The document discusses the neurological system, specifically focusing on the meninges, white and gray matter of the spinal cord and brain, and the spinal cord's functions. It then covers diagnostic studies used to examine the nervous system like CT scans, MRIs, EEGs, and CSF analysis. Next, it defines cephalalgia/headache as pain in the head or neck region and discusses the main types (primary, secondary), causes, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostics, and clinical management of headaches.

2. NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM

4. THE MENINGES
Both the spinal cord and brain are
covered in three continuous sheets of
connective tissue, the Meninges.
From outside in, these are
the Dura mater
the Arachnoid
the Pia mater
The region between the Arachnoid
and Pia mater is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

5. White Matter vs. Gray
Matter
Both the spinal cord and the
brain consist of white
matter = bundles of axons
each coated with a sheath of
myelin gray matter =
masses of the cell bodies and
dendrites — each covered with
synapses.In the spinal cord, the
white matter is at the surface,
the gray matter inside.
In the brain of mammals, this
pattern is reversed.

6. The Spinal Cord
31 pairs of spinal nerves arise along the spinal cord.
These are "mixed" nerves because each contain both
sensory and motor axons.The spinal cord carries out
two main functions:
•It connects a large part of the peripheral nervous
system to the brain. Information (nerve impulses)
reaching the spinal cord through sensory neurons are
transmitted up into the brain. Signals arising in the motor
areas of the brain travel back down the cord and leave in
the motor neurons.
•The spinal cord also acts as a minor coordinating center

7. DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES OF NERVOUS
SYSTEM

8. SKULL X RAYS

9. SPINE X RAYS

10. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID(CSF) ANALYSIS

11. CT = X-ray Computed
Tomography
This is an imaging technique
that uses a series of X-ray
exposures taken from
different angles. Computer
software can integrate these
to produce a three-
dimensional picture of the
brain (or other body region).
CT scanning is routinely used
to quickly diagnose strokes

12. MRI = Magnetic
Resonance Imaging
This imaging technique
uses powerful magnets to
detect magnetic
molecules within the
body. These can be
endogenous molecules or
magnetic substances
injected into a vein

13. The
Electroencephalograph
(EEG)
This device measures
electrical activity (brain
"waves") that can be
detected at the surface
of the scalp. It can
distinguish between, for
example, sleep and
excitement. It is also
useful in diagnosing
brain disorders such as a
tendency to epileptic
seizures

15. CEPHALALGIA

16. HEADACHE

17. HEADACHE IS PROBABLY THE MOST
COMMON TYPE OF PAIN EXPERIENCED BY
HUMANS
HEADACHE IS A COMMON SYMPTOM OF MANY
NEUROLOGIC CONDITIONS AND IS ALSO A
SEPERATE DISEASE PROCESS
A headache or cephalasia is the pain anywhere in
the region of the head or neck, pericranial
muscles,eyes and jaw

18. CAUSES OR ETIOLOGY

19. Types of headaches
There are three major categories of headaches:
primary headaches,
secondary headaches, and
cranial neuralgias, facial pain, and other headaches

20. What are primary headaches?
Primary headaches include migraine, tension, and cluster
headaches, as well as a variety of other less common types
of headache.
Some primary headaches can be triggered by lifestyle
factors, including:
Alcohol, particularly red wine
Certain foods, such as processed meats that contain
nitrates
Changes in sleep or lack of sleep
Poor posture
Skipped meals
Stress

21. Tension headaches are the most common type of
primary headache. Up to 90% of adults have had or
will have tension headaches. Tension headaches occur
more commonly among women than men.

22. Migrane headaches are the second most common
type of primary headache. An estimated 28 million
people in the United States (about 12% of the
population) will experience a migraine headache.
Migraine headaches affect children as well as adults.
Before puberty, boys and girls are affected equally by
migraine headaches, but after puberty, more women
than men are affected. It is estimated that 6% of men
and up to 18% of women will experience a migraine
headache in their lifetime

23. Cluster headaches are a rare type of primary
headache affecting 0.1% of the population (1 in a 1,000
people). It more commonly affects men in their late
20s though women and children can also suffer these
types of headache.

24. What are secondary headaches?
Secondary headaches are those
that are due to an underlying
structural problem in the head or
neck. There are due to numerous
causes such as bleeding in the
brain, tumor, or meningitis

25. Others causes
Fever
Carbon monoxide exposure
Chronic lung diseases
Hypothyroidism
Birth control pills

26. Risk factors
Family history
Precipitating factors in headache includes
Substances containing amines
Ripened cheeses
Yeast extracts
Chocolate
Red wine
Alchocol
Menstrual period

27. pathophysiology
extra cranial blood vessels dilates
these vascular changes may be secondary to
neuronal discharges in the affected area of pain
results in abnormal neuronal activities in brain
due to abnormality in hypothalamus
chemo receptors become dysfunctional

29. Clinical manifestations
Migrane =atleast 5 attacks to two attacks
Tension type headache=duration
30 mins
To 7 days
Cluster headache=duration 15 to
180 minutes if not treated

30. Other associated sympyoms
with headache
Rhinorrhea
Lacrimation
Nasal congestion
Eye lid edema

31. Diagnostics
Obtain complete headache history
Obtain complete medical history
Physical assesment for checking muscle tightness and
tenderness
Ct scan
MRI
Xrays

32. Clinical management
Provide symptomatic relief of headache
Check the following baseline investigations
NON PHARMACOLOGICAL
1. AVOID THE PRECIPITATING FACTORS
2. ELIMINATE UNNECCESARY MEDICATIONS SUCH
AS ANTI HYPERTENSIVES,VASODIALATORS AND
CONTRACEPTIVES
3. RELAXATION TRAINING
4. PROMOTE SLEEP IN SILENT ENVIRONMENT

33. PHARMACOLOGICAL
Mainly pain killers
Diclofenac sodium
Aspirin
Anxiolytics
The treatment of the headache depends on the type
and severity of the headache and on other factors
such as the age of the patient

34. Health education
Ensure that the person and family members know the
type of headache and treatment strategies
Avoid the precipitating factors
Yoga