This document discusses theories of motivation and their implications for education. It covers: 1) Four psychological perspectives on motivation - behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, and social. 2) Types of motivation including intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation can initially develop intrinsic motivation. 3) Maslow's hierarchy of needs and how deficiency needs must be met before growth needs. This impacts student achievement. 4) Attribution theory which explains how people attribute success and failure to internal vs. external factors like effort. Developing an internal locus of control improves student outcomes.

1. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN MINDANAO
Motivation to Learn

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WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
 Psychologists define motivation as an internal
process that activates, guides, and maintains
behavior over time .In plain language, motivation is
what gets you going, keeps you going,
and determines where you’re trying to go.

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 Motivation involves the processes that energize,
direct, and sustain behavior (Santrock2018)
Human beings seem to be purposeful by nature:
They set goals for themselves and initiate courses
of action they think will help them achieve those
goals. Motivation determines the specific goals
toward which learners strive. Motivation increases
energy, effort and persistence that learners expend
in activities directly related to their needs and
goals.

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 Motivated learners are more likely to continue a
task until they’ve completed it, even if they’re
occasionally interrupted or frustrated in the
process. In general, then, motivation increases
learners’ time on task, an important factor affecting
their learning and achievement. Motivation often
leads to improved performance.

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4 psychological Perspectives on
Motivation
Explains why people are motivated to do what they
do

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1.The Behavioral Perspective
Emphasizes external rewards and punishments
as keys in determining a student’s motivation.
Incentives are positive or negative stimuli or events
that can motivate a student’s behavior.
Use of incentives emphasize that they add interest or
excitement to the class and direct attention toward
appropriate behavior and away from inappropriate
behavior.

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Incentives includes numerical scores and letter
grades, which also provide feedback about the
quality of the student’s work, and checkmarks or
stars for competently completing work.
Includes giving students recognition- by displaying
their work, giving a certificate of achievement,
placing them on the honor roll, and verbally
mentioning their accomplishments.
Another type - allowing students to do something
special—such as playing computer games or going
on a field trip—as a reward for good work

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2.The Humanistic Perspective
Stresses students’ capacity for personal growth,
freedom to choose their destiny, and positive
qualities (such as being sensitive to others).

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This perspective is associated with Abraham
Maslow’s belief that certain basic needs must be
met before higher needs can be satisfied.
Needs must be satisfied in this sequence
1.Physiological: Hunger, thirst, sleep
2. Safety: Ensuring survival, such as protection
from war and Crime
3. Love and belongingness: Security, affection, and
attention from others
4. Esteem: Feeling good about oneself
5. Self-actualization: Realization of one’s potential

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In Maslow’s view, students must satisfy their
need for food before they can achieve. His view also
provides an explanation of why children who come
from poor or abusive homes are less likely to
achieve in school than children whose basic needs
are met.
Self-actualization, the highest and most elusive of
Maslow’s needs, is the motivation to develop one’s
full potential as a human being.
▪ Self-actualization is possible only after the lower
needs have been met.

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▪ Maslow cautions that most people stop maturing after
they have developed a high level of esteem and therefore
never become self-actualized.
▪ Some characteristics of self-actualized individuals include
being spontaneous,
problem-centered rather than self-centered, and creative.
▪ Not everyone agrees with Maslow’s choice of key motives
or ordering of motives. For some students, other
needs/motives, such as the cognitive motivation to acquire
and understand information and knowledge, might be
stronger than Maslow’s higher needs, such as esteem needs.
Other students might meet their esteem needs even
though they have not experienced love and belongingness

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3.The Cognitive Perspective
Students’ thoughts guide their motivation.
Focuses on ideas such as students’ goal-setting, their
attributions, their expectations for success, and their
beliefs that they can effectively control their
environment and the outcomes of their efforts.
The behavioral perspective sees the student’s
motivation as a consequence of external incentives,
the cognitive perspective argues that external
influences should be deemphasized. The cognitive
perspective recommends giving students more
responsibility for controlling their own achievement
outcomes.

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Fits with the ideas of R.W. White (1959), who
proposed the concept of competence motivation,
the idea that people are motivated to deal
effectively with their environment, to master their
world, and to process information efficiently.
People do these things because they are internally
motivated to interact effectively with the
environment. The concept of competence
motivation explains why humans are motivated to
achieve scientific and technological innovation, as
well as contribute to society and not just to build
their own competence.

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4. The Social Perspective
The need for affiliation or relatedness is the motive
to be securely connected with other people.
Involves establishing, maintaining, and restoring
warm, close personal relationships. Students’ need
for affiliation or relatedness is reflected in their
motivation to spend time with peers, their close
friendships, their attachment to their parents, and
their desire to have a positive relationship with their
teachers.

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Recent research indicates that students who aren’t
sure whether they belong or are well-connected to
their school, creates a sense of uneasiness. Such
negative belonging concerns are associated with
lower achievement. When students feel they belong
and are well connected to their school, they have
better physical and mental health, and have greater
academic success.
Students in schools with caring and supportive
interpersonal relationships have more positive
academic attitudes and values and are more
satisfied with school (Wentzel, 2016).

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Types of Motivation
EXTRINSIC AND
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

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1. Extrinsic motivation
▪ Involves doing something to obtain something else
(a means to an end). Often influenced by external
incentives such as rewards and
punishments.
▪ For example: A student may study hard for a test in order to
obtain a good grade in the course. The behavioral
perspective emphasizes the
importance of extrinsic motivation in achievement; the
humanistic and cognitive approaches stress the importance
of intrinsic motivation in achievement.

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▪ Learners who are extrinsically motivated may
want the good grades, money, or recognition that
particular activities and accomplishments bring.
▪ Motivated learners may have to be enticed or
prodded, may process information only
superficially, and are often interested in performing
only easy tasks and meeting minimal classroom
requirements.
▪ When goals are framed only extrinsically, students
show a lower level of independent motivation and
lower persistence on achievement tasks
(Vansteenkiste & others, 2008

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2. Intrinsic motivation
▪ Involves the internal motivation to do something
for its own sake (an end in itself).
▪ Source of motivation is from within the person
himself/ herself or the activity itself.
▪ For example: A student may study hard for a test
because he or she enjoys
the content of the course.

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▪ Students are more highly motivated to learn
when they are given choices, become absorbed in
challenges that match their skills, and receive
rewards that have informational value but are not
used for control. Praise also can enhance students’
intrinsic motivation.
▪ A study of third- through eighth-grade students
found that intrinsic motivation was positively linked
with grades and standardized test scores, whereas
extrinsic motivation was negatively related to
achievement outcomes (Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar,
2005).

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The role of extrinsic motivation
Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for
learning among poorly motivated students. If good grades,
rewards, praises or words of encouragement or fear of failing
grade can motivate unmotivated students to study, why not? For
as long as students are hardly motivated, external motivation in
the form of rewards, incentives or punishment play a significant
role in the development of motivated students. It is expected,
however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be gradually
replaced by internal motivation. This means that after motivating
the students to study by way of reward, praise, encouragement,
punishment, hopefully the students develop the genuine love for
learning and becomes intrinsically motivated in the process. In
short, we may begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start
but this should fade away as the students get intrinsically
motivated themselves.

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SOME THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1. Motivation and Behavioral Learning Theory
The concept of motivation is closely tied to the
principle that behaviors that have been reinforced in the past
are more likely to be repeated than are behaviors that have
not been reinforced or that have been punished.
Why do some students persist in the face of failure whereas others
give up? Why do some students work to please the teacher, others
to make good grades, and still others out of
interest in the material they are learning? Why do some students
achieve far more than would be predicted on the basis of their
ability and some achieve far less?
Examination of reinforcement histories and schedules of
reinforcement might provide answers to such questions.

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REWARDS AND REINFORCEMENT
One reason why reinforcement history is an
inadequate explanation for motivation is that
human motivation is highly complex and context -
bound. With very hungry animals we can predict that
food will be an effective reinforcer. With humans,
even hungry ones, we can’t be sure what will be a
reinforcer and what will not, because the reinforcing
value of most potential reinforcers is largely
determined by personal or situational factors.

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DETERMINING THE VALUE OF AN INCENTIVE
The motivational value of an incentive cannot be
assumed, because it might depend on many factors. When you
say, “I want you all to be sure to hand in your book reports on
time because they will count toward your grade,” you might be
assuming that grades are effective incentives for most
students. However, some students might not care about
grades, perhaps because their parents don’t or because they
have a history of failure in school and have decided that grades
are unimportant.
Students’ expectations for rewards determine the
motivational value of any particular reward. And it is often
difficult to determine students’ motivations from their
behavior, because many different motivations can influence
behavior. (Wentzel & Brophy, 2014).

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IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY FOR
EDUCATION
1. Learners intentionally behave in order to achieve certain
end results. Use of incentives emphasize that they add
interest or excitement to the class and direct attention
toward appropriate behavior and away from inappropriate
behavior.
2. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with
secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good
grades.
3. Positive and negative reinforcement can be motivators for
students. Student who receives praise for a good test score is
much more likely to learn the answers effectively than a
student who receives no praise for a good test score.

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2. Motivation and Human Needs
Motivation can be thought of as a drive to
satisfy needs, such as needs for food, shelter, love,
and maintenance of positive self-esteem. People
differ in the degree of importance they attach to
each of these needs. Some need constant
reaffirmation that they are loved or appreciated;
others have a greater need for physical comfort
and security.

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In Maslow’s theory, needs that are lower in this
hierarchy must be at least partially satisfied
before a person will try to satisfy higher-level
needs.
Example, a hungry person or someone who is in
physical danger will be less concerned about
maintaining a positive self-image than about
obtaining food or safety; but once that person is
no longer hungry or afraid, self-esteem needs
might become paramount.

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One critical concept that Maslow introduced is the
distinction between deficiency needs and
growth needs.
Deficiency needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem)
are those that are critical to physical and psychological
well-being. These needs must be satisfied, but once they
are, a person’s motivation to satisfy them diminishes.
Growth needs, such as the need to know and understand
things, to appreciate beauty, or to develop an
appreciation of others, can never be satisfied completely.
The more people are able to meet their need to know and
understand the world around them, the greater their
motivation may become to learn still more.

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SELF-ACTUALIZATION-“the desire to become
everything that one is capable of becoming.
Characterized by acceptance of self and others,
spontaneity, openness, relatively deep but
democratic relationships with others, creativity,
humor, and independence in essence,
psychological health.

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IMPLICATIONS OF MASLOW’S THEORY FOR EDUCATION
The importance of Maslow’s theory for education is in the
relationship between deficiency
needs and growth needs.
1. Students who are very hungry or in physical danger will have little
psychological energy to put into learning.
2. Schools and government agencies recognize that if students’
basic needs are not met, learning will suffer. They have responded
by providing free breakfast and lunch programs.
3. The most important deficiency needs are those for love and self-
esteem. Students who do not feel that they are loved and that they
are capable are unlikely to have a strong motivation to achieve the
higher-level growth objectives.
4. Put students at ease and make them feel accepted and
respected as individuals, you are more likely to help them become
eager to learn and willing to risk being creative and open to new
ideas.

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3.Motivation and Attribution Theory
This theory explains that we attribute our success
or failures or other events to several factors. For
instance, you attribute your popularity to your
popular parents or to your own sterling academic
performance. These attributions differ from one
another in 3 ways – locus, stability and
controllability (Ormrod, 2004

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1. Locus (place): Internal versus external. If your student traces
his good grades to his ability and to his hard work, he attributes
his good grades to internal factors. If your student, however,
claims that his good grades is due to the effective teaching of
his teacher or to the adequate library facilities, he attributes his
good grades to factors external to himself.
2. Stability: Stable versus Unstable. If you attributed your poor
performance to what you have inherited form your parents,
then your attributing the cause of your performance to
something stable, something that cannot change because it is in
your genes. If you attribute it to excessive watching of TV, then
you are claiming that your poor eyesight is caused by an
unstable factor, something that can change (you can prolong of
shorten your period of watching TV

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3. Controllability: Controllable versus Uncontrollable. If your student
claims his poor academic performance is due to his teacher’s ineffective
teaching strategies he attributes his poor performance to a factor that is
beyond his control. If, however, your student admits that his poor class
performance is due to his poor study habits and low motivation, he
attributes the events to factors which are very much within his control.
A central assumption of attribution theory is that people will attempt to
maintain a positive self-image. Therefore, when they do well in an activity,
they are likely to attribute their success to their own efforts or abilities;
but when they do poorly, they will believe that their failure is based on
factors over which they had no control (Weiner, 2010).

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One concept central to attribution theory is locus of control
(Rotter, 1954).
Locus means “location.” A person with an internal locus of
control believes that success or failure is the result of his or
her own efforts or abilities.
Someone with an external locus of control is more likely to
believe that other factors, such as luck, task difficulty, or
other people’s actions, cause success or failure.
Internal locus of control is often called self-efficacy, the belief
that one’s behavior makes a difference.
Locus of control or self-efficacy can be very important in
explaining a student’s school performance.
For example, several researchers have found that students who are high
in internal locus of control have better grades and test scores than
students of the same intelligence who are low in internal locus of control
of a student’s academic achievement.

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IMPLICATIONS OF ATTRIBUTIONS AND SELF-EFFICACY FOR
EDUCATION
1. Feedback ultimately influences students’ self-perceptions. Praise
students for their effort(which is controlled by them) rather than their
intelligence(which is not)
2.Discourage students from blaming their failures on bad luck or other
unfortunate situations. Instead, encourage students to blame failures
on lack of hard work.
3. Model effective techniques by talking positively about your own
school failures and their causes (and potential or actual solutions).
4. Encourage students to view success in school and in life as a result of
hard work, not innate ability. Point out that students who excel have
often worked long and hard to earn their accomplishments. Make clear
that this level of dedication applies to all their favorite athletes, writers,
or performers.
5. Make examples of hard workers, and ask these students to share
their secrets for success with the class. Emphasize that students can
feel good about themselves as a result of meaningful
accomplishments, both within and outside of the traditional school
domain.

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4. Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning
Self-regulated learning refers to “learning that results
from students’ self-generated thoughts and behaviors
that are systematically oriented toward the
attainment of their learning goals”.
Closely related to students’ goals. Students who are
highly motivated to learn something are more likely
than other students to consciously organize their
learning, carry out a learning plan, and retain the
information they obtain.
For example: Students with high reading motivation are more
likely to read on their own and
to use effective comprehension strategies

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This motivation can come from many sources. Students can be taught
specific self-regulation strategies, in which they learn to think
strategically and evaluate their own efforts and outcomes.
Another source might be social modeling (Zimmerman, 2013), such as
occurs when students see other students using self-regulated strategies.
Another is goal-setting, in which students are encouraged to establish
their own learning goals.
Fourth is feedback that shows students that they are making good
progress toward their learning goals, especially if the feedback
emphasizes students’ efforts and abilities.
Schunk and Zimmerman (2013) argue that motivation to engage in self-
regulated learning is not the same as achievement motivation in general
because self-regulated learning requires the learner to take independent
responsibility for learning, not to simply comply with the teacher’s
demands.

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IMPLICATIONS OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING THEORY FOR EDUCATION
1. Present rules and instructions in an informational manner rather than
controlling
manner.
Example: “I’m giving you a particular format to follow when you do your Math
homework. If you use this format, it will be easier for me to find your answers and
to figure out how I can help you improve.”
2. Provide opportunities for students to make choices. A particular lesson
objective can be reached by the use of varied strategies. Students will be
more likely to be motivated to attain the objective when they are given
the freedom to choose how to attain it, of course, within the set
parameters. An example is when we allow our students to choose their
manner of group work presentation to the class after the group activity.
3. Evaluate student performance in a non-controlling fashion.
Communicate evaluation results to inform you students of their progress
without passing judgment of some sort but to make them see that they
are strong in some points but not so in other items. The practice of self-
evaluation especially with the use of scoring rubrics will be of great
help.

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5.Motivation and Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory is a theory of motivation based on the belief
that people’s efforts to achieve depend on their expectations of
reward.
Atkinson (1964) developed theories of motivation based on the
following formula:
Motivation (M ) = Perceived probability of success (Ps) x
Incentive value of success (Is)
The formula is called an expectancy model, or expectancy–
valence model, because it largely depends on the person’s
expectations of reward .What this theory implies is that people’s
motivation to achieve something depends on the product of
their estimation of the chance of success (perceived probability
of success, Ps) and the value they place on success (incentive
value of success, Is).

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For example, if Mark says, “I think I can make the honor roll if I try, and it is very
important to me to make the honor roll,” then he will probably work hard to
make the honor roll. However, one very important aspect of the M = Ps x Is
formula is that it is multiplicative, meaning that if people either believe that
their probability of success is zero or do not value success, then their
motivation will be zero
Atkinson (1964) added an important aspect to expectancy theory
in pointing out that under certain circumstances, an overly high
probability of success can be detrimental to motivation.
If Mark is very able, it might be so easy for him to make the honor
roll that he does not need to do his best. Atkinson (1958)
explained this by arguing that there is a relationship between
probability of success and incentive value of success such that
success in an easy task is not as valued as success in a difficult
task.

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Therefore, motivation should be at a maximum at moderate
levels of probability of success.
For example, two evenly matched tennis players will
probably play their hardest. Unevenly matched players will
not play as hard; the poor player might want very much to
win but will have too low a probability of success to try very
hard, and the better player may not value winning enough to
exert his or her best effort. Confirming Atkinson’s theory,
Research has shown that a person’s motivation increases as
task difficulty increases—up to a point at which the person
decides that success is very unlikely or that the goal isn’t
worth the effort. This and other research findings indicate
that moderate to difficult (but not impossible) tasks are
better than easy ones for learning and motivation.

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IMPLICATIONS OF EXPECTANCY THEORY FOR EDUCATION
1. The most important implication is the commonsense
proposition that tasks for students should be neither too
easy nor too difficult.
2. If students believe that they are likely to get an A no
matter what they do, then their motivation will not be at a
maximum. Similarly, if students feel certain they will fail no
matter what they do, their motivation will be minimal.
3. Grading systems should be set up so that earning an A is
difficult (but possible) and earning a low grade is possible
for students who exert little effort. Success must be within
the reach, but not the easy reach, of all students.

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6.Motivation and Goal Orientations
Some students are motivationally oriented toward
learning goals also called task or mastery goals; others are
oriented toward performance goals.
Students with learning goals see the purpose of schooling
as gaining competence in the skills being taught, whereas
students with performance goals primarily seek to gain
positive judgments of their competence and avoid
negative judgments. Students who are striving toward
learning goals are likely to take difficult courses and to
seek challenges. In contrast, students with performance
goals focus on getting good grades, taking easy courses,
and avoiding challenging situations.

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LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE GOALS
Students with learning goals and those with performance goals do not
differ in overall intelligence, but their classroom performances can differ
markedly. When they run into obstacles, performance-oriented students
tend to become discouraged, and their performance is seriously hampered.
In contrast, when learning-oriented students encounter obstacles, they
tend to keep trying, and their motivation and performance might actually
increase.
Learning-oriented students are more likely to use metacognitive or self-
regulated learning strategies.
Performance-oriented students who perceive their abilities as low are likely
to fall into a pattern of helplessness, for they believe that they have little
chance of earning good grades .There is some evidence that such students
are more prone to cheat (Murdock & Anderman, 2006)
There is also evidence that teachers who emphasize learning and
developing competence (rather than grades) as the goals of the class
obtain better learning results from their students.

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The most important implication of research on learning
goals versus performance goals is that you should try to
convince students that learning, rather than grades, is the
purpose of academic work. This can be done by
emphasizing the interest value and practical importance
of the material that students are studying and by
deemphasizing grades and other rewards.
Studies indicate that the types of tasks that are used in
classrooms have a strong influence on students’ adoption
of learning goals. Tasks that are challenging, meaningful,
and related to real life are more likely to lead to learning
goals.

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Learning Goals, Performance Goals, and Teaching to Develop Learning Goals
STUDENTS WITH
LEARNING GOALS
STUDENTS WITH
PERFORMANCE GOALS
TEACHING TO DEVELOP
LEARNING GOALS
Value learning for its own
sake
Value grades, praise, rank Increase intrinsic interest;
discuss value of knowing and
being able to do new things,
rather than value of grades
Motivated by challenge,
interest
Motivated by doing better
than others
Pose difficult, exciting
challenges
Errors are part of the learning
process
Errors lead to anxiety, loss of
self-worth
Refer to honest errors as
contributing to learning and
growth
Evaluation against students’
own standards and value of
new knowledge and skills
Evaluation against
performance levels of other
students
Emphasize value of new
knowledge and skills;
encourage students to set
their own high learning
standards
TABLE 1

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Value processofgetting new
knowledgeandskills,notjust
the right answer. Value
creativityandmultiple
solutions
Value clear path to a single
rightanswer
Emphasizetheprocessof
learningandmultiplewaysof
arrivingatgoodanswersor
products. Encourage
creativityandplayfulnessin
learning
Valueworkingwithothers
andexchangingideas
ideasValuedoingbetterthan
others
Use cooperative learning;
avoidhighlycompetitive
grading

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TABLE2 Seven “TARGETS” Principles
of Motivation
Principle Educational Implications Example
Classroom
tasks affect
motivation
 Present new topics through tasks that
students find interesting, engaging, and
perhaps emotionally charged.
 Encourage meaningful rather than rote
learning.
 Relate activities to students’ lives and
goals.
 Provide sufficient support to enable
students to be successful.
Ask students to conduct
a scientific investigation
about an issue that
concerns them.
The amount
of autonomy
students
have affects
motivation,
especially
intrinsic
motivation
 Give students some choice about what and
how they learn.
 Teach self-regulation strategies.
 Solicit students’ opinions about classroom
practices and policies.
 Have students take leadership roles in
some activities
 Acknowledge not only academic successes
but also personal and social successes.
Let students choose
among several ways to
accomplish an
instructional objective,
being sure that each
choice offers sufficient
scaffolding to make
success likely.

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The amount
and nature of
the
recognition
students
receive affect
motivation



Commend students for improvement as
well as for mastery.
Provide concrete reinforces
for achievement only when
students are not intrinsically motivated to
learn.
Show students how their own efforts and
strategies are directly responsible for their
successes.
Commend students for a
successful community
service project.
The grouping
procedures in
the
classroom
affect
motivation



Provide frequent opportunities
for students to interact (e.g.,
cooperative learning activities, peer
tutoring).
Plan small-group activities in which all
students can make significant
contributions.
Teach the social skills that students need to
interact effectively with peers.
Have students work in
small groups to tackle a
challenging issue or
problem for which there
are two or more
legitimate solutions.

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The forms of
evaluation in
the
classroom
affect
motivation.




Make evaluation criteria clear; specify
them in advance.
Minimize or eliminate competition for
grades (e.g., don’t grade “on a curve”).
Give specific feedback about what
students are doing well.
Give concrete suggestions for how
students can improve.
Give students concrete
criteria with which they
can evaluate the quality
of their own writing.
How
teachers
schedule
time affects
motivation.



Give students enough time to gain mastery
of important topics and skills.
Let students’ interests
dictate some activities.
Include variety in the school day (e.g.,
intersperse high energy activities among
more sedentary ones).
After explaining a new
concept, engage
students in a hands-on
activity that lets them
see the concept in
action.

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The amount
ofsocial
support
students
believe they
have in the
classroom



Create a general atmosphere of mutual
caring, respect, and support among all
classmembers.
Convey affection and respect for every
student, along with a genuine eagerness
to help every student succeed.
Create situations in which all students feel
comfortable participating actively in
When working with
students who seem
chronically disengaged
from classroom lessons,
identify their specific
areas of strengths and
provideopportunitiesfor
them to showcase their
affects
motivation
classroom activities (including students
who are excessively shy, students who
havelimitedacademicskills,studentswho
have physical disabilities, etc.).
expertise
classroom.
in the