed through various international treaties and now became the part of Indian environmental jurisprudence.
Sustainability Criteria and Indicators.
Need for Sustainable Livelihoods for India.
Livelihood Assets.
Case of a Landless Female Agriculture Labour.
The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework.
Sustainability in Business
“Sustainability should be a touchstone for all innovation …In the future, only companies that make sustainability a goal will achieve competitive advantage. That means rethinking business models as well as products, technologies, and processes.”
Businesses employing Sustainable Management and Strategy .
Sustainability issues and impacts in Business.
sustainable development introduction, basics and importanceArcanjo Salazaku
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
the principle of sustainable development is very significant environmental principle developed through various international treaties and now became the part of Indian environmental jurisprudence.
Sustainability Criteria and Indicators.
Need for Sustainable Livelihoods for India.
Livelihood Assets.
Case of a Landless Female Agriculture Labour.
The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework.
Sustainability in Business
“Sustainability should be a touchstone for all innovation …In the future, only companies that make sustainability a goal will achieve competitive advantage. That means rethinking business models as well as products, technologies, and processes.”
Businesses employing Sustainable Management and Strategy .
Sustainability issues and impacts in Business.
sustainable development introduction, basics and importanceArcanjo Salazaku
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
Chapter 7: Water, Energy and Food nexus (WEF-N) By Abbas Ibrahim Zahreddine (Barcelona) and Evren Tok (Doha) in Energy and Environment Management, Technology and Conflicts in a Warming World (UOC/School of Cooperation, Barcelona 2013)
“Sustainable Development” (SD) is an expression frequently used by ecologists,
media and politicians, but it does not always carry the same concise meaning. The EEA
(1998) stated in 1998 that over 300 definitions of SD had been given, many of them inappropriate, as the outcome of different visions, values scales, interests and
ideologies. In this way, SD becomes a non-operative ‘chewing gum concept’ that
everybody can adapt in his own convenience (Bermejo, 2005, p.24)
The Brundtland Report (1987) states the most widely accepted definition of SD as
“the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs”. The worldwide commitment on the
acceptance of this definition constitutes a milestone in itself.
Main messages It is 20 years since the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common Future, emphasized the need for a sustainable way of life which not only addresses current environmental challenges but also ensures a secure society well into the future. This chapter analyses the evolution of such ideas as well as global trends in relation to environment and socio-economic development.
The following are its main messages: The world has changed radically since 1987 – socially, economically and environmentally. Global population has grown by more than 1.7 billion, from about 5 billion people. The global economy has expanded and is now characterized by increasing globalization. Worldwide, GDP per capita (purchasing power parity) has increased from US$5 927 in 1987 to US$8 162 in 2004. However, growth has been distributed unequally between regions. Global trade has increased during the past 20 years, fuelled by globalization, better communication, and low transportation costs.
Technology has also changed. Communications have been revolutionized with the growth of telecommunications and the Internet. Worldwide, mobile phone subscribers increased from 2 people per 1 000 in 1990 to 220 per 1 000 in 2003. Internet use increased from 1 person per 1 000 in 1990 to 114 per 1 000 in 2003. Finally, political changes have also been extensive. Human population and economic growth has increased demand on resources. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) recognized 20 years ago that the environment, economic and social issues are interlinked. It recommended that the three be integrated into development decision making.
In defining sustainable development, the Commission acknowledged the need for both intra- and intergenerational equity – development that meets not only today’s human needs but also those of more people in the future. Changing drivers, such as population growth, economic activities and consumption patterns, have placed increasing pressure on the environment. Serious and persistent barriers to sustainable development remain. In the past 20 years, there has been limited integration of environment into development decision making.
Environmental degradation is therefore undermining development and threatens future development progress. Development is a process that enables people to better their well-being. Long-term development can only be achieved through sustainable management of various assets: financial, material, human, social and natural. Natural assets, including water, soils, plants and animals, underpin people’s livelihoods. Environmental degradation also threatens all aspects of human well-being. Environmental degradation has been demonstrably linked to human health problems, including some types of cancers, vector-borne diseases, emerging animal to human disease transfer, nutritional deficits and respiratory illnesses.
Criticism of sustainable development by abu khairul basharAbu Khairul Bashar
There are three pillars of Sustainable Development
Economic development,
Social development, and
Environmental protection.
These pillars are Interdependent and mutually reinforcing. If there comes any breakththrough of these pillars, Sustainable development can not be fulfilled properly. So, It may be a weaken side of it.
These are the slides to the MGCY Capacity Building team's first webinar: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 101. They introduce "what is sustainable development" in a simple and friendly way which you can replicate!
Environmental Protection Agency Essay
The Protection Of The Environment
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Chapter 7: Water, Energy and Food nexus (WEF-N) By Abbas Ibrahim Zahreddine (Barcelona) and Evren Tok (Doha) in Energy and Environment Management, Technology and Conflicts in a Warming World (UOC/School of Cooperation, Barcelona 2013)
“Sustainable Development” (SD) is an expression frequently used by ecologists,
media and politicians, but it does not always carry the same concise meaning. The EEA
(1998) stated in 1998 that over 300 definitions of SD had been given, many of them inappropriate, as the outcome of different visions, values scales, interests and
ideologies. In this way, SD becomes a non-operative ‘chewing gum concept’ that
everybody can adapt in his own convenience (Bermejo, 2005, p.24)
The Brundtland Report (1987) states the most widely accepted definition of SD as
“the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs”. The worldwide commitment on the
acceptance of this definition constitutes a milestone in itself.
Main messages It is 20 years since the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common Future, emphasized the need for a sustainable way of life which not only addresses current environmental challenges but also ensures a secure society well into the future. This chapter analyses the evolution of such ideas as well as global trends in relation to environment and socio-economic development.
The following are its main messages: The world has changed radically since 1987 – socially, economically and environmentally. Global population has grown by more than 1.7 billion, from about 5 billion people. The global economy has expanded and is now characterized by increasing globalization. Worldwide, GDP per capita (purchasing power parity) has increased from US$5 927 in 1987 to US$8 162 in 2004. However, growth has been distributed unequally between regions. Global trade has increased during the past 20 years, fuelled by globalization, better communication, and low transportation costs.
Technology has also changed. Communications have been revolutionized with the growth of telecommunications and the Internet. Worldwide, mobile phone subscribers increased from 2 people per 1 000 in 1990 to 220 per 1 000 in 2003. Internet use increased from 1 person per 1 000 in 1990 to 114 per 1 000 in 2003. Finally, political changes have also been extensive. Human population and economic growth has increased demand on resources. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) recognized 20 years ago that the environment, economic and social issues are interlinked. It recommended that the three be integrated into development decision making.
In defining sustainable development, the Commission acknowledged the need for both intra- and intergenerational equity – development that meets not only today’s human needs but also those of more people in the future. Changing drivers, such as population growth, economic activities and consumption patterns, have placed increasing pressure on the environment. Serious and persistent barriers to sustainable development remain. In the past 20 years, there has been limited integration of environment into development decision making.
Environmental degradation is therefore undermining development and threatens future development progress. Development is a process that enables people to better their well-being. Long-term development can only be achieved through sustainable management of various assets: financial, material, human, social and natural. Natural assets, including water, soils, plants and animals, underpin people’s livelihoods. Environmental degradation also threatens all aspects of human well-being. Environmental degradation has been demonstrably linked to human health problems, including some types of cancers, vector-borne diseases, emerging animal to human disease transfer, nutritional deficits and respiratory illnesses.
Criticism of sustainable development by abu khairul basharAbu Khairul Bashar
There are three pillars of Sustainable Development
Economic development,
Social development, and
Environmental protection.
These pillars are Interdependent and mutually reinforcing. If there comes any breakththrough of these pillars, Sustainable development can not be fulfilled properly. So, It may be a weaken side of it.
These are the slides to the MGCY Capacity Building team's first webinar: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 101. They introduce "what is sustainable development" in a simple and friendly way which you can replicate!
Environmental Protection Agency Essay
The Protection Of The Environment
The Problem Of Environmental Protection Essay
Environmental Science Essay
Environmental Law Essays
EPA: The Five Most Important Environmental Issues
The Importance Of Environmental Protection
Case Study for Environmental Protection
Importance Of Protecting The Environment Essay
Environmental conservation Essay example
Applied Eugenics. The basics and foundations of what Eugenics is. For those who have no idea of what Eugenics are and how they came about. Gloucester, Virginia Links and News website. Visit us for incredible content.
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Essay On Conservation Of Environment. Article on conservation of environment...afjzdtooeofvaa
Sample essay on hindrances to environmental conservation. Short Essay About Environmental Conservation Pollution .... Conservation Of Environment Essay Telegraph. Easy Steps How To Write An Environment Conservation Essay MyCoursebay. Essay one step conservation environment - myteacherpages.x.fc2.com. Article on conservation of environment. Methods and Importance of .... Conservation essay finale. Short essay on conservation of environment. Environmental .... PPT - Save environment essay PowerPoint Presentation, free download .... Essay on Conservation of Environment Environment Conservation Essay .... Write an essay on Conservation of Nature Essay Writing English .... Environment Essay. Environmental Issues Essay : Essays on Environmental Issues. Essay on Save Environment 3 Samples - Leverage Edu. Essay - Ways to conserve the environment. Importance of Environment Essay Essay on Importance of Environment .... Environment Essay Guided Discovery Environmentalism Natural Environment. Conservation of environment essay pdf. Essay on Conservation of .... Students make posters on World Nature Conservation Day. Essay On Conservation Of Environment International Writings Save .... Essay on Conservation of Natural Resources Conversation of Natural .... Narrative Essay: Essay on conservation of environment. Argumentative Essay: Environment protection essay. Essay on Environment Conservation Cheap Essay Writing Help .... We and our environment essay. Essay on Environment for Students and Children PDF Download. 5 Major Importance of Environmental Conservation Earth Reminder. Descriptive essay: Essay on conservation of environment. How to protect the nature essay. Short Essay on the Conservation of .... Admission essay: Environmental conservation essay. Essay on Environment Environment Essay for Students and Children in ... Essay On Conservation Of Environment Essay On Conservation Of Environment. Article on conservation of environment. Methods and Importance of ...
The Tragedy Of The Commons
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A chat with Ai.
Promote ethical leadership and governance: Leaders must demonstrate ethical leadership and hold themselves and others accountable for their actions. This includes combating corruption, promoting transparency, and upholding democratic values. Trustworthy and accountable leadership is vital for achieving the desired outcomes and restoring faith in governance systems.
The environmental damage our factories, cars, farms and lifestyles create is well known. But what happens when the environmental damage takes on a planetary scale, threatening human health and civilization?
AIS 2102 Legal Framework of Trade UnionismPreeti Sikder
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson, students will be able to -
a) define workers and trade unions;
b) identify the statutory and constitutional framework of trade unions in Bangladesh,
c) identify unfair labour practices on part of employers and workers
Restrictions on Articles and Activities Injurious to Environment: Polythene BanPreeti Sikder
Lesson Outcome: Learning Objective: After completing this lesson, students will
a) be acquainted with the relevant legal provisions existing in Bangladesh relating to plastic pollution
b) be able to critically analyse the steps taken by Bangladeshi Government in imposing absolute ban on polythene
Core Elements of Environmental Rule of LawPreeti Sikder
Lesson Outcome: After completion of this lesson, students will be able to -
a) dissect own opinions about implementation techniques of environmental laws;
b) identify the core elements of environmental rule of law
Introduction to Environmental Rule of LawPreeti Sikder
Lesson Outcomes: After completion of this lesson students will be able to -
a) Define environmental rule of law
b) Define environmental governance
c) Distinguish between environmental rule of law and environmental governance
Laws and Policies on Climate Change in BD: BCCSAPPreeti Sikder
After completion of this lesson, students will be able to -
a) understand the adaptation and mitigation measures taken by Bangladesh government;
b) describe the six pillars of BCCSAP
AIS 2102 Examples of Negotiable InstrumentsPreeti Sikder
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson students will be able to -
a) define promissory notes;
b) define bills of exchange;
c) define cheques;
d) distinguish between promissory notes and cheques.
AIS 2102 Introduction to Negotiable InstrumentsPreeti Sikder
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson, the students will be able to -
a) define negotiable instruments
b) describe the characteristics of negotiable instruments under the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
Learning Outcome:
After completion of the lesson students will be able to -
a) comprehend the nature of misrepresentation in contracts
b) distinguish between representation and promise
c) describe the elements of misrepresentation
d) describe the elements of fraud
e) distinguish between misrepresentation and fraud
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson, students will be able to -
1) identify and distinguish between conditions and warranties
2) learn about implied conditions and implied warranties available under Sale of Goods Act
3) determine when ownership of a property passes during a sale
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson students will be able to-
a) differentiate between sale and agreement to sell
b) define contract for sale of goods
c) define goods
Vitiating Elements in Formation of Contract: Coercion, Fraud and Undue Influe...Preeti Sikder
After completion of this lesson students will be able to:
- define free consent and identify elements of coercion
- define fraud and identify its elements
- define undue influence and identify its elements
Protection of Biodiversity in Bangladesh: ForestsPreeti Sikder
Learning Objectives: After completing this lesson students will be
a) informed about the basic forest management system in Bangladesh
b) informed about the categories of forests in Bangladesh
c) learn about the points of improvement that can be considered in relation to the Forests Act, 1927
Protection of Biodiversity in Bangladesh: ECAPreeti Sikder
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson students will -
a) learn about the concept of Ecologically Critical Areas,
b) be informed about the legal requirements in protecting the ECAs
c) be informed about judicial activism relating to ECAs in Bangladesh
After completion of this lesson students will be able to:
a) define offer
b) distinguish between offer and invitation to treat
c) explain how a proposal is revoked
World Without Law Professors: Legal Research and EducationPreeti Sikder
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson, students will be able to -
a) comprehend the necessity of academic legal research
b) identify deep legal research and interdisciplinary legal research
Acceptance in Contract and its CommunicationPreeti Sikder
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson students will be able to -
a) define acceptance
b) understand and explain the methods of communication of acceptance
c) illustrate the legal provisions relating to communication and revocation of acceptance
World Without Law Professors: Legal TrainingPreeti Sikder
Learning Outcome: After completion of this lesson, students will be able to-
a) identify the basic pattern of legal education in both civil and common law countries;
b) describe the counter models presented to address lacunae of legal education
c) understand the benefits of clinical lawyer school
Restrictions on Articles and Activities Injurious to Environment: Plastic pol...Preeti Sikder
Learning Objective: After completing this lesson, students will
a) be acquainted with the relevant legal provisions existing in Bangladesh relating to plastic pollution
b) be able to critically analyse the steps taken by Bangladeshi Government in imposing absolute ban on polythene
How to Obtain Permanent Residency in the NetherlandsBridgeWest.eu
You can rely on our assistance if you are ready to apply for permanent residency. Find out more at: https://immigration-netherlands.com/obtain-a-permanent-residence-permit-in-the-netherlands/.
PRECEDENT AS A SOURCE OF LAW (SAIF JAVED).pptxOmGod1
Precedent, or stare decisis, is a cornerstone of common law systems where past judicial decisions guide future cases, ensuring consistency and predictability in the legal system. Binding precedents from higher courts must be followed by lower courts, while persuasive precedents may influence but are not obligatory. This principle promotes fairness and efficiency, allowing for the evolution of the law as higher courts can overrule outdated decisions. Despite criticisms of rigidity and complexity, precedent ensures similar cases are treated alike, balancing stability with flexibility in judicial decision-making.
ALL EYES ON RAFAH BUT WHY Explain more.pdf46adnanshahzad
All eyes on Rafah: But why?. The Rafah border crossing, a crucial point between Egypt and the Gaza Strip, often finds itself at the center of global attention. As we explore the significance of Rafah, we’ll uncover why all eyes are on Rafah and the complexities surrounding this pivotal region.
INTRODUCTION
What makes Rafah so significant that it captures global attention? The phrase ‘All eyes are on Rafah’ resonates not just with those in the region but with people worldwide who recognize its strategic, humanitarian, and political importance. In this guide, we will delve into the factors that make Rafah a focal point for international interest, examining its historical context, humanitarian challenges, and political dimensions.
RIGHTS OF VICTIM EDITED PRESENTATION(SAIF JAVED).pptxOmGod1
Victims of crime have a range of rights designed to ensure their protection, support, and participation in the justice system. These rights include the right to be treated with dignity and respect, the right to be informed about the progress of their case, and the right to be heard during legal proceedings. Victims are entitled to protection from intimidation and harm, access to support services such as counseling and medical care, and the right to restitution from the offender. Additionally, many jurisdictions provide victims with the right to participate in parole hearings and the right to privacy to protect their personal information from public disclosure. These rights aim to acknowledge the impact of crime on victims and to provide them with the necessary resources and involvement in the judicial process.
WINDING UP of COMPANY, Modes of DissolutionKHURRAMWALI
Winding up, also known as liquidation, refers to the legal and financial process of dissolving a company. It involves ceasing operations, selling assets, settling debts, and ultimately removing the company from the official business registry.
Here's a breakdown of the key aspects of winding up:
Reasons for Winding Up:
Insolvency: This is the most common reason, where the company cannot pay its debts. Creditors may initiate a compulsory winding up to recover their dues.
Voluntary Closure: The owners may decide to close the company due to reasons like reaching business goals, facing losses, or merging with another company.
Deadlock: If shareholders or directors cannot agree on how to run the company, a court may order a winding up.
Types of Winding Up:
Voluntary Winding Up: This is initiated by the company's shareholders through a resolution passed by a majority vote. There are two main types:
Members' Voluntary Winding Up: The company is solvent (has enough assets to pay off its debts) and shareholders will receive any remaining assets after debts are settled.
Creditors' Voluntary Winding Up: The company is insolvent and creditors will be prioritized in receiving payment from the sale of assets.
Compulsory Winding Up: This is initiated by a court order, typically at the request of creditors, government agencies, or even by the company itself if it's insolvent.
Process of Winding Up:
Appointment of Liquidator: A qualified professional is appointed to oversee the winding-up process. They are responsible for selling assets, paying off debts, and distributing any remaining funds.
Cease Trading: The company stops its regular business operations.
Notification of Creditors: Creditors are informed about the winding up and invited to submit their claims.
Sale of Assets: The company's assets are sold to generate cash to pay off creditors.
Payment of Debts: Creditors are paid according to a set order of priority, with secured creditors receiving payment before unsecured creditors.
Distribution to Shareholders: If there are any remaining funds after all debts are settled, they are distributed to shareholders according to their ownership stake.
Dissolution: Once all claims are settled and distributions made, the company is officially dissolved and removed from the business register.
Impact of Winding Up:
Employees: Employees will likely lose their jobs during the winding-up process.
Creditors: Creditors may not recover their debts in full, especially if the company is insolvent.
Shareholders: Shareholders may not receive any payout if the company's debts exceed its assets.
Winding up is a complex legal and financial process that can have significant consequences for all parties involved. It's important to seek professional legal and financial advice when considering winding up a company.
Introducing New Government Regulation on Toll Road.pdfAHRP Law Firm
For nearly two decades, Government Regulation Number 15 of 2005 on Toll Roads ("GR No. 15/2005") has served as the cornerstone of toll road legislation. However, with the emergence of various new developments and legal requirements, the Government has enacted Government Regulation Number 23 of 2024 on Toll Roads to replace GR No. 15/2005. This new regulation introduces several provisions impacting toll business entities and toll road users. Find out more out insights about this topic in our Legal Brief publication.
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Edith Brown Weiss: In Fairness to Future Generations and Sustainable Development
1. American University International Law Review
Volume 8 | Issue 1 Article 2
1992
In Fairness To Future Generations and Sustainable
Development
Edith Brown Weiss
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/auilr
Part of the International Law Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Washington College of Law Journals & Law Reviews at Digital Commons @ American
University Washington College of Law. It has been accepted for inclusion in American University International Law Review by an authorized
administrator of Digital Commons @ American University Washington College of Law. For more information, please contact
fbrown@wcl.american.edu.
Recommended Citation
Weiss, Edith Brown. "In Fairness To Future Generations and Sustainable Development." American University International Law
Review 8, no. 1 (1992): 19-26.
2. CONFERENCE ON HUMAN RIGHTS, PUBLIC
FINANCE, AND THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
IN FAIRNESS TO FUTURE GENERATIONS
AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Edith Brown Weiss*
Sustainable development is inherently an intergenerational question
as well as an intragenerational question.1 Sustainable development re-
lies on a commitment to equity with future generations. This ethical
and philosophical commitment acts as a constraint on a natural inclina-
tion to take advantage of our temporary control over the earth's re-
sources, and to use them only for our own benefit without careful re-
gard for what we leave to our children and their descendants. This may
seem a self-centered philosophy, but it is actually part of the logic that
governs daily economic decisions about the use of our resources.
The recent and valid concern over environmental externalities fo-
cuses mainly on the costs that we and our contemporaries must bear
when we pollute the air, water and soil by industrial expansion, de-
forestation and other aspects of economic development. Concern over
these externalities is intended to ensure that the benefits from a con-
templated action exceed its costs and that those who bear its costs are
adequately compensated. But in practice the costs and benefits are as-
sessed from the perspective of the present generation. The discount
rate, ensures that short-term benefits nearly always outweigh long-term
costs.
For this reason it is useful to address the issue of sustainability from
a normative perspective. Sustainability requires that we look at the
* Professor of Laws, Georgetown University Law Center. The presentation of Prof.
Edith Brown Weiss, here published, is based largely on her book, EDITH BROWN
WEISS, IN FAIRNESS TO FUTURE GENERATIONS, (1989).
1. This introduction isadapted from Edith Brown Weiss, IntergenerationalEquit:y
Toward an InternationalLegal Framework, in GLOBAL ACCORD (Nazli Choucri ed.
1993).
3. AM. U.J. INT'L L. & POL'Y
earth and its resources not only as an investment opportunity, but as a
trust passed to us by our ancestors for our benefit, but also to be passed
on to our descendants for their use.
This notion conveys both rights and responsibilities. Most impor-
tantly, it implies that future generations have rights too. These rights
have meaning only if we, the living, respect them, and in this regard,
transcend the differences among countries, religions, and cultures.
Fortunately, the notion that each generation holds the earth as a
trustee or steward for its descendants strikes a deep chord with all cul-
tures, religions and nationalities. Nearly all human traditions recognize
that we, the living are, sojourners on earth and temporary stewards of
our resources. The theory of intergenerational equity states that we,
the human species, hold the natural environment of our planet in com-
mon with other species, other people, and with past, present and future
generations. As members of the present generation, we are both trust-
ees, responsible for the robustness and integrity of our planet, and ben-
eficiaries, with the right to use and benefit from it for ourselves.
Two relationships must shape any theory of intergenerational equity
in the environmental context. The first is our relationship with our nat-
ural system of which we are a part. The second is our relationship with
other generations.
The natural system is not always beneficent. Deserts, glaciers, volca-
noes and tsunamis are hostile to humans, but we alone among all other
living creatures, have the capacity to significantly shape our relation-
ship with this system. We can use its resources on a sustainable basis
or we can degrade the system, and destroy its integrity. Because of our
capacity for reason we have a special responsibility to care for it.
The second fundamental relationship is that among different genera-
tions of people. All generations are linked by the ongoing relationship
with the earth. The theory of intergenerational equity states that all
generations have an equal place in relation to the natural system, and
that there is no basis for preferring past, present or future generations
in relation to the system. This notion has deep roots in international
law. The preamble to the universal declaration of human rights begins:
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable
rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice
and peace in the world .. 2
2. Universal Declarationof Human Rights, pmbl., G.A. Res. 217, U.N. GAOR,
3d Sess., at 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948).
[VOL. 8:19
4. FUTURE GENERATIONS
The reference to all members of the human family has a temporal di-
mension which brings all generations within its scope. The reference to
equal and inalienable rights affirms the basic equality of such genera-
tions in the human family.
Every generation should use the natural system to improve the
human condition. But when one generation severely degrades the envi-
ronment, it violates its intergenerational obligations to care for the nat-
ural system. In such cases, other generations may in fact have an obli-
gation to restore the robustness of the system, though not to bear all
the costs. Those costs should be distributed across generations. This is
difficult to do, but we possess some instruments, such as long-term
bonds, that are useful for this.
The corollary to the premise of equality is the concept of a partner-
ship among generations. Edmund Burke observed that:
As the ends of such a partnership cannot be obtained in many generations, it
becomes a partnership, not only between those who are living but between those
who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born.3
The purpose of the partnership is to realize and protect the welfare
and well-being of every generation in relation to the planet. The integ-
rity of the planet requires proper care of the life support systems of the
planet, the ecological processes and the environmental conditions neces-
sary for a healthy human environment.
We must then ask how a generation determines the nature of its re-
sponsibilities and obligations with respect to the natural system. In an-
swering this question it is useful to borrow from John Rawls 4
who de-
scribes a condition of veiled ignorance in which every generation exists
somewhere in the spectrum of time, but does not know in advance
where it will be located. Future generations would want to inherit the
Earth in as good a condition as did their ancestors and with at least
comparable access to its resources. This requires that each generation
leave the planet in no worse condition than it received it, and to provide
succeeding generations equitable access to its resources and benefits.
Intergenerational equity may appear to conflict with the goal of
achieving intragenerational equity, meaning equity among those who
are living today. Certainly, we must urgently devote resources to help-
ing all people meet their basic human needs for food, potable water,
and shelter. In many instances, however, the actions needed to achieve
intragenerational equity are consistent with those advancing intergener-
3. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France 139-140 (1790). in 2
WORKS OF EDMUND BURKE 368 (1905).
4. John Rawls, A THEORY OF JUSTICE (1971).
1992]
5. AM. U.J. INT'L L. & POL'Y
ational equity. People living today have an intergenerational right of
equitable access to use and benefit from the planet's resources, which is
derived from the underlying equality among all generations in relation
to use of the natural system. Moreover, even if one society of the pre-
sent generation selfishly cares only for its own descendants, extending
that concern further and further into time increasingly requires care
for the whole natural system. No single country or group of countries
has the power to ensure a healthy environment for the future. Thus,
even when each country cares only about its own people, all nations
must cooperate in order to guarantee a robust planet in the future. This
includes meeting the basic needs of the poor so that they will have both
the desire and the ability to fulfill intergenerational obligations to con-
serve the planet's resources.
In many instances, the actions need to meet the basic needs of the
poor are consistent with those advancing intergenerational equity.
There are instances, however, where the actions needed to protect the
health of the planet for future generations may conflict with the imme-
diate needs of alleviating poverty, even though poverty itself is a pri-
mary cause of ecological degradation. In these instances we need to
develop processes for ensuring that the rights of future generations are
adequately protected while at the same time addressing poverty as
quickly and effectively as possible.
There are three normative principles of intergenerational equity.
First, each generation must conserve options. This means conserving
the diversity of the natural and cultural resource base, so that each
generation does not unduly restrict the options available to future gen-
erations in solving their problems and satisfying their own values. It
does not necessarily mean maximizing diversity, for this might be in-
consistent with maintaining robustness. Future generations are entitled
to diversity comparable to that which has been enjoyed by previous
generations. This is an intergenerational principle of options, or conser-
vation of options.
Second, each generation should be required to maintain the quality
of the planet so that it is passed on in a condition no worse than that in
which it was received. Each generation should be entitled to quality
comparable to that enjoyed by previous generations. One can think of
this as the intergenerational principle of quality or conservation of
quality.
In this case, diversity and quality are treated separately. In explain-
ing this, it is useful to refer to the principle of trust law which asserts
that one quality investment does not necessarily ensure the robustness
of the whole trust. There must also be a certain diversity of invest-
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6. FUTURE GENERATIONS
ments. Similarly, diversity of investment in the trust does not ensure a
robust investment if the investments are of poor quality. The same no-
tion underlies the difference here.
Third, each generation should provide its members with equitable
rights of access to the legacy of past generations and conserve this ac-
cess for future generations. This is an intergenerational principle of
access, or conservation of access. This applies, for example, to access to
potable water supplies. There are at least four criteria that should ap-
ply to the articulation of principles of intergenerational equity. First,
while these principles should encourage equality among generations,
they should neither authorize the present generation to exploit re-
sources to the exclusion of future generations, nor impose unreasonable
burdens on the present generation to meet indeterminate future needs.
Second, no principle should require us to predict the values of future
generations. Rather, we should provide them with sufficient flexibility
to achieve their own goals according to their own values. Third, the
principles must be clear in their application to foreseeable situations.
Finally, they must be shared by different cultural traditions, and must
be generally acceptable to different economic and political systems.
The principles proposed here recognize the right of each generation
to use the Earth's resources for its own benefit. They also constrain the
present generation's use of the Earth's resources. These principles pro-
vide guidance, but do not dictate how each generation should manage
its resources. They do not require that the present generation predict
the preferences of future generations, an impossible feat. Rather, these
principles are intended to achieve a reasonably secure and flexible nat-
ural resource base for future generations, which they can use for their
own needs and preferences. Thus, the principles of options, quality and
access form the set of intergenerational obligations and rights. One
could refer to them as planetary rights and obligations held by each
generation. They derive from each generation's position as part of the
intertemporal entity of human society. They provide a normative basis
for the concept of sustainable development, which arguably otherwise
rests on a sense of noblesse oblige by the present generation.
In the intergenerational context, people have planetary rights and
obligations which derive from their relationship with past and future
generations. Intergenerational rights are present in all generations
whether they are immediate successive generations or more distant.
There is no theoretical basis for limiting such rights to immediately
successive generations, and doing so would provide little protection to
more distant future generations. Nuclear waste, hazardous waste dispo-
sal, the loss of biological diversity, and ozone depletion, for example,
1992]
7. AM. U.J. INT'L L. & POL'Y
have significant effects on the natural and cultural heritage of more
distant generations.
Intergenerational rights, or planetary rights, may be regarded as
group rights, rather than individual rights, held in relation to other
generations, past, present, and future. They exist regardless of the
number and identity of individuals making up each generation. Some-
times, intergenerational rights held by members of the present genera-
tion acquire attributes of individual rights, reflecting protection of an
individual's identifiable interests. These interests, however, derive from
the fact that those living are now members of the present generation
and have rights in relationship to other generations to use and benefit
from the planet. The remedies for violations of these rights will benefit
other members of the generation, not only the individual. Implementa-
tion of intergenerational rights is critical. Enforcement could be appro-
priately done by a guardian or representative of future generations as a
group. While the holders of rights may lack the capacity to bring
grievances, and hence, depend upon the representatives to do so, such
incapacity does not affect the existence of the rights or the obligations
associated with them.
Some argue that rights can only exist when there are identifiable
interests to protect, and that future generations, therefore, cannot have
rights. This view requires that we identify individuals who have inter-
ests to protect. Since we cannot know who the individuals will be until
they are born, nor how many will exist, those future generations can-
not, according to this argument, have rights. That is the famous Parfit's
paradox. However, the rights of future generations are not individual
rights. Rather, they are generational rights in which the interests pro-
tected do not depend upon knowing the kinds of individuals that may
exist or the numbers in any given future generation.
One may argue that generational rights depend on at least knowing
the number of individuals in the future. This is because as our popula-
tion continues to grow, the amount of diversity and degree of quality
that must be passed on will be more difficult to achieve if the popula-
tion rises dramatically from what it is today. But whether a generation
chooses to meet its obligations by curtailing exploitation, consumption
and waste, or by constraining population growth, or some combination,
is a decision that it must make. The fact that future generations have
a generational right to receive the planet in a certain condition limits
the extent to which a present generation can ignore such choices and
trade-offs.
Almost every policy decision of government and business affects the
composition of future generations, whether the decisions concern war
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8. FUTURE GENERATIONS
and peace, economic policy, the relative prosperity of different groups
and regions, health, or education. We need to explore the possibility of
scrutinizing decisions from the point of view of their impact on future
generations.
The question of how to implement intergenerational rights and obli-
gations can be approached at two levels: broad strategies and specific
actions. These have been detailed elsewhere. 5 Only a few will be men-
tioned here.
The most important strategy is to give representation to the interests
of future generations in decision-making processes, including the mar-
ket. The decisions we make today will determine the initial welfare of
future generations, but they are not effectively represented in our deci-
sion-making processes. Future generations might be willing to compen-
sate present generations to prevent certain actions or to have us under-
take others if they had a way of voicing their preferences.
This representation has to take place in several forms: in administra-
tive decision-making, judicial decision-making, and most importantly,
in the marketplace. For administrative and judicial decisions, one op-
tion is to appoint and publicly finance an office responsible for identify-
ing and ensuring that interests of future generations are considered.
This office could also be responsible for ensuring that laws regarding
our environment and natural resources are observed, for investigating
complaints, or for providing warnings of pending problems. The World
Commission on Environment and Development recommended appoint-
ment of an ombudsman for future generations.
Future generations are not effectively represented in the marketplace
today. To do so, we must first understand the fundamental entitlement
among generations correctly: that future generations have an equal
claim with the present generation to use and benefit from the natural
environment. Once this entitlement is acknowledged, relevant economic
instruments can be designed to achieve intergenerational equity effi-
ciently.6 Some of the more exciting work in the economics field is di-
rected to intergenerational issues and to generational accounting.
A second component of an intergenerational strategy is a focus on
maintenance of systems, capital investments, and data banks. We must
be concerned, not only with capital investments, but with maintaining
them. Similarly in a data bank, we must be concerned not only with
gathering data, but also maintaining it.
5. EDITH BROWN WEISS, IN FAIRNESS TO FUTURE GENERATIONS, 119-289 (1989).
6. See RICHARD B. NORGAARD, SUSTAINABILITY AS INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY:
THE CHALLENGE TO EcONoNc THOUGHT AND PRACTICE (1991).
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9. AM. U.J. INT'L L. & POL'Y
This requires changing the way we think about maintenance, from
that of a step-child to capital investment, to an integral component of
the investment. Otherwise, today's generation benefits for a very short
time at the expense of future generations. If maintenance is considered
part of the intergenerational equity question, the criteria of the ease
and the cost of maintenance become a central criteria in considering an
investment.
Third, long-term scientific research and development is part of an
intergenerational strategy. Such research is necessary to develop substi-
tutes for depleted resources, to extract and use resources more effi-
ciently and to understand and manage long-term threats to environ-
mental quality, such as hazardous pollutants in ground water. Much of
the research may take place in the private sector. But in some cases
there is a need to provide public support for research that is important
to acheiving intergenerational equity and would not otherwise be taken.
At the concrete level, attention should be given to the intergenera-
tional aspects to nuclear power, freshwater supply, hazardous pollutant
contamination, biological resources, information resources, cultural
heritages, etc. For example, information should be gathered on the dis-
posal of low-level nuclear waste in all areas of the world and retained
in a form useful to future generations. Or provision could be made at
the outset for the eventual decommissioning of nuclear reactors so that
poor communities do not have to choose in forty years between keeping
an unsafe facility in operation or diverting funds needed to meet basic
needs in order to decommission the reactor.
To conclude, implementing our responsibilities to future generations
will be difficult.7 Our institutions, at the international, national and lo-
cal levels are designed to handle relatively short-term problems of sev-
eral years. They are, for the most part, not well-suited to addressing
long-range problems - particularly when their effects may not be felt
for a generation or more. Powerful political incentives encourage people
in power to focus on short-term issues, to show tangible results. Simi-
larly, private businesses are sometimes forced by the workings of the
market to take a relatively short-term view. But our responsibilities to
future generations demand that we take a long-term perspective. This
requires adjustments in institutions, economic incentives, legal instru-
ments, public consciousness and political will. Sustainable development
requires that we begin this process.
7. The concluding paragraph is adapted from GLOBAL ACCORD, supra note 1, at
351-2.
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