This study investigated the relationship between religiosity and brain structure. Researchers administered surveys to measure aspects of religiosity in 40 participants and performed MRI scans to analyze regional brain volumes. Four components of religiosity were identified: 1) an intimate relationship with God, 2) religious behavior, 3) pragmatism and doubting God, and 4) fear of God. Various regions in the brain correlated with these components: 1) was associated with increased volume in the right middle temporal cortex, 2) was not associated with any brain regions, 3) was associated with increased volume in the right precuneus, and 4) was associated with decreased volume in the left precuneus and left orbitofrontal cortex. The
Culturing the adolescent brain what canneuroscience learn f.docxannettsparrow
Culturing the adolescent brain: what can
neuroscience learn from anthropology?
Suparna Choudhury
Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, 22 Boltzmannstrasse, Dahlem, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
Cultural neuroscience is set to flourish in the next few years. As the field develops, it is necessary to reflect on what is meant
by ’culture’ and how this can be translated for the laboratory context. This article uses the example of the adolescent brain to
discuss three aspects of culture that may help us to shape and reframe questions, interpretations and applications in cultural
neuroscience: cultural contingencies of categories, cultural differences in experience and cultural context of neuroscience
research. The last few years have seen a sudden increase in the study of adolescence as a period of both structural and functional
plasticity, with new brain-based explanations of teenage behaviour being taken up in education, policy and medicine. However,
the concept of adolescence, as an object of behavioural science, took shape relatively recently, not much more than a hundred
years ago and was shaped by a number of cultural and historical factors. Moreover, research in anthropology and cross-cultural
psychology has shown that the experience of adolescence, as a period of the lifespan, is variable and contingent upon culture.
The emerging field of cultural neuroscience has begun to tackle the question of cultural differences in social cognitive processing
in adults. In this article, I explore what a cultural neuroscience can mean in the case of adolescence. I consider how to integrate
perspectives from social neuroscience and anthropology to conceptualize, and to empirically study, adolescence as a culturally
variable phenomenon, which, itself, has been culturally constructed.
Keywords: adolescence; culture; context; brain development; neuroscience; anthropology
INTRODUCTION
The recent emergence of cultural neuroscience represents
an important challenge to the assumption of universality
of the neural mechanisms associated with perceptual,
attentional and social interaction processes. New data from
functional neuroimaging studies mirror findings from cross-
cultural psychology research, by showing differential brain
activation patterns, in terms of degree and location, among
adult individuals of different cultural groups engaged in
a variety of cognitive tasks (see Han & Northoff, 2008 for
a review). Certainly, with the advancement of neuroimaging
technologies, and the formation of new interdisciplinary
fields such as social neuroscience, neuroethics and most
recently cultural neuroscience, there has been a renewed
interest in ‘neural underpinnings’ of categories, or kinds,
of people. The possibility of seeing the living brain in
action has stimulated a drive to characterize these categories
of people�for example, male and female, Republican
and Democrat, prosocial and antisocial, Eastern and
Western�in terms of neural sign.
Implicazioni per le origini evolutive e la funzionalità adattiva delle religioni
di Gliberto Corbellini
Sapienza - Università di Roma
Convegno "Le neuroscienze incontrano le altre discipline"
4 maggio 2011
Padova, Palazzo del Bo
Il convegno è promosso dall’Università di Padova e dal Dipartimento di Psicologia generale della stessa università, con il sostegno della Fondazione Sigma Tau e della Fondazione Giannino Bassetti.
The Spiritual Brain: Selective Cortical Lesions Modulate Human Self-Transcend...Jonathan Dunnemann
The predisposition of human beings toward spiritual
feeling, thinking, and behaviors is measured by
a supposedly stable personality trait called self-transcendence
2Resources for the Integrative Literature Review8Resou.docxdomenicacullison
2
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
8
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
PSY 699
March 31,2020
Introduction
Scientists in the recent past have been marveled at the human brain and how it is shaping so many spheres in the human life. Further proper understanding of how the human brains influences our behavior under any context or experience has made psychology one of the most fascinating field of study. According to Jean Piaget a renowned psychologist he argued that the person we are today is basically a compilation of various small habits, beliefs and even thoughts that go through in our mind. This analogy has further been expounded by Sigmund Freud who argued that the four major domains of psychology which are cognitive domain, biological domain, developmental domain and social and personality domain are all interlinked in one way or the other. Some of the theories in the four domains of psychology include a rational motive behavior therapy theory developed by Albert Elli, also Aron Beck’s theory on cognitive therapy. Other theories which have gained recognition in this field of psychology include the trait or perspective theory, evolutionary theory, psychodynamic theory and lastly social identity theory. In addition, there exist a connection between some of the domains for instance the biological domain which basically analyses how human biology influences virtually all the mental process and even our own behaviors.
This domain of psychology closely relates to cognitive domain of psychology which focuses majorly on the study of emotions, behavior, cognitions and even our relationship with the society and other people in general. Further the connection between the two domains is that cognitive domain relies on the biological domain to understand how our biology in terms of neuroscience influences our emotions, relationships, thoughts and behavior.
The same connection is true for developmental domain which relies on cognitive domain to understand what could be the factors that influences human being development. It is also worth noting that not all points from the four domains agree with each other since there are some points with competing views across the four domains. Some of these competing points include biological domain arguing that neuroscience controls largely all the other domain of psychology a point which is disputed by social and personality domain. It therefore means that integration of these domains is pertinent in providing a holistic understanding in the field of psychology. Also, the four domains have a long history spanning to even ten centuries since the field of psychology began immediately with the creation of human beings and its curiosity of trying to understand how its brain or mind works and further its relationship with the environment in which man exist in (Prada, Garrison, Camilo, & Rodrigues, 2018).
Findings have indicated.
Giftedness: Understanding Everyday Neurobiology for Self-Knowledgeassessoriafabianodea
In the realm of behavioral neuroscience and genomics, the phenomenon of giftedness manifests through a series of distinct neurobiological characteristics, which significantly contribute to self-awareness. In my personal experience, this became evident through the correlation between genetic patterns and specific behavioral expressions. The analysis of behavioral phenotypes, such as cognitive acceleration, emotional oscillations, enhanced selective memory, hyperfocus, and exacerbated creativity, suggests a strong interconnection with certain genetic polymorphisms. These polymorphisms may be implicated in modulating specific neurochemical pathways, as well as in regulating neurotransmitters.
Adiesa Burgess Dr. MixonPSYC-40121 October 2022 C.docxstandfordabbot
Adiesa Burgess
Dr. Mixon
PSYC-401
21 October 2022
Comprehensive Assignment
My chosen research topic is the practices of the Islamic faith related to illness, suffering, death, dying, grief, mourning rituals, and burial or cremation. I chose this topic because Islam is the second largest religion in the world, and I am interested in how this religion deals with death and dying. This topic is significant because death is a universal experience and understanding how different cultures and religions deal with death can help us to understand the human experience. This research will be of interest to scholars and students of religion and culture. Finally, this research will be of interest to anyone who is interested in understanding the Islamic faith and its practices related to death and dying. Additionally, this research can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Eyetsemitan, 2021).
Islam has a rich tradition of practices related to death and dying. Muslims believe that death is a natural part of life, and they have developed practices to help them cope with death. For example, when a Muslim is dying, they are typically surrounded by their family and friends, who recite prayers and verses from the Quran. After death, the body is washed and shrouded in a white cloth, and the funeral is held as soon as possible. Grief is a natural part of the mourning process, and Muslims often express their grief through prayer, reading the Quran, and spending time with family and friends. These practices are significant because they provide a way for Muslims to cope with death and dying. They also help to create a sense of community and support for those who are grieving. Additionally, these practices can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Bahadur, 2020).
Another way the Islamic faith relates to death, dying, grief, mourning rituals, and burial or cremation is through the concept of martyrdom. Muslims believe that those who die while defending their faith or while performing good deeds are martyrs, and they are rewarded with a special place in paradise. This belief provides comfort to Muslims who are grieving the loss of a loved one, and it also helps to motivate Muslims to do good deeds. Finally, the concept of martyrdom can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Bahadur, 2020).
References
Eyetsemitan, F. E. (2021).
Death, dying, and bereavement around the world: Theories, varied views and customs. Charles C Thomas Publisher.
Bahadur, P. (2020). Rituals and beliefs surrounding death in Islam.
Journal of Adventist Mission Studies,
16(1), 173-192.
HOW IS PERSONALITY ASSESSED?
137
to generate detailed images of the brain (e.g., DeYoung et al., in
press). Conversely, studies concerned with brain activity may
use fMRI (e.g., Canli, 2004) or PET (.
Culturing the adolescent brain what canneuroscience learn f.docxannettsparrow
Culturing the adolescent brain: what can
neuroscience learn from anthropology?
Suparna Choudhury
Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, 22 Boltzmannstrasse, Dahlem, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
Cultural neuroscience is set to flourish in the next few years. As the field develops, it is necessary to reflect on what is meant
by ’culture’ and how this can be translated for the laboratory context. This article uses the example of the adolescent brain to
discuss three aspects of culture that may help us to shape and reframe questions, interpretations and applications in cultural
neuroscience: cultural contingencies of categories, cultural differences in experience and cultural context of neuroscience
research. The last few years have seen a sudden increase in the study of adolescence as a period of both structural and functional
plasticity, with new brain-based explanations of teenage behaviour being taken up in education, policy and medicine. However,
the concept of adolescence, as an object of behavioural science, took shape relatively recently, not much more than a hundred
years ago and was shaped by a number of cultural and historical factors. Moreover, research in anthropology and cross-cultural
psychology has shown that the experience of adolescence, as a period of the lifespan, is variable and contingent upon culture.
The emerging field of cultural neuroscience has begun to tackle the question of cultural differences in social cognitive processing
in adults. In this article, I explore what a cultural neuroscience can mean in the case of adolescence. I consider how to integrate
perspectives from social neuroscience and anthropology to conceptualize, and to empirically study, adolescence as a culturally
variable phenomenon, which, itself, has been culturally constructed.
Keywords: adolescence; culture; context; brain development; neuroscience; anthropology
INTRODUCTION
The recent emergence of cultural neuroscience represents
an important challenge to the assumption of universality
of the neural mechanisms associated with perceptual,
attentional and social interaction processes. New data from
functional neuroimaging studies mirror findings from cross-
cultural psychology research, by showing differential brain
activation patterns, in terms of degree and location, among
adult individuals of different cultural groups engaged in
a variety of cognitive tasks (see Han & Northoff, 2008 for
a review). Certainly, with the advancement of neuroimaging
technologies, and the formation of new interdisciplinary
fields such as social neuroscience, neuroethics and most
recently cultural neuroscience, there has been a renewed
interest in ‘neural underpinnings’ of categories, or kinds,
of people. The possibility of seeing the living brain in
action has stimulated a drive to characterize these categories
of people�for example, male and female, Republican
and Democrat, prosocial and antisocial, Eastern and
Western�in terms of neural sign.
Implicazioni per le origini evolutive e la funzionalità adattiva delle religioni
di Gliberto Corbellini
Sapienza - Università di Roma
Convegno "Le neuroscienze incontrano le altre discipline"
4 maggio 2011
Padova, Palazzo del Bo
Il convegno è promosso dall’Università di Padova e dal Dipartimento di Psicologia generale della stessa università, con il sostegno della Fondazione Sigma Tau e della Fondazione Giannino Bassetti.
The Spiritual Brain: Selective Cortical Lesions Modulate Human Self-Transcend...Jonathan Dunnemann
The predisposition of human beings toward spiritual
feeling, thinking, and behaviors is measured by
a supposedly stable personality trait called self-transcendence
2Resources for the Integrative Literature Review8Resou.docxdomenicacullison
2
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
8
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
PSY 699
March 31,2020
Introduction
Scientists in the recent past have been marveled at the human brain and how it is shaping so many spheres in the human life. Further proper understanding of how the human brains influences our behavior under any context or experience has made psychology one of the most fascinating field of study. According to Jean Piaget a renowned psychologist he argued that the person we are today is basically a compilation of various small habits, beliefs and even thoughts that go through in our mind. This analogy has further been expounded by Sigmund Freud who argued that the four major domains of psychology which are cognitive domain, biological domain, developmental domain and social and personality domain are all interlinked in one way or the other. Some of the theories in the four domains of psychology include a rational motive behavior therapy theory developed by Albert Elli, also Aron Beck’s theory on cognitive therapy. Other theories which have gained recognition in this field of psychology include the trait or perspective theory, evolutionary theory, psychodynamic theory and lastly social identity theory. In addition, there exist a connection between some of the domains for instance the biological domain which basically analyses how human biology influences virtually all the mental process and even our own behaviors.
This domain of psychology closely relates to cognitive domain of psychology which focuses majorly on the study of emotions, behavior, cognitions and even our relationship with the society and other people in general. Further the connection between the two domains is that cognitive domain relies on the biological domain to understand how our biology in terms of neuroscience influences our emotions, relationships, thoughts and behavior.
The same connection is true for developmental domain which relies on cognitive domain to understand what could be the factors that influences human being development. It is also worth noting that not all points from the four domains agree with each other since there are some points with competing views across the four domains. Some of these competing points include biological domain arguing that neuroscience controls largely all the other domain of psychology a point which is disputed by social and personality domain. It therefore means that integration of these domains is pertinent in providing a holistic understanding in the field of psychology. Also, the four domains have a long history spanning to even ten centuries since the field of psychology began immediately with the creation of human beings and its curiosity of trying to understand how its brain or mind works and further its relationship with the environment in which man exist in (Prada, Garrison, Camilo, & Rodrigues, 2018).
Findings have indicated.
Giftedness: Understanding Everyday Neurobiology for Self-Knowledgeassessoriafabianodea
In the realm of behavioral neuroscience and genomics, the phenomenon of giftedness manifests through a series of distinct neurobiological characteristics, which significantly contribute to self-awareness. In my personal experience, this became evident through the correlation between genetic patterns and specific behavioral expressions. The analysis of behavioral phenotypes, such as cognitive acceleration, emotional oscillations, enhanced selective memory, hyperfocus, and exacerbated creativity, suggests a strong interconnection with certain genetic polymorphisms. These polymorphisms may be implicated in modulating specific neurochemical pathways, as well as in regulating neurotransmitters.
Adiesa Burgess Dr. MixonPSYC-40121 October 2022 C.docxstandfordabbot
Adiesa Burgess
Dr. Mixon
PSYC-401
21 October 2022
Comprehensive Assignment
My chosen research topic is the practices of the Islamic faith related to illness, suffering, death, dying, grief, mourning rituals, and burial or cremation. I chose this topic because Islam is the second largest religion in the world, and I am interested in how this religion deals with death and dying. This topic is significant because death is a universal experience and understanding how different cultures and religions deal with death can help us to understand the human experience. This research will be of interest to scholars and students of religion and culture. Finally, this research will be of interest to anyone who is interested in understanding the Islamic faith and its practices related to death and dying. Additionally, this research can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Eyetsemitan, 2021).
Islam has a rich tradition of practices related to death and dying. Muslims believe that death is a natural part of life, and they have developed practices to help them cope with death. For example, when a Muslim is dying, they are typically surrounded by their family and friends, who recite prayers and verses from the Quran. After death, the body is washed and shrouded in a white cloth, and the funeral is held as soon as possible. Grief is a natural part of the mourning process, and Muslims often express their grief through prayer, reading the Quran, and spending time with family and friends. These practices are significant because they provide a way for Muslims to cope with death and dying. They also help to create a sense of community and support for those who are grieving. Additionally, these practices can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Bahadur, 2020).
Another way the Islamic faith relates to death, dying, grief, mourning rituals, and burial or cremation is through the concept of martyrdom. Muslims believe that those who die while defending their faith or while performing good deeds are martyrs, and they are rewarded with a special place in paradise. This belief provides comfort to Muslims who are grieving the loss of a loved one, and it also helps to motivate Muslims to do good deeds. Finally, the concept of martyrdom can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Bahadur, 2020).
References
Eyetsemitan, F. E. (2021).
Death, dying, and bereavement around the world: Theories, varied views and customs. Charles C Thomas Publisher.
Bahadur, P. (2020). Rituals and beliefs surrounding death in Islam.
Journal of Adventist Mission Studies,
16(1), 173-192.
HOW IS PERSONALITY ASSESSED?
137
to generate detailed images of the brain (e.g., DeYoung et al., in
press). Conversely, studies concerned with brain activity may
use fMRI (e.g., Canli, 2004) or PET (.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Neuroanatomical variability of religiosity (kapogiannis et al. 2009)
1. Neuroanatomical Variability of Religiosity
Dimitrios Kapogiannis1,2, Aron K. Barbey2,3, Michael Su2, Frank Krueger2, Jordan Grafman2*
1 Clinical Research Branch, National Institute on Aging (NIA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America, 2 Cognitive Neuroscience
Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America, 3 Department of
Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, D. C., United States of America
Abstract
We hypothesized that religiosity, a set of traits variably expressed in the population, is modulated by neuroanatomical
variability. We tested this idea by determining whether aspects of religiosity were predicted by variability in regional cortical
volume. We performed structural magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in 40 healthy adult participants who reported
different degrees and patterns of religiosity on a survey. We identified four Principal Components of religiosity by Factor
Analysis of the survey items and associated them with regional cortical volumes measured by voxel-based morphometry.
Experiencing an intimate relationship with God and engaging in religious behavior was associated with increased volume of
R middle temporal cortex, BA 21. Experiencing fear of God was associated with decreased volume of L precuneus and L
orbitofrontal cortex BA 11. A cluster of traits related with pragmatism and doubting God’s existence was associated with
increased volume of the R precuneus. Variability in religiosity of upbringing was not associated with variability in cortical
volume of any region. Therefore, key aspects of religiosity are associated with cortical volume differences. This conclusion
complements our prior functional neuroimaging findings in elucidating the proximate causes of religion in the brain.
Citation: Kapogiannis D, Barbey AK, Su M, Krueger F, Grafman J (2009) Neuroanatomical Variability of Religiosity. PLoS ONE 4(9): e7180. doi:10.1371/
journal.pone.0007180
Editor: Jan Lauwereyns, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Received July 17, 2009; Accepted August 26, 2009; Published September 28, 2009
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Public Domain declaration which stipulates that, once placed in the public
domain, this work may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose.
Funding: The Intramural Research Program of the National Institute on Aging (NIA/NIH) and the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of
Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS/NIH) supported this research. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis and preparation of
the manuscript. The manuscript underwent a process of being cleared for publication by the NIA and NINDS, according to the relevant rules of these Institutes.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: grafmanj@ninds.nih.gov
Introduction engagement in religious behavior. We use the term ‘‘God’’ to refer
to the target of shared religious commitment in Western traditions.
Religious behavior is a uniquely human phenomenon without For simplicity, and accuracy, we use the pronoun ‘‘He’’ to denote
accepted animal equivalents [1,2], present in all modern cultures this target, because God is typically described in these traditions as
and evident in archaeology from all periods of human history and personal, gendered, and male.)
pre-history [2,3]. For an explanation of religion, we turn to In order to discover the proximate causes of religion in the
Tinbergen’s distinction between ultimate (or evolutionary) and brain, our group initially focused on religious beliefs and their
proximate (causal and developmental) explanations [4]. Much of cognitive architecture. We found that religious beliefs (at least in
the scientific literature on religion attempts to create ad hoc the North American Western traditions we studied) are organized
explanations and explain the observed range of religious cognitively along three dimensions, which constitute a conceptual
phenomena, in light of evolutionary benefits at the personal and space. The first two reflect perceptions of 1) Gods’ involvement
community levels [1,2]. Other models draw analogies between the and 2) God’s emotion. A third reflects judgment over 3) the source
religion phenotype and that of adaptive animal behaviors [1,2,5] of religious knowledge ranging from doctrinal to experiential [9].
or simulate religious behavior de nova, using pre-specified The neural correlates of these dimensions were found to be brain
parameters [2,6]. While these approaches bring certain benefits, networks which had been previously implicated in understanding
they nevertheless lack a clear understanding of the proximate agents’ actions and intent-related ToM (for Dimension 1),
neural circuitry that supports religious beliefs. Cognitive Neuro- emotion-related ToM and emotional regulation (for Dimension
science attempts to create an explanatory schema that includes 2) and abstract semantic processing and imagery (for Dimension 3)
both proximate and ultimate causes, by linking the emergence of [9]. By differentially engaging these networks, individuals
religion in our ancestors with the development of novel cognitive construct religious belief representations, which are subsequently
processes, such as Theory of Mind (ToM) [7,8], social cognition adopted or rejected based upon cognitive-emotional interactions
[1,7,8] and symbolic language [3], which, in turn, have different within the anterior insulae [9]. Religious belief systems presumably
evolutionary origins [1] and presumably resulted from expansion interact with other belief systems, social values [10] and morals,
of specific brain regions (such as the prefrontal cortex, PFC, the and help determine long-term goal selection, behavioral control
precuneus, the temporal lobe, etc) [7]. (In this article, we use the and emotional balance [11].
term ‘‘religion’’ or ‘‘religious behavior’’ to designate shared beliefs, Other functional neuroimaging studies have sought to discover
practices and experiences regarding supernatural agents. We use the the neural correlates of various religious acts or practices, which
term ‘‘religiosity’’ to designate a set of psychological and presumably recreate religious experiences inside the scanner. In these
behavioral traits related to adoption of religious beliefs and studies, subjects have performed (among other tasks) formalized
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2. Neuroanatomy of Religiosity
and improvised praying [12,13], ‘‘mystical’’ praying [14] and Therefore, PC3 can be best understood by these negative
meditation [15]. These studies have reported several functional correlations with elements of non-religious pragmatism. Finally,
brain correlates to these practices, with variable engagement of fear of God’s anger loaded on the 4th PC (PC4).
both subcortical [12] and cortical areas which had been previously
implicated in social cognition [13]. Their findings have not yet VBM (Table 2)
been integrated in any comprehensive neural-cognitive model for PC1. Experiencing an intimate relationship with God
religious experience. Nevertheless, the variability of their results is positively correlated with cortical volume of BA 21 at the R
informative by itself, since it seemingly rules out that any single middle temporal gyrus (MTG) and its extension at the temporal
area is modularly or modally specific to religious experience (a so- pole (Fig. 1).
called ‘‘God-spot’’). PC2. There were no cortical areas whose volume correlated
A strategy, for discovering the proximate causes of complex with religiosity of upbringing.
cognitive functions, which, in turn, may inform novel evolutionary - PC3. Non-religious pragmatism (the inverse of PC3)
explanations, is to associate variability at the level of the behavioral positively correlated with cortical volume at the R precuneus,
phenotype and (structural or functional) variability at the level of BA 7 and the R calcarine gyrus, BA 17 (Fig. 2). (Alternatively
the likely proximate causes (such as at the levels of genetics and/or stated, PC3 negatively correlated with cortical volume at the R
the brain). For instance, such an approach has been used to precuneus, BA 7 and the R calcarine gyrus, BA 17).
discover the proximate causes of emotional and non-emotional PC4. Experiencing fear of God’s anger negatively correlated
memory [16,17,18,19] and face recognition [20,21]. Religion with cortical volume at the L precuneus, BA 7 and the L
seems suitable for such an approach, since religiosity varies widely orbitofrontal cortex, BA 11. In other words, increased cortical
among modern humans, a fact attributable to environmental and volume in these areas predicted non-threatening God-related
genetic factors [22,23] and to its interaction with other personality beliefs (Fig. 3).
and social behavior traits [11,24,25]. In this study, we hypothe-
sized that religiosity is tied to neuroanatomical variability and Discussion
tested this idea by determining whether components of religiosity
were predicted by variability in regional cortical volume measured In this study we identified structural brain variability associated
by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). with aspects of long-term religiosity. By defining brain regions that
Forty healthy participants with varying patterns of religiosity are tied to religion-related psychological and behavioral traits, we
participated in this and an already published parallel functional complemented our prior fMRI findings of networks involved in
MRI (fMRI) study [9]. The purpose of the fMRI study was to navigating the conceptual space of religious beliefs (and adopting
identify cognitive processes and brain networks engaged by those beliefs). The two methods assessed different levels of brain
exposure to a range of religious beliefs. In the VBM study organization (functional recruitment during task performance vs.
reported below, on the other hand, we assumed that religiosity structural changes resulting from brain development and plastic-
patterns are based on clusters of personality traits that influence ity). Combined, their findings advance our understanding of the
cognitive strategies and behavior over time. For measurement of proximate causes of religion in the brain.
these traits, we relied on participants’ self-reporting about their Relationships between regional cortical thickness or volume
current religious experience and behavior, their religious upbring- (measured with an unbiased and automated data analysis system)
ing, and about aspects of their worldview (See Supporting Table and cognitive task performance have been validated for a range of
S1). All survey items were presented as 7-point visual analog Likert tasks [26]. Here, we show that such relationships exist in relation
scales and subjects had to report the degree to which they to the traits represented by the PCs of religiosity. These
currently experience (or had experienced during their upbringing) relationships, though, need not be considered as simple linear
the content of the item. These items were subsequently entered in ones (i.e. increased brain volume resulting from/leading to trait
a Principal Component (PC) Factor Analysis (FA) to identify manifestation), similarly to linear relationships demonstrable for
common themes underlying their responses. Then, to identify simple tasks (i.e. increased brain volume resulting from/leading to
regions of gray matter whose volume is associated with these traits, improved task performance) [26,27]. Both religious belief and
a VBM analysis of gray matter was performed with the identified religious practice functionally engage areas which are more
principal components as regressors. broadly involved in social cognitive processing [9,13]. Such areas
are not selectively engaged by specific tasks or tied to unique brain
Results functions [28], unlike the highly specialized motor and visuospatial
areas or the hippocampus, the cortical density of which has so far
Factor Analysis (Table 1) been shown to change with practice [29,30,31,32]. (Changes
Four Principal Components (PCs) were identified; they can be captured by MRI presumably represent changes in synaptic
best explained by those survey items with the highest and most density [33], myelination within the grey matter [34] and other
exclusive loadings. Items suggesting both an intimate relationship histologic alterations.) Nevertheless, the effect of personality traits
with God (such as experiencing God’s fellowship and seeking his (such as religiosity) can be viewed as selectively engaging complex
will) and engagement in religious behavior (such as prayer and sets of cognitive processes and representations over time, in
religious participation) loaded on the 1st PC (PC1). Items referring response to similar situational demands [35]. Such selective and
to religiosity of upbringing loaded positively and an item implying repeated engagement of networks involved in social cognition [28]
moral relativism loaded negatively on the 2nd PC (PC2). Doubting may also result in practice-related changes in them. Some
God’s existence, endorsement of ‘‘Eat, drink and be merry, evidence for this exists in relation to certain personality traits
because tomorrow we die’’ [a saying epitomizing the Epicurean [36] and complex cognitive practices, such as meditation [37].
and Hedonistic philosophic traditions, which advocated a Moreover, any practice-induced cortical changes do not rule out
worldview contrasting sharply with the one advocated by the the possibility of pre-existing innate regional cortical differences
Judeo-Christian religious tradition], and considering humanity as predisposing people to certain traits and behaviors [29]. (Processes
equally good and bad, loaded negatively on the 3rd PC (PC3). involving the white matter, such as myelination and synaptogen-
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3. Neuroanatomy of Religiosity
Table 1. The rotated correlation matrix of the original survey items and the four Principal Components (PCs).
Principal Components
Survey Item PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4
Degree of current religiosity .906
Degree of current religious participation .917
Current frequency of praying .918
Current frequency of praying in private .830
Current frequency of reading of Scripture .852
Degree to which religion influences important decisions .803 .347
Belief in Life after Death .778 .427
Belief in Heaven .798 .418
Belief in Hell .792 .312 .308
Belief in a personal God .765 .337
Perception of God’s Love .875
Praying for forgiveness of sins .866
Fear of God’s anger .911
Seeking God’s will .939
Perception of God’s proximity .911
Perception of God’s awareness .917
Perception of God’s friendship .911
Perception of God’s fellowship .941
Relying of God for important decisions .915
Doubting God’s existence 2.617 2.561 2.318
Religiosity during upbringing .829
Religious participation during upbringing .881
Praying during upbringing .899
Endorsement of ‘‘Eat, drink and be merry, because tomorrow we die’’ 2.816
Belief that humanity is equally good and bad 2.829
Belief that values are relative depending on the situation 2.604 2.385
Belief that life has an ultimate purpose .776
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007180.t001
Table 2. Cortical areas whose volume is associated with the PCs.
Regressor Voxel coordinates Z value Cluster size t-statistics significance Brodmann area Localization
PC1: Experiencing an intimate (58, 6, 220) 4.01 382 Cluster level correction BA 21 R middle temporal gyrus
relationship with God (positive (p = 0.030)
correlation)
(54, 12, 226) 3.85 Above cluster Cluster level correction BA 21 R temporal pole
(p = 0.030)
PC2: Religiosity of upbringing No areas exceeded
threshold
-PC3: Non-religious pragmatism (14, 268, 32) 4.58 574 Cluster level correction BA 7 R precuneus
(positive correlation) (p = 0.005)
FWE correction (p = 0.075)
(20, 256, 20) 3.79 Above cluster Cluster level correction BA 17 R calcarine gyrus
(p = 0.005
PC4: Experiencing fear of God’s (210, 266, 52) 4.18 464 Cluster level correction BA 7 L precuneus
anger (negative correlation) (p = 0.014)
(232, 62, 210) 3.87 351 Cluster level correction BA 11 L orbitofrontal cortex
(p = 0.041)
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007180.t002
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4. Neuroanatomy of Religiosity
representations which has prevailed in modern western society or
is a human universal is an open question.
PC1, both reflecting intimacy with God and predicting religious
behavior, correlated with cortical volume of the R MTG, BA 21. The
R temporal lobe has long been suggested as a locus for religion in the
brain [39]. In our parallel fMRI study, R BA 20 and 21 were engaged
by doctrinal religious knowledge referring to the most abstract
attributes of God [9]. Moreover, the R MTG, BA 21 and R IFG,
BA 45, were co-activated as part of a network which was thought to
mediate ToM in regards to God’s intent and emotion [40,41] and
relate these to one’s self [9]. This co-activation may be explained by the
fact that the MTG (and neighboring lateral temporal areas) is (are)
strongly interconnected in humans with the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)
via the arcuate fasciculus; phylogenetically, this neural network is
considered crucial for the emergence of uniquely human cognitive
abilities (such as symbolic language [42,43]). In particular, the R MTG
is important for self-processing (underscored, for instance, by its
depressed activity in depersonalization disorder) [44], monitoring the
Figure 1. Experiencing an intimate relationship with God (PC1) status of intimate relationships (such as a mother’s with her own child)
positively correlated with cortical volume at the R middle [45] and setting boundaries between representations of intimate others
temporal gyrus (MTG), BA 21, extending to the temporal pole.
Threshold was set to p,0.001 uncorrected for visualization.
(such as one’s own mother) and one’s self [46]. Therefore, by evolution
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007180.g001 of this area and its connections, a personal relationship with God as an
intimate other may have become possible, allowing modern humans to
esis, are known to underlie the expansion of cognitive functionality experience this bonding– which they variably do. There is evidence
in humans, from developmental [34] as well as from evolutionary that the R MTG is indeed structurally variable in modern humans and
perspectives [38]. This study was not designed to assess any micro- this variability has important clinical implications: R MTG volume is
structural white matter changes or their relationship to religiosity.) decreased in adolescent and first-episode schizophrenia patients
In relation to the FA results, it is interesting to note that items [47,48] and increased in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) patients
referring to religious behavior (such as praying and religious [49]. We speculate that the range of R MTG volumes can be viewed as
participation) clustered in PC1 with items referring to an intimate a spectrum, in which high R MTG volume is associated with
relationship with God (such as experiencing God’s fellowship), stereotyped and ritualistic behavior, high-normal volume is associated
rather than in PC4 with items reflecting fear of God. Whether this with religious behavior (which, we should note, is by definition
results from a pattern of religion based on non-threatening God ritualistic), low-normal volume is associated with non-religiosity, and
Figure 2. Non-religious pragmatism (the inverse of PC3) positively correlated with cortical volume at the R precuneus, BA 7 and the
R calcarine gyrus, BA 17. Threshold was set to p,0.001 uncorrected for visualization.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007180.g002
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5. Neuroanatomy of Religiosity
Figure 3. Experiencing fear of God’s anger negatively correlated with cortical volume at the L precuneus, BA 7 and the L
orbitofrontal cortex, BA 11. Threshold was set to p,0.001 uncorrected for visualization.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007180.g003
pathologically low volume is associated with schizophrenia (in which This study is correlational; therefore, it does not imply causality.
disorganized behavior and aberrant religiosity, with blurred boundaries Moreover, it was performed in adults. Subjects may have been
between the self and God, may occur). predisposed to follow specific patterns of religious behavior by
Experiencing fear of God’s anger (PC4) was negatively their individual brain development or their religious behavior may
correlated with volume of BA 11 and L precuneus, BA 7. BA 11 have contributed to volume changes of certain brain areas.
consists of phylogenetically newer granular cortex, associated with Regardless, the fact that there is no brain area correlating with
our ability for emotion-related ToM (also termed cognitive religiosity of upbringing (PC2) argues against religious nurture
empathy) [50]. This area also exerts an emotional regulatory independently accounting for regional brain variability. Therefore,
effect [51], inhibiting excessive emotional responses to negative religiosity in adult life may reflect innate ‘‘susceptibilities’’, perhaps
stimuli to prevent them from interfering with performance under genetic or early developmental, which are non-modifiable during
regular conditions [52], being itself inhibited in the face of grave upbringing, or any initial effect of religious upbringing may be
danger [53]. In regards to the role of precuneus in religion, we dissipated by experiences in later life.
have already proposed that it helps relate the representation of The brain areas identified in this and the parallel fMRI studies
God to the self [9,54] and, on that basis, we interpret its activation are not unique to processing religion, but play major roles in social
by personal praying in devout Christians [13] and the finding of cognition. This implies that religious beliefs and behavior emerged
the current study that increased volume of the L precuneus not as sui generis evolutionary adaptations, but as an extension
prevents fear of God (suggesting a enhanced ability to relate God (some would say ‘‘by product’’) of social cognition and behavior.
to the self). The precuneus may also help provide context to the Furthermore, the current study suggests that evolution of certain
religious experience by retrieving memories and relating them to areas that advanced understanding and empathy towards our fellow
current situations [54,55]. Therefore, people with lower cortical human beings (such as BA 7, 11 and 21) may, at the same time, have
volumes in BAs 7 and 11 may be prone to a fear-based approach allowed for a relationship with a perceived supernatural agent (God)
to God because of being compromised in representing the based on intimacy rather than fear. The idea that how you relate to
intentions and emotional disposition of God [50], regulating their ‘‘thy God’’ parallels how you behave to ‘‘thy neighbor’’ is a long-
emotions and modulating fearful responses towards a perceived cherished claim of many religions (and is backed by some empirical
powerful agent [56], as well as because of deficient engagement in evidence [11,59]). In this study, we see that this link is elaborated in
personal (conversational) prayer with Him [13]. the cognitive and neural foundations of religion.
Moreover, an enhanced ability to switch between different
perspectives to address moral dilemmas [54,57] may explain why Methods
people with increased R precuneus volume tend to consider
humanity as both good and bad and moral values relative (items The Neuroscience Institutional Review Board of the National
loading on PC3, see Table 1). We speculate that people with Institutes of Health has approved this research. Informed written
increased R precuneate volume may also place an emphasis on consent has been obtained and all clinical investigation has been
worldly experiences over the inner life of imagination [58], which, conducted according to the principles expressed in the Declaration
in turn, may predispose them to adopt a non-religious life stance. of Helsinki.
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6. Neuroanatomy of Religiosity
Healthy right-handed healthy adults were recruited through brain level was set to p,0.001, with a minimum cluster size of
posting of the study on the website of the National Institutes of 300, and, for detected clusters, cluster-level correction was
Health and word of mouth. Subjects provided medical history and implemented. Non-Stationary Cluster Extent Correction, which
underwent a screening neurological exam with a neurologist. corrects for non-isotropic smoothness of VBM data [68] was also
Subjects with neurological or psychiatric disease or not able to applied.
undergo MRI were excluded from participation. In particular, we This study is correlational, bridging distant levels of biological
exclusion subjects with psychiatric diseases or first degree relatives organization (i.e. the cellular and tissue level, to the degree that its
of psychiatric patients, as well as of those with deleterious habits, features are captured by MRI, and that of long-term behavior).
such as alcoholism or substance abuse. No requirement for The observed effects could be mediated by behavioral confounders
participation was made in regards to religiosity. Forty eligible influencing intermediate levels of organization (altering, for
subjects (20 women and 20 men; mean age = 35.7; mean years of instance, patterns of self-care or habits, such as alcohol drinking).
education = 17.5) were, then, subjected to structural (as well as Such intermediate levels include the levels of the organ (brain), the
functional [9]) brain MRI and completed a survey on their organ system (nervous system), and the organism. In our study
religiosity. design and analysis, we control for many of these confounders.
The correlation matrix of survey items was subjected to First, we excluded subjects with neurological or psychiatric
Principal Components (PC) Factor Analysis using SPSS 17.0. diseases (or first degree relatives of psychiatric patients), as well
Factors were extracted based on Eigenvalue ,1. A varimax as of those with deleterious habits, such as alcoholism or substance
rotation with Kaiser normalization was applied to the solution to abuse, given their relationship with religiosity [69,70] and their
minimize the number of variables that have high loadings on each effect on regional grey matter [71,72]. Second, we controlled for
PC and to simplify the interpretation of the PC. Anderson-Rubin the effects of the important biological confounders of age, gender
factor scores for the PCs were calculated for each subject. These and total intracranial volume (a surrogate for genetic and
scores are produced so that they have a mean of 0, a standard
environmental factors influencing global brain development) by
deviation of 1 and are uncorrelated.
including them as covariates in the model. Third, we included as
A 3T GE MRI scanner (GE Medical Systems, Milwaukee, WI)
covariate the important social confounder of education (which
and an 8-channel head coil were used to acquire high-resolution
presumably induces widespread brain reorganization). Fourth (and
T1-weighted 3-dimensional magnetization-prepared rapid gradi-
perhaps most importantly), we calculated the global mean for grey
ent-echo structural images. We used the unified segmentation
matter for each subject, as a surrogate for any confounder’s global
algorithm [60,61] implemented on SPM5 (Wellcome Department
effect on grey matter volume, and performed global normalization
of Imaging Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, UCL) to acquire
using an Analysis of Variance approach. This way we identified
images of gray matter, white matter and cerebrospinal fluid. We
then performed modulated normalization of the gray matter regions where the trends in grey matter volume differ from the
images and smoothing with a 8-mm full-width at half-maximum total grey matter volume [67]. Admittedly, we did not correct for
filter. The resulting images were entered in a multiple regression the potential confounding effect of general health (including vascular
analysis model, with the factor scores for the four PCs as covariates disease, diabetes etc). Nevertheless, we do not believe that their
of interest. Moreover, age, gender, education and total intracranial effect raises serious doubts over the validity of the findings:
volume were included in the model as covariates of no-interest, associations between general health and religiosity exist, but are
since we wanted to control for their effect on regional grey matter generally indirect [73,74] and there is no reason to suspect that
volume. In particular, age was an important confounder and, their effect in regards to cortical volume is regionally specific.
therefore, variance associated with it needed to be accounted for,
since it is known to affect cognitive performance across a range of Supporting Information
tasks, cortical grey density and volume throughout life
Table S1 Participants’ religiosity survey
[34,62,63,64,65,66], and may also be related with changes in
Found at: doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007180.s001 (0.05 MB
religiosity. Design orthogonality was calculated in SPM5 and no
DOC)
collinearity among the PCs or among the PCs and the other
covariates was observed. Global effects for gray matter were
calculated and global normalization with Analysis of Covariance Author Contributions
(ANCOVA) was performed to localize regions where the trends in Conceived and designed the experiments: DK JG. Performed the
GM volume differ from global GM effects [67]. The effect of each experiments: DK MS. Analyzed the data: DK MS FK. Contributed
covariate of interest was individually assessed at the whole brain reagents/materials/analysis tools: AB. Wrote the paper: DK AB MS FK
level. The uncorrected statistical threshold for voxels at the whole JG.
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PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 7 September 2009 | Volume 4 | Issue 9 | e7180