Supernatural agents may have provided adaptive social information
This commentary discusses and critiques the target article by Atran and Norenzayan on religion's evolutionary landscape. The authors argue that while Atran and Norenzayan effectively combine insights from evolution and cognitive science, they overlook the possibility that attributing communication to supernatural agents served an adaptive function for ancestors. Specifically, interpreting natural events as messages from supernatural agents may have promoted adaptive behaviors by changing beliefs. The authors hypothesize an evolved psychological mechanism that allowed ancestors to interpret certain natural events as intentional communication from agents, which could have increased fitness over time. They argue it is premature to say religion served no independent evolutionary function.
An amateur cognitive science paper arguing in favour of Cognitive Dissonance (as opposed to Doublethink).
It starts by proposing a model arguing for causality of action or thought. It goes further to propose that the source of all distress is ultimately linked to doublethink driven behaviour. It conducts a study to expose doublethink and dissonance in a small classroom, and finishes by proposing solutions or techniques (value prioritization) to overcome the same.
I created this verse to help people see what social networking can do for them, beyond sales, social networking helps you grow as a person and as a business.
An amateur cognitive science paper arguing in favour of Cognitive Dissonance (as opposed to Doublethink).
It starts by proposing a model arguing for causality of action or thought. It goes further to propose that the source of all distress is ultimately linked to doublethink driven behaviour. It conducts a study to expose doublethink and dissonance in a small classroom, and finishes by proposing solutions or techniques (value prioritization) to overcome the same.
I created this verse to help people see what social networking can do for them, beyond sales, social networking helps you grow as a person and as a business.
La informacion mas completa de Mexico, Oaxaca y la Costa chica. Enfrentamiento en San Pedro Mixtepec por bloqueo carretero. Pobres resultados de megaoperativo en Juchitán.
Clermont Oise - Patrimoine en Musique 2014 - concerts d'Antoine TisnéCommunication Clermont
L’Association des Parents d’Elèves et Amis de l’Ecole de Musique du Clermontois (APEA-EMC) propose les 20 et 21 septembre 2014, Patrimoine en Musique avec des concerts d'Antoine Tisné (1932-1998) au Donjon, à l'Hôtel de Ville et à l'église Saint Samson de Clermont.
Une occasion unique de découvrir un patrimoine musical français contemporain dans des lieux historiques de la ville de Clermont (Hôtel de Ville, Donjon, Eglise Saint Samson).
Avec des interprètes prestigieux internationaux et des professeurs de l’Ecole de Musique du Clermontois.
Qui est Antoine Tisné (1932-1998) ?
Compositeur français, pianiste de formation ; Second Grand prix de Rome en 1962, il remporte le Prix des compositeurs de la Sacem en 1988. Ses œuvres sont inspirées par son observation du cosmos, par ses voyages, par la peinture et surtout par la poésie. Il a laissé une œuvre foisonnante aux styles divers.
For many organizations, a move to Azure creates issues with managing costs and resource ownership. Why? Cloud-based technologies rely on a different cost model - one based on usage consumption, rather than purchasing hardware and software.
In this presentation we cover how to:
- Build an Azure cost model based on best practices
- Use chargebacks to assign and track IT usage to specific business units
- Avoid unexpected consumption expenses by seeing what you’re consuming, and who's consuming it
La informacion mas completa de Mexico, Oaxaca y la Costa chica. Enfrentamiento en San Pedro Mixtepec por bloqueo carretero. Pobres resultados de megaoperativo en Juchitán.
Clermont Oise - Patrimoine en Musique 2014 - concerts d'Antoine TisnéCommunication Clermont
L’Association des Parents d’Elèves et Amis de l’Ecole de Musique du Clermontois (APEA-EMC) propose les 20 et 21 septembre 2014, Patrimoine en Musique avec des concerts d'Antoine Tisné (1932-1998) au Donjon, à l'Hôtel de Ville et à l'église Saint Samson de Clermont.
Une occasion unique de découvrir un patrimoine musical français contemporain dans des lieux historiques de la ville de Clermont (Hôtel de Ville, Donjon, Eglise Saint Samson).
Avec des interprètes prestigieux internationaux et des professeurs de l’Ecole de Musique du Clermontois.
Qui est Antoine Tisné (1932-1998) ?
Compositeur français, pianiste de formation ; Second Grand prix de Rome en 1962, il remporte le Prix des compositeurs de la Sacem en 1988. Ses œuvres sont inspirées par son observation du cosmos, par ses voyages, par la peinture et surtout par la poésie. Il a laissé une œuvre foisonnante aux styles divers.
For many organizations, a move to Azure creates issues with managing costs and resource ownership. Why? Cloud-based technologies rely on a different cost model - one based on usage consumption, rather than purchasing hardware and software.
In this presentation we cover how to:
- Build an Azure cost model based on best practices
- Use chargebacks to assign and track IT usage to specific business units
- Avoid unexpected consumption expenses by seeing what you’re consuming, and who's consuming it
Adults Are Intuitive Mind-Body DualistsMatthias Forstmann .docxnettletondevon
Adults Are Intuitive Mind-Body Dualists
Matthias Forstmann and Pascal Burgmer
University of Cologne
In the present research, we tested the hypotheses that (a) adults are intuitive mind-body dualists, (b) that
this belief can be considered a default, and (c) that it is partially explained by essentialistic reasoning
about the nature of the mind. Over 8 studies, using various thought experiment paradigms, participants
reliably ascribed to a physically duplicated being a greater retention of physical than of mental properties.
This difference was unrelated to whether or not this being was given a proper name (Study 1b) and was
only found for entities that were considered to actually possess a mind (Study 1c). Further, we found that
an intuitive belief in mind-body dualism may in fact be considered a default: Taxing participants’
cognitive resources (Study 2) or priming them with an intuitive (vs. analytical) thinking style (Studies 3a
and 3b) both increased dualistic beliefs. In a last set of studies, we found that beliefs in mind-body
dualism are indeed related to essentialistic reasoning about the mind. When a living being was
reassembled from its original molecules rather than recreated from new molecules, dualistic beliefs were
significantly reduced (Studies 4a and 4b). Thus, results of the present research indicate that, despite any
acquired scientific knowledge about the neurological origins of mental life, most adults remain “essen-
tialistic mind-body dualists” at heart.
Keywords: common-sense beliefs, naïve theories, mind-body dualism, thought experiments, essentialism
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000045.supp
In the 2006 Hollywood movie The Prestige (Nolan, 2006), the
protagonist—a struggling magician in the 1920s— devised the
ultimate illusion: The transported man! On stage, the magician is
strapped to a futuristic-looking device, and upon the pull of a lever
is shrouded by fog and lightning. In the blink of an eye he
disappears, only to reveal himself on a balcony opposite of the
stage. He seems to have been magically transported. However,
unbeknownst to the astounded audience, something entirely dif-
ferent took place. Instead of carrying out an instant transportation,
the device created a 100% perfect duplicate of the magician in an
elsewhere located second unit, while the “original” magician fell
through a trapdoor and drowned in a water tank below the stage.
The duplicate then proceeds to reap the rewards of his feat. Thus,
the magician willingly dies every night so that his doppelgänger
(or himself) can continue with the show, without ever having any
recollection of dying. The viewer is now left with an interesting
variation of Derek Parfit’s (1984) famous “teleportation” thought
experiment and the question: Is the duplicate person still the same
person as the original? What if the original magician somehow
survived, which of the two would then be him?
Most of us intuitively find these questions di.
Psychological Aspect in Buddhism Philosophy A Review on Approaches to Indian ...ijtsrd
This paper gives a record of a portion of the significant parts of Buddhist brain science. The study is restricted to the writings of Early, or Theravada, Buddhism — that is, the authoritative writings and their initial Pali analyses and related descriptive writings. The significance of mental ideas in the way of thinking and practice of Buddhism is featured. The issues inalienable in the investigation of Buddhist brain research are talked about, including the issue of interpretation and translation. The paper at that point depicts and breaks down a few key Early Buddhist mental thoughts including fundamental drives that propel conduct, discernment and perception, cognizance, self awareness and edification, reflection, and conduct change. The connection among hypothesis and practice in Buddhist brain science is remarked on, with extraordinary reference to reflective methods and other conduct change methodologies. At long last, remarks are made on the conceivable connection among Buddhist and present day brain research. Dr. Usha Jyoti Gupta "Psychological Aspect in Buddhism Philosophy: A Review on Approaches to Indian Psychology" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-1 , December 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47756.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/psychology/47756/psychological-aspect-in-buddhism-philosophy-a-review-on-approaches-to-indian-psychology/dr-usha-jyoti-gupta
SPIRITUALITY WITH NO AFFILIATION TO RELIGIONAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : A common tendency with most people is to feel secure by declaring their affiliation to a
partcular Caste, Language and above all Religion. This may be giving rise to a sort of superiority complex over
others so that it becomes habitual for the herd to diligently follow the dictates of the so called Connoisseur.
There is absolutely nothing wrong in adopting the principles of any religion, provided one has honestly gone
through the original texts, not just interpretations and understood all possible shades. Everything ages and that is
a natural phenomenon. The age old rules, regulations and principles too, lose their efficacy in course of time.
This is a fact to be accepted without dispute. It is surprising that out of reverence, religious claims are never
taken for a thorough revision in the interest of humanity. All of them are granted eternity and the followers are
forced to accept them as pronounced centuries back. This eventually has brought in rigidity in thinking and
furthermore smothered the progress altogether. No religion has stood exception to this. In fact the fault does not
lie with the textual matter of any religion as such. It is the mishandling and misinterpretations vociferously
carried by the preachers and religiously practised by the devout followers. In the race to claim superiority over
others, the enthusiastic mediocres have earned hatredness towards other groups. More than having a clarity of
own religious scriptures they have been energetically involved in pinpointing and later harshly criticizing others
faith, practices, belief system, traditions etc. The ultimate aim of any religion tends towards spirituality that
involves regard for others practices and basic assumptions or outlooks. It is sad to see immature fellows
equating old traditions, which have remained absolutely unchecked, to spirituality and claiming own
presumptions as the ultimate. The present day need is to aim at spirituality having no affiliation to any religion
as such. Religion can always be a guide or a pathway to the spiritual zone and therefore one who aims high
should not get bracketted into a clumsy arena that provides no liberal attitude. This paper aims to check the
genuine details related to spirituality than getting sentimentally carried away by the popular but false claims.
KEYWORDS : Religiosity, Spirituality, Practices, Misconceptions etc.
Implicazioni per le origini evolutive e la funzionalità adattiva delle religioni
di Gliberto Corbellini
Sapienza - Università di Roma
Convegno "Le neuroscienze incontrano le altre discipline"
4 maggio 2011
Padova, Palazzo del Bo
Il convegno è promosso dall’Università di Padova e dal Dipartimento di Psicologia generale della stessa università, con il sostegno della Fondazione Sigma Tau e della Fondazione Giannino Bassetti.
Climate Impact of Software Testing at Nordic Testing DaysKari Kakkonen
My slides at Nordic Testing Days 6.6.2024
Climate impact / sustainability of software testing discussed on the talk. ICT and testing must carry their part of global responsibility to help with the climat warming. We can minimize the carbon footprint but we can also have a carbon handprint, a positive impact on the climate. Quality characteristics can be added with sustainability, and then measured continuously. Test environments can be used less, and in smaller scale and on demand. Test techniques can be used in optimizing or minimizing number of tests. Test automation can be used to speed up testing.
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
A tale of scale & speed: How the US Navy is enabling software delivery from l...sonjaschweigert1
Rapid and secure feature delivery is a goal across every application team and every branch of the DoD. The Navy’s DevSecOps platform, Party Barge, has achieved:
- Reduction in onboarding time from 5 weeks to 1 day
- Improved developer experience and productivity through actionable findings and reduction of false positives
- Maintenance of superior security standards and inherent policy enforcement with Authorization to Operate (ATO)
Development teams can ship efficiently and ensure applications are cyber ready for Navy Authorizing Officials (AOs). In this webinar, Sigma Defense and Anchore will give attendees a look behind the scenes and demo secure pipeline automation and security artifacts that speed up application ATO and time to production.
We will cover:
- How to remove silos in DevSecOps
- How to build efficient development pipeline roles and component templates
- How to deliver security artifacts that matter for ATO’s (SBOMs, vulnerability reports, and policy evidence)
- How to streamline operations with automated policy checks on container images
In his public lecture, Christian Timmerer provides insights into the fascinating history of video streaming, starting from its humble beginnings before YouTube to the groundbreaking technologies that now dominate platforms like Netflix and ORF ON. Timmerer also presents provocative contributions of his own that have significantly influenced the industry. He concludes by looking at future challenges and invites the audience to join in a discussion.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
Why You Should Replace Windows 11 with Nitrux Linux 3.5.0 for enhanced perfor...SOFTTECHHUB
The choice of an operating system plays a pivotal role in shaping our computing experience. For decades, Microsoft's Windows has dominated the market, offering a familiar and widely adopted platform for personal and professional use. However, as technological advancements continue to push the boundaries of innovation, alternative operating systems have emerged, challenging the status quo and offering users a fresh perspective on computing.
One such alternative that has garnered significant attention and acclaim is Nitrux Linux 3.5.0, a sleek, powerful, and user-friendly Linux distribution that promises to redefine the way we interact with our devices. With its focus on performance, security, and customization, Nitrux Linux presents a compelling case for those seeking to break free from the constraints of proprietary software and embrace the freedom and flexibility of open-source computing.
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Generative AI Deep Dive: Advancing from Proof of Concept to ProductionAggregage
Join Maher Hanafi, VP of Engineering at Betterworks, in this new session where he'll share a practical framework to transform Gen AI prototypes into impactful products! He'll delve into the complexities of data collection and management, model selection and optimization, and ensuring security, scalability, and responsible use.
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more ‘mechanical’ approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Essentials of Automations: The Art of Triggers and Actions in FMESafe Software
In this second installment of our Essentials of Automations webinar series, we’ll explore the landscape of triggers and actions, guiding you through the nuances of authoring and adapting workspaces for seamless automations. Gain an understanding of the full spectrum of triggers and actions available in FME, empowering you to enhance your workspaces for efficient automation.
We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
GenAISummit 2024 May 28 Sri Ambati Keynote: AGI Belongs to The Community in O...
Supernatural agents may have provided adaptive social information reply to atran (bering & shackelford 2004)
1. Commentary/Atran & Norenzayan: Religion’s evolutionary landscape
tion generates no inferences and does not seem to garner any spe- Supernatural agents may have provided
cial attention or enjoy any mnemonic advantages. A “mountain adaptive social information
that hears your prayers,” on the other hand, may violate what we
typically think of as a mountain, but manages to generate infer- Jesse M. Beringa and Todd K. Shackelfordb
ences nonetheless. Rather than utterly destroying the meaning of a
Department of Psychology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701;
a concept, it opens the concept up to new interpretations. If the b
Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Davie, FL 33314.
mountain hears prayers, perhaps it thinks as well. Maybe it un- jbering@uark.edu tshackel@fau.edu
derstands different languages. Maybe it has beliefs, desires, and http://www.uark.edu/psyc/fbering.html
memories. http://www.psy.fau.edu/tshackelford
This conflation of Boyer’s notion of counterintuitive with cate-
gory mistakes makes an interpretation of A&N’s memory experi- Abstract: Atran & Norenzayan’s (A&N’s) target article effectively com-
ment difficult. In addition to questions of ecological validity – that bines the insights of evolutionary biology and interdisciplinary cognitive
memory for lists of modified nouns approximates conditions of science, neither of which alone yields sufficient explanatory power to help
us fully understand the complexities of supernatural belief. Although the
cultural transmission – the stimuli used do not clearly fall into the authors’ ideas echo those of other researchers, they are perhaps the most
groups of counterintuitive versus intuitive concepts. Rather, many squarely grounded in neo-Darwinian terms to date. Nevertheless, A&N
pairs that the authors allege to be counterintuitive may be cate- overlook the possibility that the tendency to infer supernatural agents’
gory-based modification mistakes that provide insufficient infor- communicative intent behind natural events served an ancestrally adap-
mation to illicit any concept formation (e.g., “Solidifying Lady”), tive function.
or may read as obtuse metaphors (e.g., “Cursing Horse,” “Sobbing
Oak”). That these tests fail to show a mnemonic advantage for Although Atran & Norenzayan’s (A&N’s) ideas recapitulate those
those items called “counterintuitive” is not surprising or clearly in- of other theorists in the cognitive study of religion, most notably
consistent with previous research (Barrett & Nyhof 2001; Boyer Boyer (2001), they are perhaps the most squarely grounded in
& Ramble 2001). Although A&N admirably attempt to answer the neo-Darwinian terms to date. A&N rightly point out that recent
question of why counterintuitive concepts are the minority of cul- cognitive approaches to religion are too concentrated in the coun-
tural concepts, given reputed mnemonic advantages, simpler an- terintuitive systems of supernatural memes and have not duly
swers are at hand. Intuitive concepts will always remain in the vast broached “the emotional involvement that leads people to sacri-
majority as long as (1) the things that people typically experience fice to others what is dear to themselves, including labor, limb, and
(like rocks and daisies) fit intuitive assumptions (which they seem life” (target article, sect. 1, para. 6). Thus, the authors’ most sig-
to do); (2) intuitive assumptions serve as defaults for unknown nificant contribution is their discussion of the emotional factors
properties, thereby producing intuitive concepts; and (3) concep- motivating “minimally counterintuitive” (MCI) religious concept
tual load problems of reasoning with multiple counterintuitive acquisition, transmission, and representation – inherently social
concepts in any given contexts lead to those concepts degrading processes that are loaded with affect (see also McCauley & Law-
into simpler, intuitive ones (Barrett 1999; Barrett & Keil 1996). son 2002; Whitehouse 2000).
A&N suggest that religious concepts’ counterintuitiveness is on Despite their laudable intentions to remove the insufferable
par with contradiction, but to think so would be a mistake. Though weight of religion from the shoulders of theologians, philosophers,
many religious ideas may prove to be contradictory, contradiction and cognitive anthropologists, the authors appear frequently to
is not a distinctive or defining feature of religious thought. “A stumble under this weight, leaving us with a sense of theoretical
mountain that hears prayer” may be counterintuitive, but it is not inchoateness that we find unsatisfying. Our primary concern is
clearly contradictory in the way that “the bachelor is married” is that, like most others before them, including Gould (1991), A&N
contradictory. Even more esoteric notions, such as “God is om- may be prematurely asserting that “religion has no evolutionary
nipotent and immaterial,” do not obviously run into contradiction; function per se” (sect. 7, last para.). The analysis provided in the
additional premises concerning the nature of omnipotence and target article does not establish this, nor are there sufficient data
immateriality are required for contradiction to arise. God being available that attend specifically to the question of whether be-
able to manipulate material objects without contacting them may haviors that are limited, perforce, to the domain of religion are
be counterintuitive, however. Such a claim does not lead to the driven by ancestrally adaptive psychological mechanisms.
nonsensical meaning vacuum that surface-level contradiction The root of the problem can be found in A&N’s conclusion that
leads to. “supernatural agents are readily conjured up because natural se-
This persistent mislabeling of religious cognition as illogical, in- lection has trip-wired cognitive schema for agency detection in the
scrutable, and obviously false might give the unwarranted im- face of uncertainty” (sect. 2, last para.). The authors thus share
pression that religious thought is qualitatively different from ordi- their interpretation of supernatural attribution with scholars such
nary beliefs. And yet, the strength of A&N’s thesis is precisely the as Guthrie (1993) and Barrett (2000), both of whom have argued
notion that religious thought is not particularly special. Rather, that supernatural attributions are functionless spillover from an
universally available properties of human minds and human envi- evolved hyperactive agency detector. But we believe that there
ronments (at least historically) converge to promote the spread of may be more to it than this; we also believe it is possible that ex-
counterintuitive agent concepts that may be invoked to address planations deviating from naturalistic causes might have solved
existential concerns and solidify moral and social arrangements. key adaptive problems for ancestral humans.
This is because supernatural attribution does more than disam-
biguate poor and fragmentary agency-relevant information, for ex-
ample, seeing the face of the Virgin Mary on the condensate win-
dows of an office building, but, more important, it superimposes
intentionality on natural events such that ancestrally adaptive be-
haviors are often promoted once the “sign” is translated for refer-
ential meaning. “What is the Virgin Mary trying to tell me? Is this
about what I did last night?” Also, if supernatural attributions oc-
cur because environmental stimuli “achieve the minimal thresh-
old for triggering hyperactive facial-recognition and body-move-
ment recognition schemata that humans possess” (sect. 2, para. 7),
then this cannot account for people’s tendency to attribute ab-
stract categories of life events to supernatural agents (Bering
2002). How can being diagnosed with cancer or losing a loved one
732 BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2004) 27:6
2. Commentary/Atran & Norenzayan: Religion’s evolutionary landscape
in an accident, both textbook examples of the conditions under Future research in cognitive science
which individuals make supernatural attributions, be offset by fa- and religion
cial-recognition and body-movement recognition schemata?
Rather, these are event types that bear no direct perceptual fea- Kelly Bulkeley
tures capable of breaking the “hair trigger” of the authors’ pro- The Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley, CA 94707 and John F. Kennedy
posed sensory driven hyperactive agency detector. A&N thus University, Pleasant Hill, CA 94523. kellybulkeley@earthlink.net
overlook the most critical “c” in their account of religion – com- www.kellybulkeley.com
munication.
Specifically, we hypothesize an evolved psychological mecha- Abstract: From a religious studies perspective, Atran & Norenzayan
nism that may have motivated ancestral humans to believe that (A&N) succeed in arguing for the influence of evolved cognitive functions
certain categories of natural events were about some abstract in- in religious phenomena. To develop their argument further, four sugges-
tentional agency’s desire to purposefully share information with tions are offered: (1) Look beyond the ordinary to the extraordinary; (2)
them. This does not involve simply detecting agency in the envi- culture matters more than ever; (3) theists need not despair, atheists ought
ronment, but more important, it has to do with unraveling a su- not celebrate; and (4) dreaming is a primal wellspring of religion.
pernatural agent’s intentions or reasons for causing events. More
often than not, the interpretation of natural events as “messages” Atran & Norenzayan’s (A&N’s) application of cognitive science to
or “signs” engenders a change in the epistemic content of believ- the study of religion is commendable for its measured tone and
ers such that these new beliefs are responsible for behavioral thought-provoking claims. Without pushing their argument far-
change. If such behavioral change tended over long periods of ther than the evidence allows, A&N make a compelling case for
time to increase individual’s genetic fitness, then the psychologi- the involvement of basic cognitive operations in human religios-
cal processes enabling humans to interpret certain natural events, ity. As a religious studies scholar who is trying to persuade my col-
under certain conditions, as symbolic of supernatural agents’ in- leagues to pay greater attention to the findings of contemporary
tentions may have been subjected to selective pressures (see brain–mind science, I welcome such efforts. With an eye toward
Bering in press; Bering & Johnson, in press). the future expansion of this area of research, I offer the following
In a recent series of experiments, one of us (Bering) has begun four prospective suggestions.
to explore the developmental emergence of the capacity to find Look beyond the ordinary to the extraordinary. The research
meaning in natural events in response to supernatural agent prim- program of A&N concentrates on identifying the psychological
ing. Supernatural agent concepts may only be endorsed if there is roots of religious behavior in the ordinary operation of our evolved
empirical evidence of their behaviors in the natural environment. cognitive capacities (e.g., folkpsychology, folkbiology, folkme-
The ability to translate this information into communicative mes- chanics). This approach echoes that of Sigmund Freud in Civi-
sages is likely dependent on advances in cognitive development. lization and its Discontents when he uses psychoanalysis to inves-
In one experiment, 3- to 7-year-olds were asked to play a guessing tigate “the common man and his religion – the only religion which
game by placing their hand on one of two boxes that contained a ought to bear that name”(Freud 1930/1961). Aiming at the aver-
hidden ball (Bering 2003). After an initial training trial, the chil- age and the common, Freud dismisses the possibility that study-
dren were then told a story about an invisible agent (“Princess Al- ing the idiosyncratic experiences of the “uncommon man” (or
ice”) in the room with them who would “tell them, somehow, when woman) might reveal new dimensions of religious phenomenol-
they pick the wrong box.” Following this, on two of four counter- ogy, with unfortunate results for his theory of religion. To avoid a
balanced trials, a random event was simulated in the room (i.e., a similar fate I suggest Atran, Norenzayan, and other like-minded
light flashing on and off, a picture falling) at the moment a child’s researchers consider expanding their focus and examining more
hand first made contact with a box. Only the 7-year-olds reliably carefully the rare, unusual, and extraordinary dimensions of reli-
moved their hands to the opposite box after these “random” events gious experience – not as the best or only way to study religion (as
and gave verbal judgments indicating their belief that Princess Al- William James proposes in The Varieties of Religious Experience;
ice was trying to share with them information about the hidden James 1958), but rather as a necessary complement to current re-
object. search on so-called ordinary religion.
Findings from an ongoing study, however, suggest that even Culture matters more than ever. Although A&N’s primary goal
preschoolers interpret seemingly random events as admonitions is to abstract the “pancultural foundations of religion,” they ac-
when they are caught in an act of cheating (Bering 2003). When knowledge that actual human cultures work to stimulate and ma-
left alone in a room with a so-called forbidden box that they are nipulate our species’ innate psychological dispositions in a huge
told contains something very special, many children will attempt variety of different ways. Nothing more is said about this in the ar-
to open the box. However, when told that Princess Alice is in the ticle, but I hope the cognitive science of religion will in the future
room with them, and when a light flashes on and off at the mo- move more boldly into the study of cultural variability. More than
ment of their indiscretion, even 3-year-olds will inhibit their anything (and as an extension of my first suggestion), I encourage
cheating response and cease looking inside. Supernatural agent researchers to consider not only the lowest common denomina-
concepts may have led to adaptive decision making under condi- tors found in all cultures everywhere, but also to investigate the
tions where the self underestimated the likelihood of “real” social ways in which each particular culture has developed its own cre-
detection by other group members. Although clearly much work ative synthesis and novel elaboration of those evolved cognitive ca-
remains to be done in this area, we feel it is empirically premature pacities. Identifying the psychological building blocks of religion
to claim that religious beliefs served no independent evolutionary and culture is a fine achievement. An even greater achievement
function. would be shedding new light on what humans have created with
those building blocks.
Theists need not despair, atheists ought not celebrate. A&N’s
article is commendably free of either pro- or anti-religious
polemics. Still, their work is a contribution to an ongoing and of-
ten rancorous social conversation about the relationship between
religion and science, and researchers in this area can benefit from
a greater historical familiarity with this conversation (which
reaches back at least as far as Darwin, who agonized over the re-
ligious implications of his evolutionary theory). To my mind,
James’s approach in The Varieties remains the most reasonable
one to adopt. He says that while scientific psychology can tell us
BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2004) 27:6 733